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ANCIENT HISTORY (Stone Age to 700 A.D.)

Stone Age
Palaeolithic Period( old stone age)

The word ‘Palaeo’ means old & ‘lithic’ means stone; during this period early man used tools
made of stone for activites like hunting, taking out flesh from animals etc. Thus it is known
as stone age. It is the prehistoric period which ranges from 5 lakh years to 6000 years ago.
Man 1st appeared on earth in early Pleistocene period in Africa. India was inhabited later &
first evidence of man is obtained from Bori, Maharstra( 1.4 million years ago)

The stone age is divided into three phases :

Lower Palaeolithic Age: 500,000 BC to 100,000 BC

• Developed in India in pliestocene period of Ice age

• Also known as acheulian culture
• Use of unpolished, rough and crude stone tools like hand axes, choppers, blades,
burins and scrapers.
• Remains found throughout the country exept alluvial plains of Indus, Ganga and
Yamuna rivers
• evidence of art in the form of paintings.
• Some major sites:
o Soan valley (in present Pakistan)
o Sites in the Thar Desert
o Kashmir
o Nagaur & Didwana
• Major findings (Didwana & Nagaur)
o Hand axes found at Didwana, Rajasthan, similar to those from the Shiwalik
Range, yield slightly younger dates of about 400,000 years ago.
o Discovery of stone tools – hand axes and cleavers
o Use of materials like quartzite & quartz for making tools
o Mainly hunter gatherer culture
o No knowledge of housing, domestication, agriculture and pottery
o Note- Evidences of both lower & middle palaeolithic period

Middle Palaeolithic Age: 100,000 BC – 40,000 BC

• Mainly characterized by use of flakes; showing regional variations

• Major tools- varieties of blades, points, borers & scrapers made of flakes
• progressive diminution in the size of stone artifacts began
• Tools become sharper & lighter
• Important sites:
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o Belan valley in UP
o Luni valley (Rajasthan)
o Son and Narmada rivers
o Bhimbetka
o Tungabhadra river valleys
o Major sites in Rajasthan
a. Luni valley
b. Didwana
c. Budha pushkar

Upper Palaeolithic Age: 40,000 BC – 10,000 BC

• End of ice age & climate began transition towards becoming warm & humid
• 1st appearance of Homo Sapiens
• Marked by appearance of new flint industries
• Use of blade & burins; scrapers
• Tools characterized by larger flakes than earlier periods
• Emergence of small communities having seasonal habitation which coincided with
change of seasons
• Settlements developed near permanent source of water marks the faint beginning of
longer term settlements in place of nomadism
• Evidences of early human rock art; themes- group hunting, day to day mundane
events, birds( absence of perching birds)
• Some important sites:
o Bhimbhetka (South of Bhopal)
o Belan
o Son
o Chota Nagpur plateau (Bihar)
o South eastern Rajasthan & river bains like mahi etc
• Important sites in Rajasthan :
o Chittorgarh, Kota & river basins of Sabarmati, Mahi, kadamli & wagoon
o Discovery of Ostrich egg shells in many sites

Mesolithic Age ( 10,000 BC to 5000 BC)

• It is an transitional stage characterised by warm & humid climate

• Marked by movement of Humans to new places along changes in flora & fauna
• Characterised by distinct tools known as Microliths
• People mainly engaged in hunting, fishing & food gathering; in its last phase began
the domestication of animals
• Marked by important changes in the society
o Transition from primitive hunting & stone using culture to metal using & food
producing economy by acculturation
o Beginning of customs like intentional disposal of the dead; such burials found
in Rajasthan, langhnaj in Gujarat etc.
o Rock paintings showing themes like wild animals, hunting, events related to
human life like sex & child birth
• Important sites
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o Rajasthan
o Southern UP
o Central & Eastern India
o South of Krishna river

Major findings ( Rajasthan):

Bagor

• On the bank of river Kothari in Bhilwara District.

• Biggest Mesolithic Site in India.
• Excavated by Virendranath Mishra
• Inhabitation- 5000 years from 5th Millenium BC
• The lithic repertoire at Bagor is perhaps one of the richest in the world.
• Distinctive microlith Industry; could be used as coomponents of arrowheads, axes,
knives, harpoons etc
• Tools includes backed blades, points, crescents, triangles;
• People mainly lived on hunting & pastoralism; with some form of rudimentary
agriculture in later half of this period
• stone paved habitational floors
• numerous bones of wild species and human burials.
• Flake types such as scrapers or burins are totally absent in this industry.
• the crest guiding blades common in most of the known microlithic industries in India
are also conspicuously absent in Bagor
• evdiences of 1st domestication of animals
• The animals identified are claimed to indicate almost 80 percent domesticated species
and include sheep/goat, buffalo, humped cattle, pig, black buck, chinkara, chital,
sambhar, hare, fox and mongoose. These even include some aquatic fauna like
tortoise and fish.

Tilwara

• On the bank of river Luni in Barmer district.

• Site excavated under the direction of VN Mishra the site in 1971

• two distinct phases: The early phase & The later phase
• The early phase
- Mostly Mesolithic settlement
• The later phase:
- Yields bits of iron, Glass beads and several wheel-made potteries.
- Circular arrangements of stones on the ground indicate habitation structures.
- Fire hearths, charred bones and other habitational debris clearly indicate a late
desert settlement of Mesolithic culture.
▪ Trapeze, lunates, points besides numerous parallel-sided blades and
fluted cores form the industry.
- Evidence of animal husbandry is found here.
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Neolithic period ( 5000 BC to 1000 BC)

• Also known as Neolithic revolution as it is marked by transformative changes in the

mode of life of people
• Man becomes sedentary in nature and hence develops interpersonal relationships to
consolidate a form of cooperative existence.
• development of permanent dwellings
• use of polished stone implements for the 1st time
• cultural advances such as pottery making, domestication of animals
• the cultivation of grain and fruit trees
• Practise of weaving also begun
• Important sites- Mehrgarh, located along bolan river in Pakistan; earliest Neolithic
settlement of Indian subcontinent
• Cultivation of cotton for the 1st time
• Domestication of cattle, sheep , goat etc
• Cultivation of wheat & Barley
• Other sites- burzahom- j&k, Chirand (Bihar) etc
• No significant site of neolthic period has been discovered yet in Rajasthan.

Chalcolithic Age

• The period is marked by use stone – metal; copper was the 1st metal to be used by
man( End of the Neolithic period saw the use metals)
• Technologically it applies to pre-harappans; in various parts of the country appeared
after Harappan civilization.
• They were primarily rural communities residing in in hilly areas where rivers are
available nearby
• They knew the art of copper smelting
• They used wheel turn black and red pots and were the first to use painted pottery
• Major sites- Southeastern Rajasthan, western part of Madhya Pradesh Western
Maharashtra and southern and Eastern India; jorwe culture; kayatha culture etc.
• Some of the major chalcolithic cultures in Rajasthan are:

Ahar - Banas Culture (3000 to 1500 BC)

• Also known as Banas Culture/ tamravati and dhoolkot

• Lies mainly in the river valleys of Banas and its tributaries ; in South Eastern Rajasthan
• About 90 sites of this culture have been discovered; important among them are gilund,
Aahar, Ojiana, balathal, pachamta
• Provides the evidence of early farming rural communities who were contemporary to
the the Indus valley civilizations
• A small chopper made of thin sheet of copper is an important antiquity of Ahar
culture.
• Faience of Harappan type is also noteworthy to established relationship with other
contemporary cultures.
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• They were rural farming communities also engaged in in livestock keeping and
hunting
• Main crops were wheat, barley, Millets , Bajra and Jawar.
• Remakable refinement in Technology ; invention of first wheel industrial activities ;
mass production of ceramics ;Metal Works and development of Bead industries
• Beads were made in in Shell, bone, Ivory ,semi -precious stones, steatite and
Terracotta
• Evidences of terracotta bull; names as banasian bull
• Houses were square shaped & large made up of stones; walls were made of mud\
mud bricks
• They carried on trade with Indus Valley Civilization people
• Evidence of rice has been noticed in the form of Impressions on potsherds
• Technology
• They mainly used copper metal and produced also used polished stone tools and used
microliths as well
• Evidences of coins & seals dating back to period 3rd BC to 1st BC – a coin having
mark of trishul on side & greek god Apollo on the other

Gilund

• It is located in Rajsamand district and drained by three rivers that is Kothari Banaras
and berach
• Excavation carried out under BB Lal in 1959 -60
• Use of burnt bricks on large scale
• Evidences of two distinct phases- early Ahar phase: 3000- 2000 BC and late Ahar
phase: 2000 - 1700 BC
• First phase:
-represent chalcolithic phase; evidences of few microliths along with copper
objects

-Evidences of clay lines ovens & chulhas

- Residential houses for made of mud brick and plastered with mud
-Use of black and red ware pottery
-Terracotta figurines search s bull with prominent hump and longhorns are
noticeable

• Second phase :

- Evidence of grey ware pottery

-this site remain inhabited in 1st AD also; evidences Red ware pottery of
Kushan period ,red polished ware pottery etc
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Balathal

• it is located in vallabhnagar tehsil of Udaipur; on the banks of katar river

• discovered by v n Mishra in 1962- 63
• it also gives evidence of two phases- early chalcolithic period :3000 to 1500 BC and
early historic period 5th to 3rd Century BC
• major findings- a skeleton belonging to period around 2000 BC has been found; gives
the earliest evidence of leprosy in humans (till now )
• A huge mansion of 11 rooms, and a fort resembling structure has been found.
• Early chalcolithic phase:
o marked by presence of well plant structures
o houses are single or multi roomed having square or rectangular shape
o Locally available granite and gneiss rock were used for the
construction. Since loose stone was not available they were quarried
from locally available rock
o stone or mud-brick houses, made wheel thrown pottery copper
implements
o practiced dry field agriculture focused on barley and wheat
o both stone and copper tools have been found which includes saddles,
querns, hammer stone etc & copper objects like choppers, knives,
chisels have also been found.

The site was abandoned for a long period of time; till the inhabitation was seen in
early historic period.

• Early historic period:

-large scale evidence of use of iron objects
-houses were made up of mud & daub with plastering of mud
- Use of stone & mud for construction

Ojiana

• Maximum among all the excavated sites of Ahar culture.

• The first settlers were cultivators and preferred this hillock, skirted by low
lying fertile land for settlement.
• The painted black-and-red ware is present in all the phases
• Marked change in shapes and firing technique in different phases; Paintings
were executed both on the exterior as well as on the interior.
• Red ware remains the main ceramic type found in all the phases.
• Other evidences of pottery: black-slipped ware, burnished and unburnished-
black ware, grey ware, tan ware and red slipped ware.
• Evidences of painting
• pots are decorated with incision, pinching and designs
o Phase 1:
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➢ No evidence of complete house plan of found only but thin

patches of mud floors above the rock and thick deposit of
construction debris found;
➢ Their house were made of sun-dried mud-bricks.
➢ mud-brick did not prove very useful on the hill slop
o Phase 2
➢ Stones used for construction.
o Phase 3
➢ Wattle-and-daub houses mark a sharp decline.
➢ Thick layer of ash, burnt and baked pieces of mud-plaster and
pot-holes capped with charcoal have been found
➢ Indicate a devastating fire which de-stored the last settlement
on the site.

• Distinctive features:
-large number of terracotta bulls, both naturalistic and stylized, with
a great variety of shape and size
-White paintings on these bulls make them unparalleled in
contemporary cultures in India. These white painted bulls, termed as Ojiyana
bulls which perhaps served as cult objects and as it appears white paintings
was applied during the ceremony or rituals
-Another important discovery is the terracotta figurines of cow;
Modelling of cow here was quite common;as is evidence from the variety of
modelling. These were also perhaps the cult objects.

Pachamta

o Excavation began in 2015 under the project called the Mewar Plains archaeological
assessment
o the area lies in Udaipur district of rajasthan; close to gilund
o Belongs to ahar banas culture
o Period- 3000 BC to 1700 BC
o Major findings- perforated jars, shell bangles, terrcotta beads and semi precious
stones; lapis lazuli
o Evidences of early pottery & brick structures

Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus Valley Civilization dates around 3300 BC. It flourished between 2600 BC and
1900 BC (Mature Indus Valley Civilization). It started declining around 1900 BC and
disappeared around 1400 BC.
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• 1st urbanisation in Indian subcontinent

• Covered Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Western
Uttar Pradesh. It extended from Sutkagengor (in Baluchistan) in the West
to Alamgirpur (Western UP) in the East; and from Mandu (Jammu) in the
North to Daimabad (Ahmednagar, Maharashtra) in the South.
• In India: Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Lothal, Dholavira, Rangpur, Surkotda
(Gujarat), Banawali (Haryana), Ropar (Punjab) etc are some of the
important sites.
• Highly sophisticated town planning, trade & developments in the field of
metallurgy,specilaisation in arts and sculptures; terracatta, bronze etc, art
of writing & script etc, are some of its distinguishing features from the
earlier cultures.

Some important characteristics of sites situated in Rajasthan:

Kalibangan

• Located on the bank of river Ghaghhar in Hanumangarh District.

• Discovered by Amlanand Ghosh in 1953.

• Excavated by Brijvasilal in 1961.

• Evidence of world's earliest attested ploughed field; the field had two sets of furrows
at right angles to each other, suggesting that two different crops were grown together.

• Evidence of growing Barley and Mustard are found.

• Remains of Cylindrical seal of Mesopotamia and incised terracotta cake are quite
significant.

• Houses were made from mud bricks.

• The drainage system was not properly developed.

• Evidence of Earthquake has also been found

• The cemetery of the Harappans was located to the west-southwest of the citadel.

• Three types of burials were attested: extended inhumation in rectangular or oval

grave-pits; pot-burials in a circular pit; and rectangular or oval grave-pits containing
only pottery and other funerary objects. The later two methods were un -associated
with skeletal remains.

• The site gives evidences of both pre-Harappan and Harappan phase:

o Features of the pre-Harappan phase:

➢ A fortified parallelogram shaped settlement

➢ The fortification wall being made of mud-bricks.
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➢ The houses within the walled area were also made of mud-
bricks.
➢ The distinctive trait of this period was the pottery which was
significantly different from that of the succeeding Harappans
➢ No writing system developed
➢ Familiar with use of copper & produced pottery.
➢ The drainage system was not properly developed.

o Harappan phase
➢ An orderly layout and use of baked bricks
➢ A cemetery and a fortified citadel.
➢ The structural pattern of the settlement was changed.
➢ There were now two distinct parts: the citadel on the west
and the lower city on the east.
➢ 3 rd part- Lower city - It consisted of a modest structure,
containing four to five ‘fire-altars’ and as such could have
been used for ritualistic purposes.
➢ The cemetery of the Harappans was located to the west-
southwest of the citadel.
➢ Three types of burials were attested: extended inhumation in
rectangular or oval grave-pits; pot-burials in a circular pit;
and rectangular or oval grave-pits containing only pottery
and other funerary objects. The later two methods were
unassociated with skeletal remains.

Sothi (Sothi Civilization)

• It was a rural civilization.

• Located in Ganganagar District.

• Situated on the plain of Ghaghhar and Chautang River.

• First discovered by Luigi Pio Tessitori

• Sothi is the site of a Pre-Indus Valley Civilisation settlement dating to as early as

4600 BCE.

• The historical period represented by Sothi ware is also called Kalibangan I.

• Mature Harappan period is designated Kalibangan II.

• Also cited as the origin place of Harappan civilization.

• Sothi ceramic ware:

o Painted pipal leaves, or fish scale designs.

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o External ribbing and external cord impressions

o Examples: remains of ceramic toy cart wheels and the short-stemmed dish on
a stand.
• Sothi ware is present at almost all the Harappa sites in the Ghaggar valley

• Note- Sothi-Siswal culture:

o Named after these two sites, located 70 km apart, in Rajasthan,

Haryana, Punjab.
o As many as 165 sites of this culture have been reported.
o There are also broad similarities between Sothi-Siswal and Kot Diji
ceramics. Kot Diji culture area is located just to the northwest of the
Sothi-Siswal area.

Mahajanpada Period (600 BC to 300 BC)

• Marks the period of 2nd urbanisation in India

• Features:
o Pottery- Northern black polished ware
o Use of metal money
o Presence of complex administrative systems with large standing armies
o Efficient tax collection system
o Use of iron ploughshare & rice transplantation
o Consisted of both monarchies ( such as Magadha, Avanti, anga etc) as well as
republics

Mahajanapadas of Rajasthan:

Matsya

• Capital: - Viratnagar

• Presently covers districts of Alwar, Bharatpur and Jaipur

• 1st mentioned in Rigveda. Here matysa has been mentioned as rival of famous king
sudas

• Mentioned in shatpatha brahamana- matsya ruler dvaitvan performed ashvamedha

yajna on banks of saraswati river;

• In gopath brahamana, they have been related to shalvas and in kaushitki Upanishad,
they are related to kuru panchlas

• Mahabharat era- refers to a King Sahaja, who ruled over both the Chedis and the
Matsyas, which implies that Matsya once formed a part of the Chedi Kingdom.
Pandavas spent their one year of exile in matsya region

• The Mahabharata refers to a King Sahaja, who ruled over both the Chedis and the
Matsyas, which implies that Matsya once formed a part of the Chedi Kingdom.
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• Mentioned in Buddhist text anguttara nikaya; which gives a list of 16 mahajanapads,

but its power had greatly dwindled and it was of little political importance by the time
of Buddha

Shurasena (Brajmandala)

• Presently covers Braj region in Uttar Pradesh; - Alwar, Bharatpur, Dhaulpur and
Karauli.

• Capital city- Mathura

• Strategic importance as a center of trade - due to its location at the intersection of

othe Gangetic Plain met with the routes to Malwa (central India) and the west coast

• According to the Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya, it one of the 16 Mahajanapadas ) in

the 6th century BCE.

• Also mentioned in the Hindu epic poem, the Ramayana.

• The ancient Greek writers (e.g., Megasthenes) refer to the Sourasenoi and its cities,
Methora and Cleisobra.

• The Buddhist texts refer to Avantiputta, the king of the Surasenas in the time of Maha
Kachchana, one of the chief disciples of Gautama Buddha, who spread Buddhism in
the Mathura region.

• Archaeological remains:

o The earliest period belonged to the Painted Grey Ware culture (1100-500
BCE)

o Northern Black Polished Ware culture (700-200 BCE).

Kuru

• Capital: - Indraprastha (Delhi)

• Represents a flourishing Iron Age in northern India
• Covers present day states of Delhi, Haryana, Punjab and some parts of
western Uttar Pradesh,
• Developed into the first recorded state-level society in the Indian subcontinent.
• It became the dominant political and cultural center of the middle Vedic Period
during the reigns of Parikshit and Janamejaya
• Declined in importance during the late Vedic period & became weak by
the Mahajanapada period in the 5th century BCE.
• There is a Jataka reference to king Dhananjaya, introduced as a prince from the
race of Yudhishtra.
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• In the 4th century BCE, Kautiliya's Arthashastra also mentions the Kurus
following the Rajashabdopajivin (king consul) constitution.

Some Other Janapada of Rajasthan

Shivi Janapada

• Excavated by D.R. Bhandarkar.

• It was republic situated between Chittorgarh and Udaipur district
• Capital: - Madhyamika (Present name Nagari)
• Remained under rule of mevs for long; so also known as medpaat/praagvaat
• Mentioned in Panini’s Ashtadyayi
• A large number of Buddhist stupas have also been found
• Inscriptional Evidences of Greek attack 2379 years back
• It is belived that Buddhists got constructed many structures here- devariya shiva
temple, hathi bhata etc
• Hathi bhata site gives evidences of a Buddhist palace.

Arjunayana Janapada

• Present Alwar and Bharatpur District & some parts of Tonk

• They emerged as political power During Sunga Period.

Malav Janapad

• Present Jaipur and Tonk district.

• Capital: - Nagar (Tonk)
• Republican form of state
• Mentioned in Mahabhashya of Patanjali
• Evidences of punch marked coins made of silver has been found
• Statue of Mardini has been found
• Evidences of Sunga art - Maa Durga on lion

Yaudheyas

• Present Hanumangarh and Ganganagar district.

• It belongs to the period 1000 BC to 300 excavation work was done by dr Hannah Reid
who belong to Sweden
• Republican form of state
• Mentioned in Ashtadhyayi and Ganapatha of Panini.
• It was a confederation of 3 republics viz. Punjab with capital capital, bahu dhanyak
situated in North Panchal and 3rd in Northen Rajasthan.
• Copper bronze coins of Yaudheyas have been found in bahu dhaynak
• Effect of Gandhara Art is seen on Terracotta
• Few punch marked coins are also found some coins relating to to reign of Kanishk are
also found and their power declined by the time of kushanas.
• Coins of Vasudev Chauhan the founder of Chauhan dynasty
• Evidences of cultivation of rice and their staple diet
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Shalvya

• It was situated in Alwar district.

Rajanya

• It was situated in Jodhpur and Bikaner region.

Mauryan Period

Bairat (Viratnagar)

• Located in viratngar, Jaipur

• Excavations carried under Daya Ram Sahni,
• It was capital of Matsya Mahajanapada; It was a part of Mauryan Empire
• Major finding include:
o Buddhist chaitya and temples –oldest free standing Buddhist structure in India
o Bhabru Rock Edict found by Captain Burt in 1840 from Bijak ki Pahari
o Evidences of Mauryan period
o Another Ashokan edict - the only known edict of Ashoka, which is inscribed
on a stone slab (Shila phalaka) as distinguished from stone pillar (Shila
Stambha) or rock.
o Remnants of two Ashoka pillars, a temple of an entirely new type and a
monastery both of which must have been erected by Ashoka himself.
o Sculptures, coins, pottery, seals and metal objects were found from the
excavation.
o According to Maan Sarovar inscription of 713 A.D., Maan Maurya was the
ruler of Bairat. This inscription also mentions the name of 4 rulers.
Maheshwar, Bhoj, Bhim and Maan.
• Other info-
o In 634 A.D Huang Tsang visited Bairat.
o Evidences of human presence since Palaeolithic times
o Stone tools found in dhigaria and bhangarh regions
o Evidence of mid Palaeolithic period also found around this region
o crude terracotta objects have also been found
o Pre historic art found in caves, its walls- use of red pigments; seen in hills like
ganesh doongri, bijak doongri & bhim doongri
o Remains of chacoloithic period- ochre coloured pottery also found; not
properly baked
o Remains of black & red ware with no paintings/designs on it; also found but
not related to black- red pottery of ahar culture
o We also found evidences of painted grey ware( later vedic period); painted
with geometrical designs, slanting lines, swastika etc
o Acquainted with iron and used it for self consumption purposes; large variety
of tools and objects; maximum remains- arrows and spears
o Evidences of northen black polished ware; important center of Buddhism in
mauryan times
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o Iron wires, large scale remains of iron weapons and agricultural implements of
iron
o Remains of inscribed bricks having brahmi script.

Post Mauryan Period

Main features of this period:

• Rise of number of small kingdoms & republics due to fall of Mauryan Empire. It
provided a fertile ground for foreign invasions.
• Attack by Greek king Menander in 150 BC- on Madhyamika & established his
control over areas around chittorgarh
• Evidences : Greek coins have been found near naliyasar( freshwater) lake; bairath and
nagari; 16 Greek coins were found from Bairat.
• Attack of Sycthians around 1st century AD; Coins were found from the Rang Mahal of
Hanumangarh belonging to the Kushan period.
• Greek rule ended by about 90 AD
• Kushana rule - Coins of Kushana King, Huvishka( 95 to 127 AD) has been found near
naliyasar lake; Coins were found from the Rang Mahal of Hanumangarh belonging to
the Kushan period.
• Inscription near Sudarshan lake (150 AD) gives information that Kushanas rules from
marupradesh till upto Sabarmati river..

Gupta Period

• Information provided by Allahabad Inscription

o Samundragupta’s reign spread over large parts of Indian subcontinent.
o Western & north Western boundaries of his empire: Malwa, Arjunayana,
Yaudhyea, Madrak, Aabhir, Prarjun, Sankanik, Kaak and Kharparik.
• Samundra Gupta defeated Rudradaman II in 351 A.D. and captured southern
Rajasthan.
• Samudragupta,s son Chandragupta 2nd defeated these rpublics & gave a blow to the
rule of western satraps Vikramaditya Defeated last Shaka ruler and whole Rajasthan
came under Gupta dynasty.
• Bayana (Bharatpur)- maximum gold coins of Gupta period; belonging to Kumar
Gupta; Rer( Tonk), Aheda(Ajmer) also yields significant amount of Gupta coins
• Remains of Gupta era temples have been found Bhinmal, Jalore
• Baran(Rajasthan) inscription mention about Gupta.
• Durga Temple (Kota) and Shiv Temple (Chachanura) are the best examples of Gupta
architecture.

Post Gupta Period (Huns, Vardhan and Gurjars)

• Hunas attacks began during Gupta times due to stong Central Authority and
dispersion of powers among small principalities; as Polity was becoming more Feudal
• Attack of Huna Kung Toraman in 503 AD & established control over Rajasthan
• Attack of Huna king Mihirkul in around 6th century AD- uprooted alomost all
republics & kingdoms in rajasthan; For example- Bairath,Rangmahal
• Mihirkula built Shiva temple in Badauli.
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• Later Mihikula was defeated by Narsingh Baladitya Gupta and Rajasthan was
reoccupied by Guptas.
• The capital of Gurjar-Pratihar was Bhinmal.
• Chinese traveller Huang Tsang visited Bhinmal during his period.
• Brahmagupta belongs to Bhinmal.
• Gurjar Pratihar stopped Arab invasion from North West.

Other Archaeological Sites

Ganeshwar

• Located on the bank of river Kantali in Sikar District.

• It throws light on the origin development and spread of chalcolithic culture

• On the basis of radiocarbon dating and comparative studies by Archaeologist RC

Agrawal

• Its inhabitation has been placed around 2800 BC

• Among the sites of copper culture, it is the most ancient

• In this way it can be called as the progenitor of chalcolithic cultures in India

• It revealed over 1000 copper objects including 400 arrowheads 50 fish hooks 60 flat
cells and numerous other objects like harpoons, needles, bangles

• A large number of arrowheads shows presence of a specilaised craft industry

• The objects shows a high percentage of pure copper content

• Evidences of vitrified clay lumps , charred wood and metallurgical slag shows
highly advanced metal processing skills

• With its microliths and other stone tools, Ganeshwar culture can be ascribed to the
pre-Harappan period.

• Ganeshwar people were mainly engaged in agriculture and hunting; was primarily a
rural culture

• They mainly supplied copper objects to Harappa.

• Although their principle craft was manufacture of copper objects but they were unable
to urbanize on the lines of Indus Valley Civilisation.

Sunari, jhunjhunu

• Excavated in 1980-81

• Located on the banks of Kantali river in jhujnjhunu district

• Evidences of iron smelters; considered as the most ancient discovered in India yet
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• Mechanism of temperature control is also found in the smelters

• Major findings include arrows front part of Spears iron balls and black polished ware
which are considered to be of Mauryan age
• Evidences of beads of Terracotta and Stone bangles of shells and Terracotta images
have been found
• Evidences of iron arrows science towards the practice of hunting along with
agriculture
• Evidences of images of mother goddess and agree for food storage has also been
found
• It is opined that this region was inhabited by Vedic Aryans

• A distinct iron bowl is also found here; not discovered from any other site yet

• Evdiences of Grey coloured vessels with designs

• Remains of maurayn, shunga & kushana period is also found in subsequent layers in
good quantity

Kurada

• In Nagaur district.

• Called Town of Tools.

• Kurada (nagarur)
• The site was excavated around 1934
• large number of copper objects have been found; 103 in number
• Known as a centre of copper objects
• Reamins of Perforated jars have been found; Throws light on relations between Iran
and this region

Iswaal

• In Udaipur district.

• Industrial Town (Because of presence of Iron Mine in Ancient time)

• Excavated by archaeology department of Rajasthan Vidyapeeth Udaipur

• The site was inhabited from proto history to mediaeval Times
• 5 layers of stratification have been found
• Most interesting finding : iron smelters which had been in use for nearly two
thousand years
• Evidences of iron ore, iron objects & pipes have been found
• The site was inhabited from proto history to mediaeval Times
• 5 layers of stratification have been found

Gardara

• In Bundi district.

• Rock paintings of ancient India are found.

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Jodhpura

• It is found near Kotputli , Jaipur on the banks of Sabi river.

• Ochre coloured pottery site which is extremely rolled and fragile
• Jodhpur is the only site where habitational deposits of OCP has been found with the
following features: well made floors, mud huts hearth, terracotta human male
figurines and bull figurines
• They lead a sedentary life similar to early farming communities
• Domestication of animals and cultivation of crops like rice and barley
• The site dates around 2800 BC
• Major findings:
• Iron smelters used to make iron out of iron ore
• Mauryan period - black pottery ware black Burnished polished ware