Pluralism

Introduction to Legal Pluralism
in
South Africa
Fifth Edition
Introduction to Legal Pluralism
in
South Africa
Fifth Edition
C Rautenbach
Editor
Professor Faculty of Law
North-West University, South Africa
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© 2018
First Edition 2002, Reprinted 2003

Second Edition 2006, Reprinted 2007
Third Edition 2010
Fourth Edition 2014, Reprinted 2016, 2017
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Preface
Legal Pluralism within a South African context reflects the re-

alities and complexities of a diverse society and the impact it
has on a legal system. (Watney “Book Review” 2012 TSAR
202.)
South Africa’s official legal system comprises a number of distinct legal traditions; a com-
mon-law mix of transplanted European laws (Roman-Dutch law and English law), as well as
traditional community laws, collectively known as customary law. The South African Constitu-
tion provides for the future recognition of other legal traditions founded on religion or custom.
The personal laws of Hinduism, Judaism and Islam increasingly enjoy attention from the judici-
ary and legal scholars but are not officially recognised (yet).
Based on the recommendations made by Watney in 2012 TSAR 202, the book is divided into
three parts. The first part discusses the phenomenon of legal pluralism in South Africa. Chapter
1 deals with the phenomenon of legal pluralism, while chapters 2 and 3 cover the nature, sphere,
application and ascertainment of customary law. The transformation of legal education necessi-
tates a re-evaluation of the notion of decolonisation, and we have added a section dealing with
some of the issues in chapter 3. Chapter 4 discusses the incidence of deep legal pluralism and
more specifically the incidence of Hindu, Jewish and Muslim personal law in South Africa.
The second part of the book is aimed at covering the core content of African customary law as
applied in South Africa. Given the fact that customary law consists of both official and living
law, and that living law changes from place to place as well as from time to time, and is differ-
ently interpreted from one person to the next, it is almost impossible to reduce it to a text for use
by the legal fraternity. Nevertheless, the contributors have tried to discuss at least the official
laws and those living laws that have – to a certain extent – certain commonalities.
The third part of the book is aimed at the core contents of Hindu, Jewish and Muslim personal
law, albeit only in an introductory fashion. The focus is on family law and the law of succession.
This fifth edition was necessary because the law has developed considerably in several areas
since the publication of the fourth edition in 2014. Barring a few exceptions, the research that
preceded the publication of this book was concluded in January 2018.
Since the inception of this book a number of editors have been involved in developing it into
what it is today. When the first edition was published as two volumes in 2002, five editors were
involved: JC Bekker, JMT Labuschagne, LP Vorster, C Rautenbach and NMI Goolam. Sadly,
two editors, JMT Labuschagne and LP Vorster, passed away before the second edition was pub-
lished. We incorporated the two volumes into one book and it was edited by the remaining
v
vi Introduction to Legal Pluralism in South Africa
editors: JC Bekker, C Rautenbach and NMI Goolam. They remained involved in the second edi-
tion published in 2006 and also the third edition in 2010. The fourth edition was edited by C
Rautenbach and JC Bekker only and was published in 2014. After a lifetime of scholarly contri-
bution to African customary law, JC Bekker retired this year. This book is dedicated to him and
all the other editors who were involved in the editorial processes over a span of 16 years.
Ultimately, it is hoped that the fifth edition of the Introduction to Legal Pluralism in South Af-
rica will continue to make a meaningful contribution to the introduction of law students and
scholars into the rich and complex legal culture that underpins our constitutional democracy.
This edition is published in English only.
Christa Rautenbach
November 2018
Contributors to the Fifth Edition
The following contributors either rewrote, modified or updated various chapters or sections in
this edition. In the case of a modification or update of the original text written by an author other
than the one who did the modification or update, the name of the author who wrote the original
text is not listed but can be found in one of the earlier editions.
Amien, Waheeda BA LLB LLM PhD (Ghent). Associate Professor Chapters 4 & 14
in the Department of Public Law at the Faculty
of Law, University of Cape Town. Member of
the Executive Body of the International Com-
mission on Legal Pluralism
Bekker, Jan C BA LLB LLD Emeritus Professor, Former Dean Chapters 2 & 7
and Head of Department of Private Law of the
former Vista University
Himonga, Chuma LLB LLM PhD (London) Emeritus Professor of Chapter 3
Law in the Department of Private Law, University
of Cape Town
Moosa, Najma BA LLB LLM LLD Professor, Faculty of Law, Chapters 4 & 14
University of the Western Cape and former
member of Project 59 (Islamic Marriages and
Related Matters) of the South African Law
Reform Commission
Müller-Van der LLB LLM Lecturer in the Department of Private Chapter 5
Westhuizen, Caroline Law, Faculty of Law, University of the Free State
Olivier, NJJ (Nic) BA LLB BA (Hons) MA BPhil LLD LLD Chapters 8 & 10
Professor and Director of SADC Centre for
Land-Related, Regional and Development Law
and Policy, University of Pretoria
Pienaar, Juanita M BIur LLB LLM LLD Professor in the Department Chapter 6
of Private Law at the Faculty of Law, Stellen-
bosch University. Research Fellow of the South
African Research Chair in Property Law
vii
viii Introduction to Legal Pluralism in South Africa
Rautenbach, Christa BIur (cum laude) LLB (cum laude) LLM LLD Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4,
Professor, Faculty of Law, North-West University 7, 9, 11, 12, 13 &
(Potchefstroom Campus). Ambassador Scientist 14
of the Alexander von Humboldt-Foundation and
member of the Advisory Committee of the South
African Law Reform Commission (Project 144)
Tshivhase, Aifheli E B Juris LLB PhD Associate Professor and Head Chapter 2
of Department: Criminal & Procedural Law,
Faculty of Law, Nelson Mandela University
Williams, Clara LLB LLM Extraordinary Lecturer, Faculty of Chapters 8 & 10
Law, University of Pretoria, legal researcher and
consultant
Contributors to the previous four editions
The first edition of Introduction to Legal Pluralism was published in 2002. Twenty-one authors
participated in the writing of the original text. With the publication of the second, third and
fourth editions, the text was either rewritten, modified or updated by the same authors, or, if they
were no longer able or willing to contribute, by others.
The term “contributor” refers to either the author of the original text or the updater of the
same. In some instances quite a number of contributors have added to the content of a chapter or
section over the years, and it is sometimes difficult to pinpoint who wrote exactly what. Also, in
some instances, the contents of chapters were reshuffled, and this complicates our efforts to
acknowledge the exact contribution of each and every author who has participated in this book
since the first edition. The alphabetical list of contributors to the first four editions provided
below should therefore be read in conjunction with the information provided in the first four
editions, where the contributors concerned were listed at the beginning of the book, on the
contents page, or in a footnote at the beginning of a section. In a case where a chapter or section
was updated by an author other than the one who wrote the original text, the name of the original
author has not been listed again; instead, only the name of the updater has been included. The
name of the original author can, however, be found in a previous edition. The biographical
particulars of the contributors are given as they were at the date of their participation in the
previous editions.
Special thanks go to the contributors who participated in the first four editions, either as au-
thor or updater. Also, the assistance of Professor Alan Brimer (language editor) and Tina Coet-
zer (technical assistant), who assisted with the fourth edition, is acknowledged.
Amien, W BA LLB LLM PhD (Ghent). Associate Professor, Faculty of Law,
University of Cape Town and Member of the Executive Body of the
International Commission on Legal Pluralism
Badat, JGH BA (Law) LLM MA (Gender Studies) Formerly Lecturer, School of Law,
former University of Durban-Westville
Bekker, JC BA LLB LLD Emeritus Professor, Formerly Dean and Head of the
Department of Private Law, former Vista University
Bennett, TW BA LLB PhD Professor, Department of Public Law, University of Cape
Town
ix
x Introduction to Legal Pluralism in South Africa
Bernard, NM BA (Humanities) (Yeshiva University) Rabbi Emeritus of The Oxford

Synagogue Centre in Johannesburg
Bilchitz, D BA (Hons) LLB PhD (Cambridge) Candidate Attorney at Ross Kriel
Attorneys and part-time Lecturer, University of Witwatersrand
Boonzaaier, CC BA BA (Hons) MA DPhil (Anthropology) Associate Professor,
Department of Anthropology and Archaeology, University of Pretoria
Dlamini, CRM BProc LLM LLD LLD LLD LLD LLD Rector of the University of
[deceased] Zululand
Du Plessis, W BIur LLB LLM LLD Professor, Faculty of Law, North-West University
(Potchefstroom Campus)
Gokul, R BProc LLB LLM Formerly Senior Lecturer, Department of Law, Durban
Institute of Technology; accredited mediator, councillor and arbitrator and
member of the TOKISO panel
Goolam, NMI BA LLB (UCT) MCL (International Islamic University Malaysia)
Associate Professor, Department of Jurisprudence, University of South
Africa
Heyns, MF BA BA (Hons) BD MA PhD Senior Lecturer, School of Philosophy,
North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus)
Jansen, R-M BIur LLB BSoc Sc (Hons) LLM Associate Professor, Department of
Private Law, University of the Free State
Knoetze, E BIur LLB LLM LLD Associate Professor, School of Law, Nelson Man-
dela Metropolitan University
Koyana, DS LLB LLM LLD LLD Formerly Dean and currently Professor, Faculty of
Law, Walter Sisulu University
Labuschagne, JMT MA DPhil LLD Professor in Private Law, University of Pretoria
[deceased]
Maithufi, IP BIur LLM LLD Professor, Department of Private Law, University of
[deceased] Pretoria
Mojela, K BIur LLB LLM Lecturer, Faculty of Law, University of Limpopo
Moosa, N BA LLB LLM LLD Professor and Dean, Faculty of Law, University of
the Western Cape
Mqeke, RB LLB LLM LLD Professor, Faculty of Law, Rhodes University
Müller-Van der LLB LLM Lecturer, Department of Private Law, Faculty of Law, Univer-
Westhuizen, C sity of the Free State
Olivier, NJJ BA LLB BA (Hons) MA BPhil LLD LLD Professor and Director of
SADC Centre for Land-Related, Regional and Development Law and
Policy, University of Pretoria
Pienaar, JM BIur LLB LLM LLD Professor, Faculty of Law, Stellenbosch University
and Acting Judge of the Land Claims Court of South Africa
Rautenbach, C BIur LLB LLM LLD Professor, Faculty of Law, North-West University
(Potchefstroom Campus), Alexander von Humboldt Fellow and Ambas-
sador Scientist
Contributors to the previous four editions xi
Van den Heever, JA BIur BA (Hons) LLD Emeritus Professor, Formerly Dean, Faculty of
Law, University of Limpopo
Van Niekerk, GJ BA LLM LLD Professor, Department of Jurisprudence, University of
South Africa
Venter, AM BIur LLB LLM Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Law, University of Johannes-
burg
Vorster, LP BIur LLB MA DPhil Professor in Indigenous Law, University of South
[deceased] Africa
Whelpton, FP van R BA BIur LLB LLD Professor, Department of Constitutional, International
and Indigenous Law, University of South Africa
Williams, C LLB LLM Extraordinary Lecturer, Faculty of Law, University of Pretoria,
legal researcher and consultant
Abbreviations
AHRLJ African Human Rights Law Journal

Am J Comp L American Journal of Comparative Law
Am J Juris American Journal of Jurisprudence
CARSA Child Abuse Research in South Africa
CILSA Comparative and International Law Journal of Southern Africa
ICLQ International and Comparative Law Quarterly
IJLSE International Journal of Liability and Scientific Enquiry
Int’l J Children’s Rts International Journal of Children’s Rights
J Afr L Journal of African Law
J Law & Soc Journal of Law and Society
HRCLJ Human Rights and Constitutional Law Journal of Southern Africa
LQR Law Quarterly Review
OUCLJ Oxford University Commonwealth Law Journal
PER/PELJ Potchefstroom Elektroniese Regstydskrif/Potchefstroom Electronic
Law Journal
S Afr J Philos South African Journal of Philosophy
SACJ South African Journal of Criminal Justice
SAJHR South African Journal on Human Rights
SALJ South African Law Journal
SAPR/PL Suid-Afrikaanse Publiekreg/South African Public Law
Stell LR Stellenbosch Law Review
THRHR Tydskrif vir Hedendaagse Romeins-Hollandse Reg
TRW Tydskrif vir Regswetenskap/Journal for Juridical Science
TSAR Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg/Journal of South African Law
xiii
Contents
Page
Preface ................................................................................................................................ v
Contributors to the Fifth Edition ........................................................................................ vii
Contributors to the previous four editions.......................................................................... ix
Abbreviations ..................................................................................................................... xiii
Part 1 Legal Pluralism in South Africa

Chapter 1 The Phenomenon of Legal Pluralism .......................................................... 3
Chapter 2 Nature and Sphere of African Customary Law ........................................... 17
Chapter 3 Recognition, Application and Ascertainment of Customary Law............... 35
Chapter 4 Religious, Personal and Family Law Systems in South Africa ................... 61
Part 2 African Customary Law

Chapter 5 Family Law .................................................................................................. 79
Chapter 6 Law of Property ........................................................................................... 117
Chapter 7 Law of Contract ........................................................................................... 145
Chapter 8 Law of Delict ............................................................................................... 159
Chapter 9 Law of Succession and Inheritance ............................................................. 177
Chapter 10 Traditional Leadership and Governance...................................................... 207
Chapter 11 Traditional Courts and other Dispute Resolution Mechanisms ................... 243
Part 3 Personal, Religious and Family Law Systems in South Africa

(Hindu, Jewish and Muslim Personal Law)
Chapter 12 Hindu Personal Law .................................................................................... 271
Chapter 13 Jewish Personal Law ................................................................................... 313
Chapter 14 Muslim Personal Law .................................................................................. 345
Bibliography...................................................................................................................... 383
Table of Statutes ............................................................................................................... 405
Table of Cases ................................................................................................................... 419
Index .................................................................................................................................. 429
xv
Part
1
Legal Pluralism in South Africa
1
The Phenomenon of Legal Pluralism
Page
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 5
1.2 Theoretical overview .................................................................................................. 6
1.2.1 Narrow interpretation: State-law pluralism (weak legal pluralism or
official legal pluralism) ................................................................................... 6
1.2.2 Broad interpretation: Deep legal pluralism (strong, unofficial or
non-state legal pluralism) ................................................................................ 7
1.3 Historical emergence of state-law pluralism in South Africa .................................... 7
1.4 Historical emergence of deep legal pluralism in South Africa .................................. 9
1.4.1 Unofficial customary law ................................................................................ 9
1.4.2 Islamic law ...................................................................................................... 10
1.4.3 Hindu law ........................................................................................................ 11
1.4.4 Jewish law ....................................................................................................... 11
1.4.5 People’s law .................................................................................................... 12
1.5 State-law pluralism in South Africa today ................................................................. 12
1.6 Deep legal pluralism in South Africa today ............................................................... 14
1.6.1 Unofficial customary law ................................................................................ 14
1.6.2 Islamic law ...................................................................................................... 14
1.6.3 People’s law .................................................................................................... 15
1.7 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 16
3
Chapter 1: The Phenomenon of Legal Pluralism 5
1.1 Introduction
South Africa has a multicultural society in which various legal systems are observed. Although
legal effect is given to certain institutions of, for example, the Hindu and Muslim communities,
customary law1 is the law that was originally applicable in this country and the only legal system
other than the Western system2 which is, albeit to a limited extent, officially recognised. Legal
pluralism exists as a result of the prevailing cultural pluralism. But what exactly this legal plural-
ism encompasses is not so clear. Narrowly interpreted, it may be construed as the coexistence of
various officially recognised state laws. The term “state laws”, in the South African context,
refers to Roman-Dutch law as influenced by English law, adapted and developed through judi-
cial decisions and legislation, as well as customary law incorporated into legislation or pro-
nounced in judicial decisions, and living customary law.3
This narrow interpretation of legal pluralism, called “state-law pluralism” does not, however,
adequately explain the social reality in South Africa. It does not make provision for the various
laws which are unofficially observed. These are the laws of religious communities such as the
Hindu, Muslim and Jewish communities, as well as people’s law.4
Through the years, the existence of unofficial laws was to a large extent ignored and only
state-law pluralism was accommodated in the South African legal order. Today, however, the
courts show greater tolerance towards unofficial laws.5 Moreover, the South African Law
________________________
1 “Customary law” is used as a generic term to denote the various laws of the African indigenous people of
South Africa. The concept “indigenous peoples” has a contested meaning in South Africa. According to
Seymour-Smith (1986) 149, the term “indigenous” in the context of populations “refers to the original
inhabitants of an area which has subsequently been occupied by migrants”. History shows us that the
original inhabitants of South Africa were mainly Khoi and San people, but other African people are the
descendants of immigrants from the north of Africa (at least north of the Zambezi River). The African
people and the European immigrants (colonists) met, the Europeans moving east and north, the Africans
moving south. Both played a part in practically eradicating the Khoi and San people. The Africans and
Europeans were more or less simultaneous immigrants, each occupying specific tracts of land. They met
and clashed in the vicinity of the Kei and Great Fish Rivers. Later, when the Europeans migrated inland,
north over the Orange River and across the Drakensberg and the Vaal River, the two groups fought
numerous wars against each other for some time in order to gain supremacy and territory. For detailed
discussions of the early history of South Africa, see Muller (1990) and Kerr (1961) 1–5.
2 The common law in South Africa is characterised as “Western law” as it shares a basic intellectual and
jurisprudential tradition with other legal systems belonging to the Romano-Germanic and common-law
legal families.
3 Living customary law is the law that is followed by traditional communities. This law often conflicts with
the official customary law that is applied by the State courts or entrenched in legislation. The South African
courts are increasingly taking cognisance of living customary law. In this regard, see e.g.: Bhe v Magistrate,
Khayelitsha 2005 (1) BCLR 1 (CC); Alexkor Ltd v Richtersveld Community 2003 (12) BCLR 1301 (CC);
Shilubana v Nwamitwa 2008 (9) BCLR 914 (CC); Gumede v President of the Republic of South Africa 2009
(3) BCLR 243 (CC); Pilane v Pilane 2013 (4) BCLR 431 (CC); Ramuhovhi v President of the Republic of
South Africa 2018 (2) BCLR 217 (CC); Sigcau v Minister of Cooperative Governance and Traditional
Affairs [2018] ZACC 28 (11 September 2018); Lurhani v Premier of the Eastern Cape Provincial
Government [2018] 2 All SA 836 (ECM); Mayelane v Ngwenyama 2013 (8) BCLR 918 (CC); Jezile v S
[2015] 3 All SA 201 (WCC); Motsoatsoa v Roro [2011] 2 All SA 324 (GSJ); Ramoitheki v Liberty Group
Ltd t/a Liberty Corporate Benefits [2006] JOL 18075 (W); Nkabinde v Road Accident Fund [2001] 3 All
SA 611 (W); Mabena v Letsoalo 1998 (2) SA 1068 (T). Also see the discussion of “living and official
versions of customary law” in ch 2.
4 People’s law is generated by the community through unofficial dispute resolution institutions. This law dis-
plays many similarities to traditional customary law. See discussion of “people’s courts” in ch 11.
5 See, e.g., the decisions regarding Hindu law, Jewish law and Islamic law in chs 12 to 14. Also see the
discussion of Rautenbach (2010) Journal of Legal Pluralism 143–178 and Rautenbach (2015) 225–244.
6 Introduction to Legal Pluralism in South Africa
Reform Commission’s6 work on the recognition of Islamic personal laws, demonstrates the
state’s commitment to accommodating unofficial laws.7
This chapter provides a brief overview of the concept of legal pluralism in a theoretical con-
text with the emphasis on South Africa.
1.2 Theoretical overview

1.2.1 Narrow interpretation: State-law pluralism (weak legal pluralism or
official legal pluralism)
The concept legal pluralism may be interpreted in different ways.8 The narrow interpretation is
often based on a “dual systems”9 theory of legal pluralism. In a simplistic sense, this type of
pluralism exists where European/Western law (in South Africa referred to as the common law)
and traditional forms of law (customary law) operate in a single society and are officially recog-
nised by the state. In other words, at least two officially recognised legal systems run parallel
and interact in limited, prescribed circumstances.
The narrow concept of legal pluralism goes hand-in-hand with two jurisprudential theories of
law, namely legal positivism and centralism.
Legal positivism: The expression “legal positivism” is used in many ways, but in general its proponents
would ascribe to at least two propositions. The first one is that law can only be found in tangible or empiri-
cally observable sources such as legislation, case law and the law of old authorities. The second one flows
from the first one; if law can only be found in tangible sources, it means that law cannot be based on moral
values.10 In other words, the law as it is and not what it ought to be. If one follows this approach, only the
common law and official customary law will be regarded as law.
Legal centralism: Legal centralism is the idea that law should be state-sanctioned, uniform for everyone,
“exclusive of all other law, and administered by a single set of state institutions”.11 According to this theory,
the state has the monopoly to make laws and other, what Griffiths calls “lesser normative orderings, such as
the church, the family, the voluntary association and the economic organization”, are subordinate to the law
and institutions of the state. According to this theory, unrecognised religious legal systems are thus not
regarded as law in South Africa.
The narrow understanding of legal pluralism thus flows from the perception that law consists of
norms that are created and sanctioned by official state organs in accordance with a basic rule of
recognition.12 Laws derived from sources other than state institutions become “law properly so
called” only when they are authorised by the state. Their recognition inevitably goes hand-in-
hand with the formulation of practical rules to determine when they may be applied; when they
should be regarded as acceptable (generally when they are not repugnant to Western perceptions
of what is moral and in the public interest); how they should be ascertained; and what should
happen when there is a conflict with the national law (common law).
________________________
6 The South African Law Reform Commission’s previous title was the South African Law Commission. It
was amended on 17 January 2003 by s 8 of the Judicial Matters Amendment Act 55 of 2002.
7 See Project 59: Islamic Marriages and Related Matters (July 2003), and also the discussion in ch 4.
8 Griffiths (1986) Journal of Legal Pluralism 1–55 discusses a number of early conceptualisations of legal
pluralism. Also see the convenient overview by Menski (2006) 82–128.
9 See generally Griffiths (1998) Journal of Legal Pluralism 123, 133; Woodman (1988) Lesotho Law Journal
33, 36; Merry (1970) ICLQ 868–869.
10 Harris (1997) 16–17.
11 Griffiths (1986) Journal of Legal Pluralism 3.
12 See generally Hooker (1975) 1; Griffiths (1998) Journal of Legal Pluralism 2; Prinsloo (1994) TSAR 696.
In South Africa, the dominance of Western law dates back to the time when the colonisers
superimposed European law upon the customary legal systems. There was neither a desire by the
local people, nor any degree of consciousness and voluntariness on their part to receive foreign
law and, therefore, this process cannot be likened to the process of reception of Roman law in
Europe during the Middle Ages. Today, even though customary law is recognised by the Consti-
tution13 as a source of South African law, Western law is sometimes still regarded as the domi-
nant system and legal development is largely directed by Western values. The situation is
however rapidly changing. In Alexkor Ltd v Richtersveld Community ǣ14
While in the past indigenous law was seen through the common law lens, it must now be seen as an integral
part of our law. Like all law it depends for its ultimate force and validity on the Constitution. Its validity
must now be determined by reference not to common-law, but to the Constitution.
1.2.2 Broad interpretation: Deep legal pluralism (strong, unofficial or non-state

legal pluralism)
Deep legal pluralism regards pluralism in a wider sense; legal pluralism should be regarded as a
factual situation which exists in a society in which various legal systems are observed. Griffiths
calls this “a social state of affairs”.15 It is, in other words, a feature of a social field and not an
attribute of a legal system or legal order. Official recognition of certain legal systems and non-
recognition of others has no effect on the factual existence of legal pluralism; recognition simply
determines the status of the legal systems which are officially and unofficially observed in a
society. This type of legal pluralism is not founded upon relations of unequal power, as is the
case in state-law pluralism. The dominance of the central or state law is in fact irrelevant to the
continued existence of the unofficial laws.
Religious legal systems discussed in the third part of this book fall mainly within this category.
The followers of those religious laws (Islamic law, Hindu law and Jewish law) often adhere to
the normative authority of non-state authorities because they feel socially obliged to do so.
Although the Constitution allows for the recognition of other systems of family or personal law
under any tradition or adhered to by persons professing a particular religion, the emphasis seems
to be on state-law pluralism, because recognition remains a requirement for the existence of
those other systems of law. There are examples, however, where the courts have acknowledged
the existence of deep legal pluralism in South Africa, especially in the context of Islamic law.16
1.3 Historical emergence of state-law pluralism in South Africa

Generally speaking, state-law pluralism originated in South Africa during the second British
occupation of the Cape. Although Europeans, through missionaries and traders, had some effect
on the traditional cultures of Southern Africa long before the first British annexation of the Cape
in 1795 and even before the Dutch East India Company (DEIC) set foot on South African soil in
1652, their influence was very limited. There is no record, during this early period, of the recog-
nition of customary laws or the imposition of a European system upon the local population, and
thus no traces of any form of state-law pluralism. In addition, there was no evidence of state-law
pluralism during the Batavian control of the Cape (1652–1795).17 The DEIC had little interest in
the Southern African interior, mainly inhabited by African language speakers, but also by some
________________________
13 The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996.

14 2003 (12) BCLR 1301 (CC) para 51.
16 See Rautenbach (2010) Journal of Legal Pluralism 143–178 for a detailed discussion of this phenomenon.
Also see the discussion in chs 4 and 14.
17 The Netherlands was conquered by the Republic of France and named “The Batavian Republic” between
1803 and 1806.
groups of Khoi and San. Their main interest in this part of Africa was its strategic position. The
Company’s judicial administration of the Cape during this period was primitive and not
well ordered.18 The highest court, the Raad van Justitie which was established in 1685, as
well as all the lower courts, were initially staffed by laymen and “inexperienced” lawyers almost
until the end of the Batavian rule. It naturally follows that almost no attention was paid to the
administration of justice in the interior and there was no question of recognising the laws
observed by African language speakers. Likewise, the laws of the Khoi and the San were of little
consequence.19
As a result of the British policy that the laws of a conquered territory would remain in force
until altered by the conqueror, the change from Dutch to British rule in 1795 had no impact
on the administration of justice and it remained as it was under Batavian rule. It was only from
the second British occupation of the Cape (1806) that the application of customary law was
officially regulated for the first time.
By the middle of the 19th century, South Africa was divided into various autonomous areas –
which included British colonies (Natal and the Cape), numerous traditional kingdoms (the Zulu
and Basuto being the largest) and two Boer Republics (Transvaal and the Orange Free State).
The administrators of the various territories, to a greater or lesser extent, all aspired to “civilise”
the local population and to oust their “barbarous” laws and customs.20 Where customary law was
recognised, it was subject to the strict application of a repugnancy clause.
In the Cape, the British introduced a treaty system in 1833 whereby direct rule of the tradi-
tional communities could be avoided. The policy was to control traditional communities through
treaties with their chiefs.21 Some of these treaties may be regarded as the first formal instruments
entrenching state-law pluralism. Through the treaty system, the chiefs and their people became
British subjects and fell under the control of the Cape government, but retained their customary
laws and customs. The treaty system was abolished after 1845.
In British Kaffraria, a reserve for the local population between the Kei and Keiskamma Riv-
ers, state-law pluralism was introduced when the inhabitants were allowed to administer their
own customary laws and practise their customs, subject to the revision of colonial officials.22
The Cape Native Succession Act of 1864 and the Kaffraria Native Succession Ordinance of
1864 were the first official instruments explicitly recognising certain customary institutions.
During the first half of the 19th century, state-law pluralism was similarly introduced in Natal,
the Transvaal and the Orange Free State, when legislation giving limited recognition to custom-
ary law was promulgated. The Code of Zulu Law of 1878 was one of the most comprehensive
laws in this regard.
By 1910, customary law was recognised to some extent in all the areas which were to consti-
tute the provinces of the Union of South Africa. There was no conformity in the mass of diverse
laws which regulated customary law. The colonial legislation was eventually consolidated in the
________________________
18 Edwards (1996) 65.

19 In the Cape, the reason for this was that these people had been overpowered and dispersed by the settlers
who had moved out of the area to the Eastern Cape.
20 See Allott (1993) Law and Justice 84, 87.
21 The first such treaty was concluded between Sir Benjamin D’Urban and Andries Waterboer of the Griqua
community on 11 December 1834.
22 At a special meeting with the chiefs of the territory, their position as British subjects was explained to them.
Besides the fact that they were expected to obey the laws of England and to force their subjects to do so too,
they were to “disbelieve in and cease to tolerate or practice witchcraft in any shape”, to “acknowledge no
chief but the Queen of England and her representative”, and to “abolish the sin of buying wives”. Brookes
(1927) 33.
Black Administration Act,23 the first legislative instrument entrenching state-law pluralism for
the country as a whole.
1.4 Historical emergence of deep legal pluralism in South Africa

1.4.1 Unofficial customary law
The history of Africa and African customary law is essentially unwritten history and the main
source of information is oral tradition.24 The earliest history of this law is, consequently, fairly
difficult to trace and it is hard to establish to what extent legal pluralism existed in pre-colonial
Africa. The various Bantu speakers, the Khoi and the San, lived largely independently from each
other and within each autonomous community a single legal order prevailed. However, interac-
tion between the different communities took place, especially in the area of the present Ciskei.25
But, being unwritten history, there is insufficient evidence of the observance of more than one
legal system in a single society, or of the co-existence of heterogeneous communities with
different legal systems within a single society.
Deep legal pluralism originated somewhat earlier than state-law pluralism. It actually origi-
nated when the DEIC established a trading post in the Cape.26 From the earliest days of the
Dutch settlement, there was contact with the Khoi. The Khoi employed at the refreshment sta-
tion, like the other employees of the DEIC, were subject to the same imposed Western laws.
Although disregarded by the official state authority, the traditional communities continued to
observe their customary laws. Thus, within a single territory controlled by a central authority,
the law of the DEIC as well as the laws of the Khoi were observed.
During the British rule, the first Magistrates’ Courts were widely dispersed over large areas.
Due to a lack of police officials and military troops, the South African government was unable
to enforce the foreign official law imposed on the traditional communities and to curb the
influence of the unofficial traditional courts. Magistrates, as well as chiefs and headmen, contin-
ued to apply customary law, despite the Cape government’s policy of non-recognition of that
law.27 In addition, in the Voortrekker Republics (Transvaal and the Orange Free State) as well as
in Natal, customary courts continued to operate unofficially.
By the late 19th century, the application of unofficial customary law by magistrates and unof-
ficial customary institutions alike had become so general that the Native Laws and Customs
Commission of 188328 recommended that customary law be recognised as an uncodified system
of common law.29 However, the Cape government gave no effect to the Commission’s recom-
mendations. Magistrates and customary institutions continued to apply unofficial customary law
in civil cases between African people, whilst the Cape High Court refused to apply customary
law in the absence of statutory indication to that effect.30
________________________
23 38 of 1927. The Act was repealed in 2005 except for the provisions dealing with land tenure (ss 6 and 7)
and traditional courts (ss 12 and 20).
24 Oral traditions are unwritten communications of the past through legends, emblems, songs and poems.
25 See, in general, Hammond-Tooke (1993) 23.
26 It has to be accepted that the missionaries had converted some indigenous people to Christianity, and that
these early African Christians observed some of the Western laws introduced by the missionaries, thus
giving rise, to a very limited extent, to deep legal pluralism.
27 Brookes (1927) 181, 184.
28 Cape of Good Hope The Report and Proceedings with Appendices of the Government Commission on
Native Laws and Customs 18–20.
29 Cape of Good Hope The Report and Proceedings with Appendices of the Government Commission on
Native Laws and Customs xi–xii.
30 See Ngqobela v Sihele 10 SC 346 (1893).
There is nowadays no doubt that customary law (official and living) is constitutionally recog-
nised and thus part and parcel of state-law legal pluralism in South Africa. There is also evi-
dence that the courts are willing to apply living customary law instead of its official versions when
it is prudent to do so.31
What terminology to use:

There is an on-going debate regarding the correct terminology for describing the group of people to
customary-law rules apply. The term “black people” is a remnant of the apartheid regime and is thus regarded
as offensive. Nevertheless, legislation such as the Broad-based Black Economic Empowerment Act32 uses
the term to distinguish between people to whom the Act applies and those to whom it does not apply. In
terms of section 1 of this Act, the term “black people” is a generic term that includes “Africans, Coloureds
and Indians”. This definition has been extended by the High Court to include Chinese people.33 Another
term, “indigenous peoples”, is used in the most recent legislation dealing with customary-law issues. For
example, the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act34 refers to the “indigenous African peoples of South
Africa”.35 Although this term is also not without its complications,36 within the context of this Act it is
accepted that “indigenous African peoples” refers to South African ethnic groups traditionally grouped
together on the basis of language and other cultural features.37 The third term, “African”, is nowadays used
to refer to a certain category of black people (excluding Coloureds, Indians and Chinese). It is evidently also
the term the legislature had in mind if one considers the reference to “African peoples of South Africa” in
the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act.38 Therefore, without giving preference to any of the terms
mentioned above, the authors have used the term “African” throughout this book, unless circumstances
dictated otherwise.
1.4.2 Islamic law 39

Islamic law was introduced in South Africa as early as the 17th century. The first Muslims who
came to South Africa were soldiers employed by the DEIC in the 1650s. Although an Act of
2 August 1657 determined that they were not to be troubled about their religion, they were
prohibited, on penalty of death, from practising Islam publicly, or propagating it. Muslim slaves
from East India, as well as political prisoners who included Muslim priests, princes and rulers,
arrived in the Cape a decade later. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Muslim slaves from
Bengal, the Malabar Coast and the mainland of India formed the majority of the total slave
population in the Cape. Freedom of religion was declared by the Dutch authorities in 1804 and
the first mosque was built within a year of the second British occupation of the Cape, however,
Islamic law was never officially recognised.
During the 1860s, Muslims came to Natal to work as labourers on sugar plantations. They
soon sought other employment, and many became astute businessmen. The Natal Muslims did
not experience the same kind of hardship as the Cape Muslims, and it was easier for them to
________________________
31 See the discussion of living customary law in ch 2.

32 53 of 2003.
33 Chinese Association of South Africa v The Minister of Labour [2008] ZAGPHC 174 (18 June 2008).
34 120 of 1998.
35 See the definition of “customary law” in s 1 of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act 120 of 1998.
36 See the discussion of “indigenous peoples” in ch 2 of this book.
37 See the discussion in ch 2 of this book.
38 120 of 1998.
39 See generally Hacq Nadvi “Towards the recognition of Islamic personal law” in Sanders (ed) (1990) for an
exposition of the history of Islamic law in South Africa. Also see ch 14 for a discussion of Muslim personal
law.
practise their personal law and religion. Yet, even in Natal, their law was not officially recognised.
1.4.3 Hindu law40

Like the Muslims, Hindus from India came to the British colony of Natal to work on the sugar
cane plantations during the 1860s, and Hinduism was introduced into South Africa. However,
these were not the only Hindus who came to South Africa. There was also a small group of
so-called “passenger Indians”, who came at their own expense as traders or merchants under the
ordinary immigration laws.
The first Hindus brought with them their religion and concomitant personal laws. Early
reports documented their struggle for areas in which temples could be erected and for holidays
to celebrate religious festivals. In 1862, it was reported by the Methodist Mission that they had
begun to celebrate their customary festivals. An important method of transmitting Hindu culture
was by example and through storytelling at home. Thus, from the earliest times, private rituals
played a pivotal role in the preservation of Hindu culture and laws. In 1891, all Indians were
prohibited by law from entering or living in the Republic of the Orange Free State. The arrival of
Mahatma Gandhi in 1893 inaugurated a period of Indian political activism and the struggle for
basic human rights.
It was only in 1905, almost half a century after their first arrival in Natal, that the first Hindu
preacher, Bhai Parmanand, came to South Africa. In later years, other prominent Hindu intellec-
tuals followed, all of whom contributed to the strengthening of Hindu law and culture in South
Africa. In 1920, all Indians were removed from the voter’s roll and their freedom of movement,
domicile and trading opportunities were severely curtailed. Indian personal laws were so insig-
nificantly regarded that Muslim and Hindu laws were often mentioned as if they were the same –
not only in academic writing, but also by the courts.
Severe social, political, economic and cultural pressure, as well as their effective isolation
from India until the advent of a new constitutional dispensation in South Africa, could not
suppress Hinduism in this country. Today, Hindus comprise approximately 60% of the Indian
population in South Africa, but Hindu law is not a recognised legal system.
1.4.4 Jewish law 41

Jews first entered South Africa as early as 1669.42 However, since the DEIC had a policy of
employing only Protestant Christians and because Christianity was the only public religion
permitted in the Cape, many Jews converted to Christianity. During the early 1820s, large num-
bers of Jewish settlers came to South Africa from England, Germany and Holland, some arriving
with the British settlers. During the 1860s, when diamonds were discovered, and during the
1880s gold rush, there was a considerable influx of Jewish immigrants, especially from Eastern
Europe.
Like other religious minority groups in South Africa, the Jews experienced much discrimina-
tion. Yet their position differed from, for example, the Hindus and Muslims, since they belonged
to the privileged “white classes”. During the 1880s, anti-Semitic propaganda led to much
________________________
40 See generally Sooklal “The Hindu diaspora. Challenge of the South African context” in Platvoet, Cox and
Olupona (eds) (1996) 332–342. Also see ch 12 for a discussion of Hindu personal law.
41 See generally Hellig “The study of Judaism in Africa” in Platvoet, Cox and Olupona (eds) (1996) 354–355;
Hellig “The Jewish community in South Africa” in Prozesky and De Grunchy (eds) (1995) 160–173. Also
see ch 13 for a discussion of Jewish personal law.
42 The Lemba should not be overlooked in the history of Judaism in Southern Africa. The Lemba are a group
of Jews who migrated from Ethiopia to Southern Africa many centuries ago, and who claim to be a lost
tribe of Israel. Interestingly, the Lemba still observe traditional Judaic laws and rituals.
prejudice against the Jews, but they were never prevented from practising their religion.43 In
fact, the first Jewish synagogue was established in Cape Town in 1884.
The Jewish community has been subjected to various discriminatory laws, for example the
Immigration Act of 1902, which determined that immigrants should be able to write their dis-
embarkation application in Roman (European) characters, which was aimed at curbing the influx
of both Asians and European Jews, who spoke Yiddish and wrote in Hebrew. In the 1930s,
further legislation, notably the Immigration Quota Act44 and the Aliens Act,45 virtually put a halt
to the immigration of Jews to South Africa. Yet, there was never any official anti-Semitic
government policy, and nationalist state policies which encouraged separateness made it pos-
sible for the Jews to maintain their identity and observe their religion and laws, though their
laws were never officially recognised.
1.4.5 People’s law

People’s law developed in urban areas populated mainly by African people in reaction to the
lack of legitimacy of the official legal order of the state.46 Class contradictions, the inefficiency
of the existing justice system, a lack of legal resources and access to justice, as well as economic
factors, played a role in the emergence of people’s law and popular justice.47
Informal structures for the administration of justice came in a variety of forms. The earliest
known48 unofficial urban institution with dispute-settlement functions was the Uitvlugt Commit-
tee which was formed in 1901 in the first Cape Town township, Uitvlugt.49 By the 1950s,
informal courts, which seem to have existed even prior to that time, were reportedly run by the
Cape African Congress50 in most Western Cape townships. In the single-sex hostels for male
migrant workers of the Langa township, unofficial courts came to the fore in the early 1950s.
The urban communities continued establishing informal dispute-settlement structures which
applied an adapted urbanised customary law.51
1.5 State-law pluralism in South Africa today

As indicated, in South Africa, state law consists of a Western component and an African com-
ponent. The Western component comprises the common law,52 legislation, judicial precedent
and custom (not African customary law) which developed within the framework of the Roman-
Dutch/English common law.
________________________
43 In the Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek (ZAR) (the former Transvaal, presently Gauteng), e.g., Jews suffered
discrimination, not on anti-Semitic grounds but because they were regarded as “uitlanders” (foreigners).
One of the first campaigners for Jewish and Catholic equality was Rabbi Dr Joseph Hertz, who was
expelled from the ZAR for his support of the uitlander cause.
44 8 of 1930.
45 1 of 1937.
46 See generally Hund and Kotu-Rammopo (1983) CILSA 179, 205; Burman and Schärf (1990) Law and
Society Review 693, 706; Schärf (1990) 8; Van Niekerk (1994) De Jure 23.
47 For example, court procedure was conducted in an unfamiliar language; interpreters who had to be relied on
were often inaccurate and unreliable in their interpretation; legal representation became too costly;
unfamiliar highly technical procedure was followed; foreign Western law was applied; and the
“winner-takes-all” philosophy of that law was foreign to customary procedures.
48 The only comprehensive study of the development of unofficial dispute-settlement structures in urban areas,
which spans the 20th century, was done by Burman and Schärf on the townships of the Cape Town area.
49 Burman and Schärf (1990) Law and Society Review 697.
50 A branch of the African National Congress.
51 Also see the discussion of “people’s courts” in ch 11.
52 It is generally accepted that Roman-Dutch law, as influenced by English law and adapted and developed
through judicial decisions and legislation, is the common law of South Africa.
The African component comprises official customary law, that is, customary law incorporated
into legislation, or pronounced in judicial decisions as well as a body of substantive customary
law (living law) which has not been explicitly included in legislation or confirmed by the courts.
In terms of section 211(3) of the Constitution and section 1(1) of the Law of Evidence Amend-
ment Act,53 this body of law would include all customary law which is readily ascertainable with
sufficient certainty (in authoritative texts), not opposed to the Western perceptions of natural
justice and public policy and not in conflict with the Constitution.54 Its application is subject to
legislation which deals with customary law.55 Whether such laws are applicable in specific
circumstances will be determined by choice of laws rules.56
In spite of the fact that customary law is regarded as a source of South African law in terms of
the Constitution, its status remains problematic. The work of the South African Law Reform
Commission on harmonising customary law and common law, the promulgation of new legisla-
tion,57 as well as the decisions of the high courts and Constitutional Court, indicate that the state
is aware of the need to strengthen the position of customary law and to accommodate unofficial
laws in the state legal order. Overtly, there seems to be a commitment, at least to state-law plura-
lism. Yet, a closer look at some legal developments reveals a movement towards a forced con-
vergence of common law and customary law – a blending of the various systems of law into a
new unified law, within a framework of Western values. A number of examples exist in this
regard.
In a discussion paper on customary law of succession, which was issued in August 2000, the
Law Reform Commission observed that “the fact of legal and cultural diversity in this country,
. . . is a reality that the Constitution demands we respect” and recommended that “legal dualism”
be retained.58 However, the Commission stated that its recommendations were aimed at an
assimilation of common law and customary law into one legal system. These comments seem to
set as the goal the unification of the two systems into a single converged system, rather than the
preservation of legal pluralism.
In addition, the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act59 which, for the first time in South
African legal history, gave official recognition to customary marriages, evidences a movement
towards the common law. The dominance of Western values is apparent in the imposition of the
antenuptial contract, Western concepts of divorce and division of property.60
Another example can be found in Bhe v Magistrate, Khayelitsha,61 where the Constitutional
Court (by a majority) declared the rule of male primogeniture in customary law of intestate
succession to be unconstitutional. It chose to strike it down rather than retain the rule and develop
it in line with the Constitution.62
________________________
53 45 of 1988.
54 See generally Bennett (2004) 44–49 for a discussion of the proof and ascertainment of customary law.
55 As such, customary law which is found to be discriminatory in terms of the Promotion of Equality and Pre-
vention of Unfair Discrimination Act 4 of 2000 will not form part of state law. See generally Pieterse
(2000) SALJ 627.
56 See ch 2 for a discussion of some of the choice of law rules.
57 See Bennett (2004) 96–98 for a discussion of the work of the South African Law Reform Commission and
of legislation.
58 South African Law Commission Project 90: Discussion paper 93 (2000) 13.
59 120 of 1998.
60 See generally Church (1999) Fundamina 8, 13.
61 2005 (1) BCLR 1 (CC).
62 In a dissenting judgment, Ngcobo J in paras 212 and 215 said that customary law is part of South African
law and should be developed rather than struck down.
In 1996, the recommendations of the Law Reform Commission investigation63 into Jewish
divorce laws culminated in the integration of Jewish personal laws into the Divorce Act64 by the
inclusion of section 5A. The aim of this provision is to achieve equality between women and
men in Jewish marriages.65 It gives the courts the power to refuse a decree of divorce in terms of
the Western law if one of the parties will be prevented, by a religious law, from marrying again.
1.6 Deep legal pluralism in South Africa today

The remarkable resistance to Western influences, not only of customary law, but also of Islamic,
Jewish and Hindu cultural institutions, is evidenced by the fact that these laws and institutions
are today still widely observed even though they are not officially recognised.
1.6.1 Unofficial customary law

State regulation, which often resulted in distortion, could not suppress the natural development
of customary law and its institutions.66 The unofficial application of customary law by both
official and unofficial institutions bears witness to the tenacity of customary law and to its
inherent ability to adapt to changing circumstances without losing its customary character.
Today, there are many informal dispute-settlement institutions such as family councils and
regimental and/or age-group institutions which settle disputes out of court and apply living
customary law. The courts of the ward heads67 are traditional administrative and judicial tribunals
which function unofficially in rural areas. It is not only these unofficial institutions that apply
living customary law – in addition, the official traditional authority courts sometimes act as
unofficial tribunals. This happens when they adjudicate upon cases that fall outside the jurisdic-
tion laid down by legislation and apply the living customary law.
The courts are more often recognising the fact that official customary law has fallen out of
step with the changing needs of the society it serves and that there is a widening divergence of
the living customary law and the official version that is applied by the state courts.68 In the
dissenting judgment in Bhe v Magistrate, Khayelitsha,69 the judge pointed out that official
customary law should be brought in line with the living customary law, and in Mabena v Letsoalo,70
the court gave effect to living Pedi law, confirming that a woman could be the head of a family
and receive lobolo.
1.6.2 Islamic law

The courts are increasingly tolerant towards Islamic personal laws.71 Yet, guided by an ethos of
legal positivism, the courts still shy away from giving recognition to institutions which are not
consonant with Western values. In Amod v Multilateral Motor Vehicle Accident Fund,72 the
court granted relief to the plaintiff by giving effect to a contract flowing from a marriage con-
cluded according to Islamic rites, but explicitly declined to recognise a Muslim marriage (which
________________________
63 South African Law Commission Project 76: Working paper 45 (1992).

64 70 of 1979. Also see discussion of “divorce” in ch 13.
65 In Jewish law, a wife cannot remarry unless her husband grants her a religious divorce. See the discussion
of the practical application of s 5A by Heaton (2010) 120–122.
66 Also see the discussion in ch 14.
67 See in general, e.g., Myburgh and Prinsloo (1985) 15, 112–115.
68 See Bhe v Magistrate, Khayelitsha 2005 (1) BCLR 1 (CC) paras 81, 152 and 153.
69 2005 (1) BCLR 1 (CC).
70 1998 (2) SA 1068 (T); see further Mbatha (2002) SAJHR 259, 278; Mbodla (1999) TSAR 742.
71 See Rautenbach “The Contribution of the Courts in the Integration of Muslim Law into the Mixed Fabric of
South African Law” in Mattar, Palmer and Koppel (eds) (2015) 225–244 for examples.
72 1999 (4) SA 1319 (SCA).
is potentially polygynous) as a marriage. In Daniels v Campbell,73 the Constitutional Court

declared that the word “spouse” as used in the Intestate Succession Act74 includes the surviving
partner to a monogamous Muslim marriage, and that the word “survivor” as used in the Mainte-
nance of Surviving Spouses Act75 includes the surviving partner to a monogamous Muslim
marriage. In Hassam v Jacobs,76 the meanings of “spouse” and “surviving partner” were extended
to polygynous Muslim marriages.
The status of Islamic personal law came under the official scrutiny of the South African Law
Reform Commission for the first time some 14 years ago, when the nature of Islamic law and the
conflict between Islamic law and the common law were investigated. The transformation to a
constitutional democracy in the early 1990s and the constitutional entrenchment of religious
freedom sparked a renewed effort to recognise aspects of Islamic personal law. This culminated
in the 2003 report by the South African Law Reform Commission, Islamic Marriages and
Related Matters, which contained a draft Bill recognising Muslim marriages. In 2010 an amended
Bill was published to invite public comments but to date no legislation has been enacted.77 In
2009, the Women’s Legal Centre Trust applied for a Constitutional Court order declaring that
the president and parliament have failed to fulfil their obligations to prepare, initiate, enact and
implement an Act to recognise Muslim marriages, but they failed.78 Recently, the Trust tried
again in the Western Cape High Court in Women’s Legal Centre Trust v President of the Repub-
lic of South Africa.79 This time the court ordered the State to prepare, initiate, introduce, enact
and bring into operation legislation within the next 24 months to recognise Muslim marriages in
South Africa.80 Should this happen, Islamic law will become part of state law.
1.6.3 People’s law

Urban communities developed a unique mode of social ordering which resulted in the develop-
ment of a system of justice rooted in traditional Africa but adapted to the needs of urban life. In
the Western Cape during the 1960s and 70s, civic structures acted as unofficial courts, and in the
latter half of the 1970s, the makgotla81 gained prominence in the Pretoria-Witwatersrand area.
People’s courts made their appearance in early 1985 and were forced underground within a year
of their inception.82 By mid-1986, there was at least one people’s court in operation in every
African township in South Africa.
People’s courts were instituted as alternative structures to substitute state institutions which
were regarded as instruments of the apartheid regime, used to enforce apartheid laws. In the late
1980s, a process of restructuring the people’s courts emerged in many townships. This process
went hand-in-hand with the renaming of the courts in an attempt to rid them of the stigma of
violence attached to them through the abuse of the revolutionary concept of people’s power by
________________________
73 2004 (7) BCLR 735 (CC), 2004 (5) SA 331 (CC) para 56.
74 81 of 1987.
75 27 of 1990.
76 2009 (5) SA 572 (CC).
77 Draft Muslim Marriages Bill (X-2011). The closing date for comments was 15 March 2011.
78 Women’s Legal Trust v President of the Republic of South Africa 2009 (6) SA 94 (CC). The court refused to
grant them direct access to the Constitutional Court because it is not a court of first and last instance and the
trust should have exhausted its litigation options first. The court added, however, that “it is important to
emphasise once again that this outcome does not reflect on the substance of the claim that the President and
Parliament are under a duty to enact the legislation in question.” See para 31.
79 [2018] ZAWCHC 109 (31 August 2018).
80 Para 252. The order was delivered on 31 August 2018. Also see the discussion in ch 4.
81 Makgotla is the plural of lekgotla, which literally means “a gathering”. In this context, the term makgotla
refers to the unofficial customary courts that developed in some areas.
82 In terms of the Emergency Regulations Proclamation 109 of 1986.
the marginalised youth, when the responsible leadership was detained. Generally, the new courts
came to be called “community courts”.
These institutions were impossible to dislocate. Their official regulation or incorporation into
the state justice system was considered for the first time in 1997 by the South African Law
Reform Commission.83 At that stage, the Commission seemed to be in favour of an integrated,
regulated system of justice, not the superimposition of the Western model. It recognised that
“[c]ommunity courts are a fact of life” and stated, among others, the objectives “to assist in
transforming the formal structures by introducing customary models” and “to strengthen popular
justice further by introducing alternative dispute resolution models”.84 In 1999, the South Afri-
can Law Reform Commission issued a discussion paper on traditional courts and the judicial
function of traditional leaders.85 In this discussion paper, it was recommended that traditional
courts, presided over by traditional leaders, either continue to operate in the rural areas where
they were established or become informal arbitration tribunals while special customary courts
take their place in the current justice system. It was further recommended that community courts
be established in metropolitan areas where there are no traditional leaders.
It is apparent that these recommendations are aimed at an accessible system based on restora-
tive participatory justice. Thus, the retention of some customary characteristics of dispute resolu-
tion is envisaged, namely, no legal representation, the participation of all adults by asking ques-
tions or giving opinions and the application of customary rules of evidence and procedure, based
on the principles of natural justice. Importantly, it is also recommended that the repugnancy
clause be repealed.86
However, the recommendations of the South African Law Reform Commission were not
implemented and to date these institutions continue to operate unofficially.
1.7 Conclusion
Legal pluralism is a reality of the South African legal order. Customary and common law, as
well as all the other systems of personal law which are not officially recognised, should be
brought together in a relationship of equality through a process of harmonisation.
The multicultural South African society demands a system of law which will accommodate
the needs of all sectors of society – a legal system which will revolve around a core of parallel,
yet different residual sources. It is not impossible for the different legal systems which currently
apply in this country, be it officially or unofficially, to coexist in a harmonious pluralistic
relationship.
The principles of African customary law as a manifestation of official or state legal pluralism are discussed
in chapters 5 to 11, and a few religious legal systems as examples of deep legal pluralism are dealt with in
chapters 12 to 14. They include Hindu, Jewish and Muslim personal law.
________________________
83 South African Law Commission Project 94: Issue paper 8 (1997) 24. See Makgompi (2000) Codicillus 36
for a discussion of state initiatives to legitimise these courts.
84 South African Law Commission Project 94: Issue paper 8 (1997) 53 and 26 respectively.
85 South African Law Commission Project 90: Discussion paper 82 (1999). The full report was issued in 2003.
86 See generally Bennett (2004) 156 for a detailed discussion of current developments in this regard.
2
Nature and Sphere of African Customary Law
Page
2.1 Separate legal system consisting of various systems ................................................. 19
2.2 Problems of definition ................................................................................................ 19
2.2.1 Customs and usages traditionally observed .................................................... 21
2.2.2 Indigenous African people of South Africa .................................................... 22
2.2.3 “Form part of the culture of those peoples” .................................................... 23
2.3 Some key features of customary law.......................................................................... 25
2.3.1 African community government and administration ...................................... 25
2.3.2 Moments in time ............................................................................................. 25
2.3.3 Traditional authority courts and procedure ..................................................... 26
2.3.4 Marriage and family ........................................................................................ 26
2.3.5 Contract ........................................................................................................... 26
2.3.6 Concrete as opposed to abstract legal facts..................................................... 26
2.3.7 Groups rather than individuals as legal persons ............................................. 27
2.3.8 Constant change and development.................................................................. 27
2.3.9 Values and principles of customary law ......................................................... 27
2.4 Living and official versions of customary law ........................................................... 30
2.5 Sources of customary law........................................................................................... 32
2.5.1 Customs and usages ........................................................................................ 32
2.5.2 Legislation ....................................................................................................... 33
2.5.3 Judicial precedent ............................................................................................ 33
2.5.4 Scholarly and other writings ........................................................................... 33
2.6 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 34
17
Chapter 2: Nature and Sphere of African Customary Law 19
2.1 Separate legal system consisting of various systems

In chapter 1, we explained that South Africa has a multicultural society in which various legal
systems are observed. Some of these systems are officially recognised, for example customary
law, while others are not, for example the religious legal systems discussed later in this book.1
For many years, the dominant legal system in South Africa was the common law, which is a
conglomeration of transplanted Western laws (the core being Roman-Dutch law which was
subsequently influenced by the English common law).2 Customary law was merely tolerated and
viewed through a common-law lens and, in many instances, it had to take a back seat if its rules
were deemed to be against the public policy shaped by common-law ideals.
However, since 1994, customary law has been accepted as a separate legal system. Sec-
tion 211(3) of the Constitution provides that “[t]he institution, status and role of traditional
leadership, according to customary law, are recognised, subject to the Constitution.” More
importantly, the Constitution provides further that “[t]he courts must apply customary law when
that law is applicable, subject to the Constitution and any legislation that specifically deals with
customary law.” In Mthembu v Letsela,3 the High Court of South Africa confirmed that “cus-
tomary law has been accepted by the framers of the Constitution as a separate legal and cultural
system which may be freely chosen by persons desiring to do so”.
This means that the current South African legal system consists of two officially recognised
legal systems, namely the common law and customary law. In Gumede v The President of the
Republic of South Africa,4 the Constitutional Court confirmed that customary law “lives side by
side with the common law and legislation”.
It is further important to note that “customary law” refers to something which is, in actual
fact, not a unified system of law. South African customary law consists of the various “customs
and usages traditionally observed among the indigenous African people of South Africa and
form[s] part of the culture of those peoples”.5 In other words, there are various customary legal
systems in operation in our country. Nevertheless, there are enough common features of these
legal systems which may be discussed together, for instance the principles applicable to custom-
ary marriages and succession. Where differences between the systems are material to the resolu-
tion of issues, knowledge of the common features will facilitate application of the legal rules.
It should be clear that the coexistence of more than one legal system in one legal order is
complicated and fairly problematic, and some of the issues and challenges facing South Africa
will be dealt with in the next few chapters.
2.2 Problems of definition

Finding a workable legal definition of customary law is one of the first issues that need to be
addressed. Earlier definitions focused on how customs “bind” members of a particular cultural
________________________
1 Some authors share the viewpoint that customary law is also a religious system because it is difficult to
separate between legal, religious and cultural rules. See Mqeke (2003) 3–4. Nevertheless, for the purpose of
this book, customary law will be viewed as a separate legal system based on culture.
2 One of the features of the South African legal system is the fact that it is largely uncodified. Every lawyer
knows that he or she has to consult various sources to find the law. These sources include legislation,
precedent, old authorities (Roman-Dutch law), custom, customary law, modern legal textbooks and the
supreme Constitution. See 2.5 for a discussion of the sources of customary law in South Africa.
3 1997 (2) SA 936 (T) 944B–C.
4 2009 (3) SA 152 (CC).
5 See s 1 of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act 120 of 1998 under the lemma “customary law”.
All references to the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act in this chapter will be to this Act unless
indicated otherwise.
group to the exclusion of outsiders. In the words of Hamnett,6 customary law can be described as
“a set of norms which the actors in a social situation abstract from practice and which they
invest with binding authority”.
In a similar vein, Bennett7 explains that customary law “derives from social practices that the
community concerned accepts as obligatory”. However, the legal rules are not cast in stone.
Bennett8 explains this as follows:
Systems of custom therefore have the remarkable ability to allow forgotten rules to sink into oblivion, while
simultaneously accepting new rules to take their place, always on the understanding that the new is old.
The first statutory definition of customary law in South Africa is found in the Law of Evidence
Amendment Act,9 which defines “indigenous law” as “the law of custom as applied by the Black
tribes in South Africa”. This definition still appears in statute books, but it should be clear that
its reference to race is objectionable and, therefore, it should either be scrapped or changed to
reflect the democratic values of human dignity, equality and freedom.
In 1998, the South African Law Reform Commission (formerly known as the South African
Law Commission)10 introduced a new definition that discarded any reference to the obligatory
nature of customary law. This definition was incorporated into the Recognition of Customary
Marriages Act11 and reads:
. . . ‘customary law’ means the customs and usages traditionally observed among the indigenous African
peoples of South Africa and which form part of the culture of those peoples.
The same definition was included in the Reform of Customary Law of Succession and Regula-
tion of Related Matters Act.12 For legal purposes, the definition is void of meaning, unless one
knows (a) what the relevant customs and usages are; (b) who the indigenous people are; and (c)
what their culture is.
The “customs and usages” of the indigenous people will be described in the relevant parts of
this book. Some of the customs are unwritten and others have been embedded in legislation, for
example the lobolo custom, which is seen as a ubiquitous cultural phenomenon still practised in
rural and urban areas. Lobolo is defined in the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act13 as:
. . . property in cash or in kind, whether known as lobolo, bogadi, bohali, xuma, lumalo, thaka, ikhazi,
magadi, emabheka or by any other name, which a prospective husband or the head of his family undertakes
to give to the head of the prospective wife’s family in consideration of a customary marriage.
The entrenchment of some of the customs and usages into legislation gave rise to the debate on
whether customary law should be made into a fixed legal system by means of codification or
whether it should continue as an ever-changing or “living” legal system.14
The expression “indigenous law” is sometimes used in legal literature instead of “customary
law”, especially in earlier scholarly sources and other legislation.15 Although “customary law”
and “indigenous law” are used as synonyms in South African law, the first is preferred, since it
is also the expression used in the Constitution.16
________________________
6 Hamnett (1977) 14.

7 Bennett (2004) 1.
8 Bennett (2004) 2.
9 45 of 1988, s 1(4). All references to “this Act” in the rest of this chapter are to the Law of Evidence Amend-
ment Act, unless indicated otherwise.
10 South African Law Commission Project 90: Report on customary marriages (1998) 43 and also cl 1 of the
Recognition of Customary Marriages Bill included in the Report.
11 Section 1.
12 Section 1 of Act 9 of 2009. The Act came into operation on 20 September 2010. See the discussion in ch 9.
13 Section 1 under the lemma “lobolo”. See ch 3 for a discussion thereof.
14 See 2.4 for a discussion.
15 For example, s 1(1) of the Law of Evidence Amendment Act.
16 For example, s 211(3) of the Constitution.
Another issue that needs to be highlighted is “Who are the “indigenous African peoples”. In
other words, who is bound by customary law? It is generally accepted that “indigenous African
people” refers to the black African population only, but how are black Africans to be distin-
guished from other population groups without reference to race? These questions have led to an
academic debate on the scope and implications of the definition of customary law. On the one
hand, it is argued that customary law applies on the basis of race17 and, on the other hand, it is
argued that such law applies on the basis of culture.18
Furthermore, the term “indigenous” normally refers to someone’s origins; in other words, the
place where a person is originally from. Who the indigenous people of South Africa are, remains
a contentious issue. Nevertheless, for the purposes of this book, the matter will not be pursued
any further and indigenous African people are the ethnic groups traditionally grouped on the
basis of language and other cultural features.19
The third issue arising from the definition of customary law is the meaning of “culture”. The
concept “culture” is a central theme of this book and, although various provisions of the Consti-
tution relate to culture, the Constitution does not define culture.20 Bennett’s21 discussion of the
meaning of culture seems to capture the very essence of the concept, namely:
In common parlance . . . ‘culture’ implies high intellectual or artistic endeavour. . . . But ‘culture’ may also
denote a people’s entire store of knowledge and artefacts, especially the languages, systems of belief, and
laws, that give social groups their unique characters. This meaning would encompass a right to customary
law, for customary law is peculiarly African, in contrast with the law of a European origin.
Nevertheless, there is no exact definition of culture, especially in the South African context, and
further developments are envisaged.22
2.2.1 Customs and usages traditionally observed

The first element of the statutory definition of customary law is “customs and usages tradition-
ally observed”. Traditions have normally existed for a long time without changing, but this is not
necessarily the position with regard to customary law. Seymour-Smith23 states that:
. . . a set of interrelated cultural elements or traits which persist over a relatively long time span is called a
tradition . . . Modern anthropologists and ethnologists however tend not to place so much emphasis on the
centrality of the concept of tradition, since it does not allow for the essentially dynamic and adaptive nature
of socio cultural systems. As these writers have pointed out, the uncritical use of the concept of tradition
may make us fail to examine the key problem of the relationship between cultural persistence or continuity
and cultural change, a problem which is to be approached not only in terms of cultural elements in them-
selves but also in terms of the historical process of social reproduction and social change in the population
concerned.
This line of reasoning is in accordance with the viewpoint that customary law is flexible and
ever-changing, a fact that has recently also been recognised by the South African courts. In Bhe
v Magistrate, Khayelitsha,24 the Constitutional Court observed as follows: “True customary law
will be that which recognises and acknowledges the changes which continually take place”.
________________________
17 Pieterse (2001) SAJHR 373 and 381.

18 Himonga and Bosch (2000) SALJ 314–315. Also see Bennett (2004) 42.
19 See 2.2.2.
20 Sections 9(3), 30, 31(1), 185, 186 and 235 refer to culture explicitly, and ss 15(3) and 143(1)(b) have cul-
tural undertones. Also see Venter (1998) SAPR/PL 439.
21 Bennett (1995) 23–24.
22 Also see the discussion in 2.2.3.
23 Seymour-Smith (1986) 279.
24 2005 (1) BCLR 1 (CC) para 86.
In addition to socio-cultural change, the difficulty in determining true customary law has been
exacerbated by colonial-apartheid laws adapting customary law and by court judgments cast in a
Eurocentric mould. Authors have tried to distinguish between the adapted law by calling the
former “official” customary law in comparison to “living” law, which is the law actually ob-
served by the indigenous communities. The official law is easily ascertainable because it is, for
the most part, written, but the living customary law is not recorded and is, therefore, more
difficult to ascertain. To reduce living customary law to a body of rules for use by the legal
fraternity is practically impossible.25 Nevertheless, the courts have recently adopted the attitude
that the living customary law is the authentic version and the one that should be applied.26
“Tradition” can also be used in another context, namely in referring to the concept “legal tra-
dition”. Merryman27 points out that “legal tradition” refers to:
. . . a set of deeply rooted, historically conditioned attitudes about the nature of law, about the role of law in
the society and the polity, about the way law is or should be made, applied, studied, perfected and taught.
The legal tradition relates the legal system to the culture of which it is a partial expression. It puts the legal
system into cultural perspective.
If this is what legal tradition means, it is easy to see why the legal systems of the various cultural
groups are different. In order to understand these systems, one has to study, teach and apply their
rules within their own unique perspectives. Mqeke28 is of the opinion that it would not be wrong
to refer to an African legal tradition as opposed to a Western legal tradition, in spite of the fact
that customary law consists of multiple legal systems that have, over the years, been influenced
by colonialism, globalism, Western norms and other factors. According to Mqeke, African legal
tradition has a number of common characteristics that include oral traditions (customs and
usages), communalism, collective responsibility, flexibility, reconciliation, symbolism and non-
separation between law, religion and morality. All these characteristics together form a body of
tradition which he calls the African legal tradition.29 African legal tradition also ties in with the
concept of ubuntu and other African values, which will be discussed later in this chapter.30
Mqeke’s viewpoint is also in accordance with the viewpoint of the Constitutional Court that
customary law must not be viewed through a common-law lens, but be regarded as an integral
part of South African law.31
That said, it is important to point out that the right to practice one’s culture is recognised in
sections 30 and 31 of the Constitution.
2.2.2 Indigenous African people of South Africa

As already hinted above, the second element of the statutory definition of customary law refers
to the “indigenous African people of South Africa”. In the definitions above, the term is quali-
fied by adding that the “people” are those of South Africa. Black Africans from other African
countries would therefore not qualify as indigenous people of South Africa.
As already pointed out, black Africans are usually grouped on the basis of language and other
cultural features such as clothing.32
________________________
25 Bekker and Maithufi (1992) TRW 47–60. Also see the discussion at 2.4.
26 See the discussion at 2.4.
27 Merryman (1985) 3.
28 Mqeke (2003) 16.
29 Mqeke (2003) 16–27.
30 See 2.3.12.
31 Alexkor Ltd v Richtersveld Community 2003 (12) BCLR 1301 (CC) para 51. Also see Pharmaceutical
Manufacturers Association of SA: In re Ex Parte President of the Republic of South Africa 2000 (2) SA 674
(CC) para 44; Mabuza v Mbatha 2003 (4) SA 218 (C) para 32.
Based on their languages and other cultural features, black Africans of South Africa can be
classified into the following ethnic groups:
33 34
Groups Language Original settlement in South Africa
Nguni group
Zulu isiZulu KwaZulu-Natal
Xhosa isiXhosa Eastern Cape
Swazi siSwati Mpumalanga
Ndebele isiNdebele Mpumalanga and Limpopo
Tsonga group (sometimes referred to as the Shangaan)
Tsonga Xitsonga Limpopo
Sotho group
Pedi Sepedi Limpopo
Sotho Sesotho Free State and Eastern Cape
Tswana Setswana North-West
Venda group
Venda Tshivenda Limpopo
The customs and legal systems of the various groups differ in some respects. Yet, there are many
similarities between the groups, to the extent that their rules of law may be discussed together,
for instance, all of them recognise a male family head that is responsible for the care and
maintenance of the whole family and that a marriage is a union between two families.
2.2.3 “Form part of the culture of those peoples”

The third element of the statutory definition is the provision that the customs and usages tradi-
tionally observed by indigenous African people have to “form part of the culture of those peo-
ples”.35 Culture is one of the most contested concepts in scholarly literature and has been the
subject of deliberations by mainly cultural anthropologists for many years. Legal scholars, too,
have a deep interest in the concept owing to the national and international legal protection of the
right to culture and have also struggled to find a legally relevant and all-encompassing definition
for culture.36 This has given rise to a vast amount of research and legal commentaries which
would be impossible to discuss fully within the confines of this book.
________________________
32 There are numerous publications on the origins, classification and distribution of African people in South
Africa. The following are two of them: Bruwer (1956) and Levitas (1983).
33 In terms of s 6(1) of the Constitution, the official languages of South Africa are Sepedi, Sesotho, Setswana,
siSwati, Tshivenda, Xitsonga, Afrikaans, English, isiNdebele, isiXhosa and isiZulu.
34 Nowadays, vast numbers of the various ethnic groups are dispersed all over the country, but the majority is
still settled in these provinces. They have also intermingled with other groups by marriage and social inter-
action and it is becoming more and more difficult to draw clear lines between the various groups.
35 Rights to culture are also protected in terms of ss 6 (language), 30 (language and culture), 31 (cultural
communities) and 185 (Commission for the Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Cultural, Religious
and Linguistic Communities).
36 See Rautenbach, Jansen van Rensburg and Pienaar (2003) PER/PELJ 1–19.
To date, a few useful attempts have been made to define culture. Anthropologists continue to
advance numerous definitions and explain what they mean. For the purpose of showing what
“culture” means in the context of the definition of customary law, the following succinct
description seems to be adequate:37
. . . when we speak of culture we mean a way of life that is common to a group of people, a collection of
beliefs and attitudes, shared understandings, and patterns of behaviour that allow people to live in relative
harmony, but set them apart from other people.
The above definition is in line with that given in 2001 by the UNESCO Universal Declaration
on Cultural Diversity. The latter definition received a good deal of attention in legal literature,
and stated that culture is:38
. . . a set of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features of society or a social group, that
encompasses, in addition to art and literature, lifestyles, ways of living together, value systems, traditions
and beliefs.
Different authors have defined culture to mean, inter alia: a collective term for aesthetical
expression (for example a sculpture) by means of literature, theatre, music and sculpture; ways
of living;39 a modality that identifies and binds a specific group of people;40 and a determining
source of identity that draws distinctions between people on the grounds of a number of charac-
teristics such as language, religion, beliefs and traditions.41 Bennett’s42 description of culture
acknowledges that the concept “culture” bears at least two meanings in a legal context, namely
“intellectual or artistic endeavour” and “a people’s store of knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals,
laws and customs, in other words, everything that humans acquire by virtue of being members of
a society”. A right to culture, in the context of the first meaning, implies that culture entails the
freedom to perform and practise the arts and sciences. The right to freedom of expression as
guaranteed in the Constitution is one example that comes to mind here.43 The second meaning of
culture, as argued by Bennett, is the one that is most relevant to African customary law.44
Admittedly, language is not the only criterion to determine a person’s cultural affiliations.
Personal identity is of equal importance. To determine whether somebody is an indigenous Afri-
can person, one would also have to consider descent and association. Both raise a new set of
problems. Many people are of mixed descent, having, for example, a Xhosa mother and Tswana
father. In the colonial-apartheid era, a derogatory test45 was used to determine whether someone
was a full-blooded indigenous person. If not, he/she could be regarded as an African if he/she
behaved like one. Presently, with the emphasis on culture of choice, it may be said that adopting
the ways of life of an African would be a yardstick to test whether customary law is applicable
or not. This again raises the question: what are the ways of life of an African? The Constitution
guarantees freedom of association, and nothing prevents a person of Western descent to follow
what some perceive to be an “African” lifestyle.46 Pre-ordained legal rules will probably be
inadequate to adjudicate particular identity claims.
________________________
37 Whiteford and Friedl (1992) 56.

38 See the preamble to the Declaration accessible at http://www.unesco.org.
39 Hawkes (2001) 3; World Commission for Culture and Development (1998) 14.
40 Albertyn and Goldblatt “Equality” in Woolman et al (eds) (2008 looseleaf) 35.72–73 points out that culture,
although difficult to define, “refers to the values, practices, rules and behavior of different social groups”.
41 Sections 30 and 31 of the Constitution do not refer to culture in general but to “cultural life” and “their
culture”.
42 Bennett (2004) 78–79. Also see Bennett (1995) 23–24.
43 Section 16(1)(c) reads: “Everyone has the right to freedom of expression, which includes – freedom of
artistic creativity”.
44 Bennett (2004) 78–79.
45 The test was a discretionary judgment based on a number of factors such as colour, family relations and any
other evidence that could be relevant in making the determination.
46 Section 18 of the Constitution.
Be that as it may, for practical purposes, it may be assumed that language and personal identity
may be sufficient to identify a person as a member of the “indigenous African peoples”, and
disputes will have to be resolved on an ad hoc basis.
A moment’s reflection will show that different people have distinct ways of life. The lan-
guages, eating habits, marriage customs and inheritance rules of the Germans and Japanese are
clearly different. Many different kinds of behaviour are shared by all, no matter where they are
in the world, but there are, all the same, many fundamental differences. One outstanding exam-
ple is that Western families are nuclear (husband, wife and children), whereas African families
are generally extended to include even distant relatives.
Lawyers should therefore have no problem in identifying “culture” when it is in issue. A real
danger, though, is that lawyers steeped in Western legal systems (as is predominantly the case in
South Africa) will unwittingly have an ethnocentric view of customary law. This is the belief
that one’s own patterns of behaviour are the best.47
2.3 Some key features of customary law

Lawyers and students alike often fail to understand customary law, the reason being that they do
not appreciate that the premises on which it is based are different from other legal systems. The
following is a selection of some key features of customary law. Where appropriate, comparison
with the common law is drawn in order to illustrate the uniqueness of customary law.
How, then, does one go about studying customary law? Myburgh48 explains that the two sys-
tems of law are comparable in one important respect, namely that law is closely interlinked with
the culture of the people that it regulates; in other words, law is one of the aspects of the culture
of all people. Customary law covers the same ground as and comprises similar divisions as other
legal systems, for example marriage, succession and property. If one understands the cultural
context within which the legal rules operate, one will also be able to understand the differences
and commonalities between the common and customary law.
However, lawyers trained within the Western legal traditional normally take Western cultural
norms for granted, for instance, the monogamous nature of marriage. When applying customary
law, they need to make a paradigm shift because customary marriages may be polygynous – a
fact which is normal to the cultural group within which customary law is practised but which
may be foreign to the Western lawyer.
2.3.1 African community government and administration

The apex of a traditional African community is a hereditary king or traditional leader. Although
the king and the traditional leader would normally give effect to the will of the people, they do
not operate as democratically elected functionaries such as cabinets, legislative assemblies and
trained and remunerated judges. The system functions in such a way that it allows for free
participation in making decisions that affect members of the community. This happens through
mechanisms such as khoro (in Tshivenda) and lekgotla (in Sesotho) which can be referred to as a
community gathering which normally takes place at the King’s or traditional leader’s kraal.
2.3.2 Moments in time

In other legal systems such as the common law, moments in time are often important. For
instance, there are rules determining that an action must be instituted before a certain time.
Claims and even crimes become prescribed after a certain period of time. In customary law,
________________________
47 Whiteford and Friedl (1992) 66.

48 Myburgh (1985) 98.
however, time plays a minimal role in determining when rights and duties come into existence.
The actual occurrence of the event is the crucial factor. Undue delay may, at most, affect the
credibility of the evidence.
2.3.3 Traditional authority courts and procedure

In customary courts, there are neither professional judges nor legal practitioners.49 As a matter of
fact, the principal dispute settlement bodies can hardly be called courts as commonly known.
Adult family members will ideally meet to discuss a dispute. If they do not succeed in reconcil-
ing their differences, the matter will be taken to the offending party’s headman. If the headman
does not succeed in resolving the matter, resort may be had to the senior traditional leader’s
court.50 Even though senior traditional leaders are granted civil and criminal jurisdiction,51 the
court council performs the judicial function.
The procedure in traditional authority courts is informal – it is more in the nature of mediation
or reconciliation than a trial. Reconciliation of the parties is one of the important elements of a
traditional dispute resolution system. The outcome of a case has been referred to as restorative
justice52 or even therapeutic jurisprudence.53
2.3.4 Marriage and family

In customary law, a marriage is a union of two families as opposed to simply being a special
contract between a man and a woman at common law. Representatives from both families will
negotiate the marriage, come to an agreement about lobolo, exchange gifts and participate in the
relevant ceremonies. Ultimately, and essentially, the wife is integrated in her husband’s family,
so much so that when he dies, she belongs to his family. However, the Recognition of Custom-
ary Marriages Act brought some reforms to customary marriages as traditionally known.
2.3.5 Contract
In customary law, the head of the family usually concludes contracts on behalf of his family. He
will even incur obligations under contracts entered into by members of his family with his con-
sent. This is in contrast with the position in common law, where the contracting parties them-
selves acquire rights and incur liabilities.
2.3.6 Concrete as opposed to abstract legal facts

Customary law is almost entirely based on the concrete performance of an act. Thus, a marriage
is concluded in a manner that can be observed by all concerned. The bride is actually “handed
over” to the bridegroom’s family. Also, a contract of sale is dependent upon the physical,
observable handing over of the price agreed upon in exchange for the article or goods purchased.
Although the practice of handing over the bride is also observed by the father of the bride or
another family member in some Western traditions, it is not a legal requirement for the validity
of the marriage. Furthermore, in the case of common-law contracts, it is possible to effect trans-
fer of the property without the physical handing over of the articles or goods.
________________________
49 Also see discussion in ch 11.

50 For a description see Koyana (1980) 128–134.
51 Sections 12(1)(a) and 20(1)(a) of the Black Administration Act. Also see ch 11 for a discussion of the
customary court system.
52 Skelton and Batley (2008) Acta Criminologia 49; and S v Maluleke 2008 (1) SACR 49 (T).
53 Rautenbach (2005) SAJHR 323–335.
2.3.7 Groups rather than individuals as legal persons

In customary law, the group (a family or community) constitutes a legal entity. In the field of
customary law, the family head is the representative of the legal unit (the family) who can, inter
alia, enter into contracts, acquire property and even incur liability for delicts committed by
members of the family home. The same cannot be said of common law.
The group dimension of African people is closely linked to the concept of ubuntu, which is
explained later in this chapter. In MEC for Education: KwaZulu-Natal v Pillay,54 the court
explained as follows:
The notion that ‘we are not islands unto ourselves’ is central to the understanding of the individual in Afri-
can thought. It is often expressed in the phrase umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu which emphasises ‘communality
and the inter-dependence of the members of a community’ and that every individual is an extension of oth-
ers. According to Gyekye, ‘an individual human person cannot develop and achieve the fullness of his/her
potential without the concrete act of relating to other individual persons’. This thinking emphasises the
importance of community to individual identity and hence to human dignity. Dignity and identity are insep-
arably linked as one’s sense of self-worth is defined by one’s identity. Cultural identity is one of the most
important parts of a person’s identity precisely because it flows from belonging to a community and not
from personal choice or achievement. And belonging involves more than simple association; it includes
participation and expression of the community’s practices and traditions.
In modern customary law, the position has changed to a large extent,55 the reason being that
modern living and the Constitution (in particular the Bill of Rights) inevitably brought about
emphasis on individualisation.56 Ndulo explains it well when he says that “[d]evelopment and
industrialisation have caused an irreversible breakdown in the traditional African social order.”57
More to the point, he states further that “[t]he society is now highly individualistic, competitive
and acquisitive.”58
2.3.8 Constant change and development

All legal systems are in a constant process of change and development. African individuals and
communities have undergone change as a result of modern social circumstances. Mbiti59 com-
ments on this change as follows:
Within one family or household may be found two different worlds coexisting: the children may be attend-
ing university studies, while the parents are illiterate and concerned mainly with cultivating their fields with
wooden sticks. In such a family, there are two sets of expectations, economic standards, cultural concerns
and world view.
Customary-law rules must therefore be viewed against the backdrop of the social environment
and cultures in which they apply.
2.3.9 Values and principles of customary law

Customary law is a value and principle laden system. These can also be referred to as positive
aspects of customary law.60 There is almost always a value or principle behind every practice in
customary law. Historically, the subject has not been approached from a value or principled
________________________
54 2006 (10) BCLR 1237 (N) para 53.

55 Myburgh (1985) 11.
56 For some discussion on the place of traditional African values in modern Africa see Gyekye (1996) 171–178.
57 Ndulo (1995) 92. These remarks were cited with approval by Ngcobo J in a minority judgment in Bhe v
Magistrate, Khayelitsha 2005 (1) SA 580 (CC) para 189.
58 Ndulo (1995). See, further, para 2.4 below on this topic.
59 Mbiti (1969) 218–219 [1990 2nd ed].
60 See comments of the Constitutional Court in Bhe v Magistrate, Khayelitsha 2005 (1) SA 580 (CC) para 45
which seem to support this.
perspective for various reasons primarily linked to its vilification, distortion and marginalisation
by the colonial and apartheid authorities.61 The values and principles behind customary law
practices have to be unearthed and interrogated in order to ensure a sustainable development of
the system. According to the Constitutional Court, we need to interpret customary law in its own
setting instead of seeing it through the prism of the common law or other systems.62 This setting
must include the values and principles of customary law.
One does not need to look too far to isolate some of the values and principles of customary
law. Some of the judgments of the Constitutional Court attempt to isolate some of these values
and principles. A good example is the Bhe judgment63 which isolated the following positive
aspects/values of customary law:
• inherent flexibility;
• consensus seeking;
• prevention and resolution of disputes and disagreements;
• unity of family structures and fostering of cooperation and a sense of responsibility;64
• obligation to care for family members;65
• perpetuation of the family;66 and
• nurturing of communitarian traditions such as ubuntu.67
A lot has been and can be said about ubuntu as a value. Any discussion about African values in
South Africa without reference to ubuntu will be incomplete. The African concept of ubuntu is a
value-laden concept and has drawn a fair amount of criticism and praise. What does ubuntu
mean and what is its importance for customary law in South Africa? It is difficult, if not impos-
sible, to answer these two questions in a tangible way. The term ubuntu carries many meanings
and, to date, it has been the topic of many controversial debates.68 However, for the purposes of
this book, an introductory discussion of the concept should suffice.69 In general, the following
values can be regarded as ubuntu values or principles:
• uBuntu refers to the key values of group solidarity, namely compassion, respect, human dig-
nity and conformity to basic norms and collective unity. uBuntu refers to universal values that
apply to individuals and groups alike;70
• uBuntu is an indigenous, purely African philosophy of life;
________________________
61 See sentiments of the Constitutional Court regarding marginalisation and alienation of customary law in
Bhe v Magistrate, Khayelitsha 2005 (1) SA 580 (CC) para 43.
62 Bhe v Magistrate, Khayelitsha 2005 (1) SA 580 (CC) para 43.
63 This was one of the first major cases of the Constitutional Court dealing with customary law.
65 This value was referred to in the majority judgment of Ngcobo J in Bhe v Magistrate, Khayelitsha 2005 (1)
SA 580 (CC) para 166.
66 This value was referred to in the minority judgment in an attempt to explain the rationale behind the now
defunct rule of primogeniture in Bhe v Magistrate, Khayelitsha 2005 (1) SA 580 (CC) para 166.
68 Also see Rautenbach (2015) Journal of International and Comparative Law 275–304 for a discussion of the
links between ubuntu, restorative justice and therapeutic jurisprudence.
69 Although many publications, especially since 1994, exist, a useful publication on the topic of ubuntu is
Cornell and Muvangua Law in the ubuntu of South Africa (2009), which contains a compilation of articles
and decisions dedicated to ubuntu. Also see Cornell (2004) SAPR/PL 666–674; Praeg (2008) S Afr J Philos
367–385; Mukheibir (2007) Obiter 583–589.
70 See, e.g., S v Makwanyane 1995 (6) BCLR 665 (CC) paras 307–308, 313; Devenish (1998) 12; Du Plessis
(1998) Stell LR 253–254; Barrie (2000) TSAR 271–278; Lemmer and Olivier (2000) De Jure 143.
• uBuntu requires Africans to express the distinctive collective consciousness in their behav-
iour, expression and spiritual self-fulfillment, demonstrating values such as brotherhood for
Africans, sharing, and treating and respecting other people as human beings;
• uBuntu principles are sharing, loving, trust, commitment, discipline and respect;
• uBuntu creates a conducive atmosphere for people to relate well to each other and promotes
group solidarity, which are essential to the survival of communities or societies; and
• uBuntu means that a person cannot exist of himself, by himself, for himself; he or she comes
from a specific social order. This social order serves to nurture him or her into realising the
promise of being human and the glory of being a self-defining value.
Although ubuntu has mostly been described in the context of African religion, philosophy or
world-view, it is clear that it plays a major role in customary law because (as already explained)
it is almost impossible to distinguish between law, religion or custom in the context of custom-
ary law. Ever since the interim Constitution and a few important judgments, ubuntu has come to
play a major part in constitutional law, especially in the interpretation of constitutional values
and rights.
uBuntu was expressly provided for in the epilogue to the interim Constitution, which read:
. . . there is a need for understanding but not for vengeance, a need for reparation but not for retaliation, a
71
need for ubuntu but not for victimisation . . .
It was also brought into the discourse of the judiciary in 1995 by S v Makwanyane.72 Mokgoro J’s
judgment played an important part in all future debates regarding ubuntu. She commenced her
judgment by declaring:
. . . when our Courts promote the underlying values of an open and democratic society in terms of section 35
[of the interim Constitution] when considering the constitutionality of laws, they should recognise that
indigenous South African values are not always irrelevant nor unrelated to this task. In my view, these val-
ues are embodied in the Constitution . . .
Her ensuing discussion of the concept of ubuntu leaves no doubt that she was referring to,
amongst other things, ubuntu, as one of the African values which must be taken into account
when considering the constitutionality of laws. She also gave a definition of what she meant by
the concept of ubuntu by saying:73
Generally, ubuntu translates as humaneness. In its most fundamental sense, it translates as personhood and
74
morality. Metaphorically, it expresses itself in umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu, describing the significance of
group solidarity on survival issues so central to the survival of communities. While it envelops the key val-
ues of group solidarity, compassion, respect, human dignity, conformity to basic norms and collective unity,
in its fundamental sense it denotes humanity and morality. Its spirit emphasises respect for human dignity,
marking a shift from confrontation to conciliation.
Since then, Mokgoro J has been an active advocate for the advancement and development of the
concept of ubuntu. Although the final Constitution contains no explicit reference to ubuntu, she
emphasised that the key values of ubuntu are consistent with constitutional values and that “law
reform can harness the spirit of ubuntu(ism) to achieve appropriate responses to the demands of
constitutionalism”.75
Since the passing of this judgment, ubuntu continues to be used at all levels by the judiciary as
a grounding principle in the interpretation of the Bill of Rights, and certainly has a place in
________________________
71 The word ubuntu has been translated with “humanity”.

72 1995 (6) BCLR 665 (CC) para 300.
73 S v Makwanyane 1995 (6) BCLR 665 (CC) para 308. Also see her discussion of ubuntu in Mokgoro (1998)
PER/PELJ 15–26.
74 The phrase umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu literally means that “a person is a person by or through other
people”.
75 Mokgoro (1998) PER/PELJ 21.
customary law despite its broadness. According to Rautenbach, the acceptance of ubuntu as a
legal concept by the judiciary goes a long way towards facilitating the process of Africanisation
or indigenisation of South African law.76
Other African values/principles which can be linked to customary law are as follows: family
as a value and the notion of an individual’s duties and responsibilities towards the family, and
marriage.77 There are many other values or principles linked to different aspects of customary
law which must be unearthed and studied for the meaningful development of the system.
2.4 Living and official versions of customary law

For various reasons, the law as reflected in textbooks and applied by the courts is not always the
original version. Virtually from the time when the first colonists set foot on South African soil,
the colonial and African legal systems needed to exist together, although widely divergent in
some respects. Western legal categories and terminology were used to categorise and make
sense of customary law for the colonists. Women have, for example, been described as “minors”
under the “guardianship” of their husbands or fathers and they were said to be under the “marital
power” of their husbands. The colonial administrations also reduced some customs to fixed rules
by codifying them. An outstanding example is the codification of customary law in the Natal
Code of Zulu Law, initially done in 1878, but which survives to this day.78
Moreover, administrators, anthropologists and lawyers produced a number of treatises, again
in terms of Western legal categories and terminology. All along, Eurocentric courts applied and
interpreted customary law. By virtue of the doctrine of judicial precedent, their judgments con-
stituted a source of customary law. The courts include, for example, the Appeal Court for Com-
missioners’ Courts and the various divisions of the High Court (formerly the Supreme Court).
Thus, a source of customary case law came into being.
Lastly, the colonial administrations passed Acts, such as on marriages and succession.79 As a
result, a version of customary law, called “official” customary law, developed. This version has
been called into question by some scholars. Their objections run along the following lines: from
a position of dominance, the administrators more or less decided what the law ought to be rather
than giving a true account of what it was. What is more, customary law could not be rendered in
a Western formula.
On account of the rigidity of legislation, the official customary law, like the Codes of Zulu
law and the stare decisis doctrine, became ossified. In the meantime, living customary law has
undergone considerable change as a result of the colonial (Western) environment. The following
are a few examples:
• It was not possible to maintain cohesion of the families and communities. Individuals auto-
matically became autonomous.
• Women acquired a large measure of independence – earning cash income and inevitably
functioning independently. Also, a large number of female-headed households came into ex-
istence – so much to say that societies were no longer purely patrilineal.
________________________
76 See Rautenbach “Exploring the contribution of ubuntu in constitutional adjudication – towards the in-
digenization of constitutionalism in South Africa” in Fombad (ed) (2017) 293–312.
77 For a discussion of how these are understood in an African setting, see Gyekye (1996) 75–78. For some
reflections on the place of traditional African values in modern Africa also see Gyekye (1996) 171–178.
78 The KwaZulu Act on the Code of Zulu Law 16 of 1985 and the Natal Code of Zulu Law, Proc R151 of
1987. These two Acts are known as the KwaZulu-Natal Codes. Also see Bennett and Pillay (2003) SAJHR
217–238.
79 See chs 3 and 9.
As a result, customary law has adapted to fit the circumstances. There are numerous examples. It
became acceptable for female family-heads to negotiate and receive lobolo.80 It is not known
how widespread this practice is, but, in some communities, a system of ultimogeniture devel-
oped.81 The reason for this is said to be that the eldest son would leave the family home early
while a younger son, the last-born, stayed and took care of the family home and his ageing
parents. The African lifestyle changed dramatically due to Western influence. Communal life
disintegrated. Economic, social, religious and political changes necessitated the adaptation of
rules and procedures. An interesting example is that nowadays spouses combine their civil mar-
riages with customary marriages.
Living customary law, unlike official customary law, refers to the original customs and
usages, and are in constant development. Communities change and so do their rules. The ideal
situation would be to apply living customary law. The courts have lately intimated that living
customary law is preferred.82 However, as pointed out by the South African Law Reform Com-
mission in its Report on Customary Marriages,83 it is virtually impossible to apply living law
because it is not always readily ascertainable. It can be proved by expert evidence, but there is
no comprehensive source. The official version is accessible, and it does have merit because it is
mostly a feasible synthesis of the living and official customary law. It was suggested that a
restatement be considered. In this regard, the Commission responded:84
Even if resources were available, it would be a mistake to assume that the restatement would be a final and
definitive account of all systems of customary law in South Africa. What legal status would the restatement
enjoy? Should it be preferred to the writings of anthropologists? How would it relate to existing precedent
and codified law? Would its existence preclude parties from leading evidence of new rules to the contrary?
It is difficult to apply living customary law across the board. The solution is that in appropriate
cases it could be proved by expert evidence. Meanwhile the legislature has added to the official
version of customary law by Acts recognising customary marriages,85 casting traditional leader-
ship and governance in a new statutory mould86 and regulating certain aspects of the customary
law of succession.87 In one judgment after another, the courts have, by virtue of the doctrine of
stare decisis, cast what they perceive to be the living law in immutable case law or resolved
what the law ought to be, in order not to be in conflict with the precepts embodied in the Consti-
tution.
For example, in Mabuza v Mbatha,88 Hlope J stated:
In my judgment, there is no doubt that ukumekeza, like so many other customs, has somehow evolved so
much that it is probably practised differently than it was centuries ago. I got a firm impression that
Mr Shongwe was not being truthful to the court in so far as he attempted to elevate ukumekeza into some-
thing so indispensable that without it there could be no valid siSwati marriage. As Professor De Villiers
testified, it is inconceivable that ukumekeza has not evolved and that it cannot be waived by agreement be-
tween the parties and/or their families in appropriate cases.
________________________
80 In Mabena v Letsoalo 1998 (2) SA 1068 (T), the judge held that the mother of a daughter may negotiate and
receive lobolo for her.
81 See Watney (1992) LLD thesis.
82 Among others, in the Bhe case para 87, it was held that “the official rules of customary law were sometimes
contrasted with what was referred to as ‘living customary law’, in which the rules were adapted to fit in
with changed circumstances. The problem with these adaptations was, however, that they were ad hoc and
not uniform. Magistrates and the courts responsible for the administration of intestate estates continued to
adhere to the rules of official customary law, with the consequent anomalies and hardships as a result of
changes which have occurred in society.”
83 South African Law Commission Project 90: Report on customary marriages (1998) 21.
84 South African Law Commission Project 90: Report on customary marriages (1998) 22.
85 The Recognition of Customary Marriages Act.
86 The Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act 41 of 2003.
87 The Reform of Customary Law of Succession and Regulation of Related Matters Act.
88 2003 (4) SA 218 (C).
Academic scholars are also more and more in favour of applying living customary law instead of
its official version. For example, Van Niekerk89 forcefully argues that the living law should stand
on its own feet. She says, inter alia:
The living law that is currently applied has grown and developed to meet the demands of new communities.
Therefore, although some rules of the indigenous law that have been entrenched in legislation may be char-
acterised as “pure” indigenous law which is in conformity with traditional indigenous law, more often they
are instances of a petrified law which has not kept pace with change.
2.5 Sources of customary law

It should be clear by now that a list of sources of customary law will be both controversial and
incomplete but, in general, the following sources can be identified:
2.5.1 Customs and usages

The customs and usages of a cultural group are the main source of customary law. Of course, the
whole debate regarding the official and living versions of customary law comes into play,
including the difficulties of proving the existence of a particular custom or usage. The require-
ments for proving existence of a custom or usage through the lens of common law are the
following:90
• the custom or usage must have been in existence for a long period;
• the relevant community must generally observe the custom or usage;
• the custom or usage must be reasonable; and
• the custom or usage must be consistent with or subject to the Constitution and other legisla-
tion.91
Lawyers who want to prove the existence of a binding custom or usage (thus customary law)
should always make sure of the following:92 Firstly, that the particular custom or usage that is
being relied on, is still in existence. Secondly, whether the custom or usage is legally binding
upon the community or is merely optional.
Customs or usages are usually proven by means of expert evidence. In Sigcau v Sigcau,93 the
court held that
[t]he only way in which the court can determine a disputed point, which has to be decided according to
Native Custom is to hear evidence as to that custom from those best qualified to give it and to decide the
dispute in accordance with such evidence as it appears in the circumstances to be most probably correct.
It is also important to remember that courts may take judicial notice of customs and usages as set
out in the Law of Evidence Amendment Act94 which reads as follows:
Any court may take judicial notice of the law of a foreign state and of indigenous law in so far as such law
can be ascertained readily and with sufficient certainty: Provided that indigenous law shall not be opposed to
the principles of public policy and natural justice: Provided further that it shall not be lawful for any court to
declare that the custom of lobola or bogadi or other similar custom is repugnant to such principles.
This provision, especially the repugnancy clause, has been subject to severe criticism over the
years and it should be used with caution and with due consideration of the values contained in
the Constitution.
________________________
89 Van Niekerk (2005) Obiter 474–487.

90 Van Breda v Jacobs 1921 AD 330.
91 See s 211(3) of the Constitution and also the discussion in ch 3.
92 Mofokeng (2009) 13.
93 1944 AD 67.
94 Section 1(1) of the Law of Evidence Amendment Act.
2.5.2 Legislation
Although the process to codify customary law by means of legislation has been criticised as an
ossification of customary law, which is in essence a flexible, ever-changing legal system, it is
still one of the methods to find at least the official version of customary law. It is also a means to
change or develop customary legal rules which are regarded as unconstitutional. One example is
the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act that regulates customary marriages in South
Africa.
2.5.3 Judicial precedent

Another important source of customary law is judicial precedent. Some courts dealing with cus-
tomary law in particular have been abolished, but their decisions still form precedent, for exam-
ple, the Appeal Court for Commissioners’ Courts.95
The courts also have a responsibility to develop the customary law when interpreting any leg-
islation, and when developing the customary law in line with the spirit, purport and objects of
the Bill of Rights.96
Since 1994, a number of important decisions which dealt with various aspects of customary
law have seen the light of day. These decisions will constantly be referred to in the chapters
dealing with customary law.
2.5.4 Scholarly and other writings

Although they carry less weight than legislation and judicial precedence, various scholarly legal
and anthropological writings have been used in the past as a source of customary law. For exam-
ple, in S v Makwanyane,97 the court emphasised the importance of research materials to determine
how disputes were resolved and punishments meted out in traditional African society. In Alexkor
Ltd v Richtersveld Community,98 the court held that customary law may be established by refer-
ence to writers on customary law and other authorities and sources. It may include the evidence
of witnesses if necessary. Caution must be exercised when dealing with textbooks and old
authorities because of the tendency to view customary law through the prism of legal concepts
that were foreign to customary law. In the course of establishing customary law, courts may also
be confronted with conflicting views on what customary law on a subject provides.
A number of Commission Reports are also important to determine the rules of customary
law.99 These Reports include:
• Report of the Native Natal Commission (1881–1882);
• Report and Proceedings with Appendices of the Government Commission on Native Laws
and Customs (1883 Cape); and
• Report of the South African Native Affairs Commission, with Minutes of Evidence and
Appendices (1903–1905).
The various Discussion Documents and reports of the South African Law Reform Commission
issued in terms of Project 90 on the Harmonisation of the Common Law and the Indigenous
________________________
95 For a discussion of these courts, see Kerr (2005) Family law service para G6, and also the discussion in ch 11.
96 Constitution, s 39(2).
97 1995 (6) BCLR 665 (CC) 376–377.
98 2003 (12) BCLR 1301 (CC).
99 Kerr (2005) Family law service para G9.
Law100 will also provide valuable insight into the customary law and have been used on a few
occasions by the courts.101 These reports include:
• Issue Paper 4: The Application of Customary Law: Conflict of Personal Law (1996);
• Issue Paper 3: Customary Marriages (1996);
• Discussion Paper 76: Conflicts of Law (1998);
• Discussion Paper 74: Customary Marriages (1998);
• Report: Customary Marriages (1998);
• Issue Paper 12: Succession in Customary Law (1998);
• Report: Conflicts of Law (1999);
• Discussion Paper 95: Customary Law: Administration of Estates (2000);
• Discussion Paper 93: Customary Law (2000);
• Report: Customary Law (2003); and
• Report: Customary Law of Succession (2004).
2.6 Conclusion
Customary law is a unique system of law recognised by the Constitution with its own values and
principles. It should be studied within the context of its setting.
Similar to the common law that can be adapted by means of legislation, customary law can
also be subject to legislation that specifically deals with customary law. There are some pre-
1994 laws dealing with aspects of customary law which will be discussed throughout the book.
Readers may rest assured that if any of the laws fall foul of the Constitution they will be
declared invalid. Some of the legislation has already been repealed and some stands to be
repealed.
The legislature has (as a substitute to “old order” legislation) embarked on a law reform. It
now constitutes a new body of law that is a mixture of statutory and customary law. The South
African Law Reform Commission has also been active in advising the government in matters
concerning the harmonisation of customary and common law. Since 1994 a number of pieces of
legislation has been enacted to signify the need to accommodate, or rather adapt, customary law.
The contents of these Acts will be discussed in the following chapters of this book. The next
chapter deals with the recognition, application and ascertainment of customary law in South
Africa.
________________________
100 These documents are all accessible at http://www.salrc.org.za.

101 For example, the Bhe case.
3
Recognition, Application and Ascertainment of
Customary Law
Page
3.1 A brief overview of the earlier recognition of customary law ................................... 37
3.2 The new terms of recognition for customary law ...................................................... 39
3.2.1 Constitutional provisions recognising customary law .................................... 39
3.2.2 Laws recognised under the Constitution ......................................................... 41
3.3 Conflicts of laws ......................................................................................................... 42
3.3.1 Statutory choice of law rules........................................................................... 42
3.3.2 Judge-made choice of law rules ...................................................................... 44
3.3.3 Conflicts between different systems of customary law .................................. 46
3.3.3.1 Conflict between different South African systems of customary
law .................................................................................................... 46
3.3.3.2 Conflict between different regional systems of customary law ....... 47
3.4 Ascertainment and proof of customary law ............................................................... 48
3.5 Decolonisation of customary law and legal education ............................................... 53
35
Chapter 3: Recognition, Application and Ascertainment of Customary Law 37
3.1 A brief overview of the earlier recognition of customary law

As already alluded to in chapter 1, for the first two centuries of colonial rule, no account was
taken of the laws of the traditional communities of South Africa. Instead, when the Netherlands
ceded the Cape Colony to Britain in 1806, Roman-Dutch law was recognised as the basic law of
the land.1 However, as Britain extended its rule inland, it was forced to acknowledge that
imported European laws were unlikely to be obeyed by the vast majority of the subject popula-
tions. A grudging recognition was therefore extended to the local systems of customary law,
albeit limited by considerations of colonial policy and natural justice.2
This approach was no more than a pragmatic response to the realities of colonial rule. Indeed,
customary law remained a primary source of regulation for nearly all Africans, as was shown by
later anthropological research.3 These studies fell into a specific sub-discipline of legal anthro-
pology termed “legal pluralism”, as discussed in chapter 1.4
Whenever a state is prepared to recognise normative orders other than its own, which had
been the case in South Africa, it acknowledges the innate plurality of its legal system. Never-
theless, because it is the state that decides whether and to what extent these orders should be
applied, Griffiths described this approach as “weak” pluralism (thus, state-law pluralism).5 It is
simply a modified version of legal centralism, because its validity remained a state issue.
Weak legal pluralism denotes the inferior position of non-state normative orders in at least
three respects. First, overriding authority is given to national legislation and all other rules
emanating from the central state. Second, the laws of only certain semi-autonomous social fields
are singled out for recognition; they do not apply automatically. Third, the state decides, via the
provision of choice of law rules, when the subordinate legal regimes will apply.
These three propositions used to be true of the position of customary law in South Africa, in
particular the first, because it is clear that, until recently, customary law was a subordinate
element in the country’s legal order. For example, customary law was subject to state legis-
lation;6 certain courts could not take judicial notice of it;7 and it could be applied only if com-
patible with principles of public policy and natural justice.8
________________________
1 Following Campbell v Hall (1774) 1 Cowper 204.

2 By Ordinance 3 of 1849, customary law was recognised in the former colony of Natal except in “so far as it
was not repugnant to the general principles of humanity observed throughout the civilized world”. More or
less the same terms were used for the Transkeian territories (s 23 of Procs 110 and 112 of 1879), the South
African Republic (Law 4 of 1885) and Southern Bechuanaland (s 16 of the Annexation Act 41 of 1895
(Cape)).
3 This was apparent even in the Cape courts, which were formally competent to apply only the common law.
See Brookes (1924) 183.
4 In 1986, one of the foremost scholars in the field, John Griffiths, published a manifesto for the discipline
based on this evidence.He firmly rejected the prevailing doctrine of legal centralism, which is based on the
idea that “law is and should be the law of the state, uniform for all persons, exclusive of all other law, and
administered by a single set of state institutions”. In its place, Griffiths advocated acceptance of the fact that
various independent, but related normative orders were equally authoritative. Griffiths insisted that these
modes of self-regulation – in what were termed “semi-autonomous social fields” – should be deemed as
valid as state law. Griffiths (1986) Journal of Legal Pluralism 1–5.The concept of the semi-autonomous so-
cial field is defined “by a processual characteristic, the fact that it can generate rules and coerce or induce
compliance to [its normative order]”. See Moore (2000) 57.
5 Griffiths (1986) Journal of Legal Pluralism 9–14. Also see Woodman (1998) Journal Legal Pluralism
22–29.
6 Although not all state legislation. See below.
7 Until the Law of Evidence Amendment Act 45 of 1988, Magistrates’ Courts and the then Supreme Court
could not take judicial notice of customary law. Hence, in these courts it was treated as if it were common-
law custom: Ex parte Minister of Native Affairs: In re Yako v Beyi 1948 (1) SA 388 (A) 394–395, Mosii v
Motseoakhumo 1954 (3) SA 919 (A) 930 and Kerr (1957) SALJ 313.
8 The requirements of the so-called “repugnancy proviso”. See below.
On 1 September 1927, the controversial Black Administration Act9 made uniform recognition
and application of customary law throughout South Africa possible for the first time, even
though this recognition was only half-hearted. The purpose of this Act was to unify the recogni-
tion and application of customary law throughout South Africa. In Motaung v Philemon Dube10 it
was declared:
By the Act 38 of 1927 the legislature has sought to bring into being Courts – of Native Chief, Native Com-
missioner and of Appeal – designed to suit the psychology, habits and usage of the Bantu, creating as nearly
as possible the atmosphere of the Lekgotla to the arbitrament of which they have from time to time imme-
morial been accustomed to submit their disputes. While the attempt has been made to create forums and
forms of practice and procedure approximating to Bantu conceptions of legal jurisprudence, the machine has
been made sufficiently flexible to meet the needs of the Native who has emerged from the tribal state to the
wider and more enlightened one of western [Western] civilisation and to systems of legal jurisprudence.
The most important provision in this Act for the recognition of customary law was section 11(1),
which gave Native (later Bantu) Affairs Commissioners’ Courts a discretion to apply customary
law in all suits involving questions of customs followed by African people, provided that the
customs have not been repealed or modified by law, and provided also that they accord with
public policy and natural justice. The custom of lobolo or bogadi was entrenched. Nevertheless,
this section, however important in itself, was of limited application. Although it tended to give
but half-hearted expression to the principle of recognition, it did not definitely state that custom-
ary law would be accepted as the applicable law but clothed its recognition in vague and general
terms. The recognition given to customary law was limited. The legislature, by imposing all
manner of restrictions, had weakened the measure of recognition in spite of the fact that it had in
view the recognition of customary law. Section 11(1) was repealed in 1986 and in 1988 the Law
of Evidence Amendment Act11 came into operation.
In terms of section 1(1) of the Law of Evidence Amendment Act, any court may:
• take judicial notice of indigenous law;
• in so far as such law can be ascertained readily and with sufficient certainty;
• provided that indigenous law shall not be opposed to the principles of public policy or
natural justice; and
• provided further that it shall not be lawful for any court to declare that the custom of lobolo
or bogadi or other similar custom is repugnant to such principle.
This implies that there are substantial customary law rules that are so well-known that a court
may without more ado take judicial notice of them in the same manner that courts take judicial
notice of common law. There is, however, a condition to it, namely that it must be ascertainable
readily and with sufficient certainty. The Act did not change the rule that judicial notice was
discretionary and it did not do much to resolve the so-called conflict of laws discussed below.
Application of customary law has always been subject to that hallmark of colonialism: the so-
called “repugnancy proviso”, and the Law of Evidence Amendment Act is no exception. This
general limitation on the recognition of customary law allowed state courts to ignore or strike
down any rule that happened to conflict with European ideas of justice, morality or good order.
Although often condemned, the repugnancy proviso is still on the statute books. Some courts
have also relied on section 1(1) to prevent the application of customary law. For example, in
Maisela v Kgolane12 the High Court held that where a party intends to rely on customary law, it
must be raised in the pleadings. It is many years since it has been invoked, however, and not sur-
prisingly, there have been widespread calls for its repeal.13
________________________
9 38 of 1927. Sections 6–8, 12 and 20 of the Act are still in operation but stand to be repealed.
10 1930 BAH (N&T).
11 45 of 1988.
12 2000 (2) SA 370 (T).
13 Including that of the South African Law Commission Project 90: Report on conflicts of law (1999)
paras 2.11–13. See Taiwo (2009) TRW 89 et seq.
However, the situation has changed dramatically since the commencement of the 1993 Con-
stitution14 followed by the 1996 Constitution of South Africa.15 Customary law has been accepted
as a separate legal system. In Mthembu v Letsela,16 the High Court of South Africa confirmed
that “customary law has been accepted by the framers of the Constitution as a separate legal and
cultural system which may be freely chosen by persons desiring to do so”. This also means that
the South African legal system consists of two distinct legal systems; one based on Western
principles (common law) and the other on indigenous principles (customary law). In Gumede v
The President of the Republic of South Africa,17 the Constitutional Court confirmed that custom-
ary law “lives side by side with the common law and legislation”.
Although section 1(1) of the Law of Evidence Amendment Act remains on the statute books,
it seems to be redundant. It is no longer a matter of taking judicial notice of customary law or
not. The courts must apply customary law when that law is applicable. Even if a court cannot
ascertain it readily (which means quickly and easily) the court concerned is obliged to find out
what that law is.18 Furthermore, the repugnancy clause has become irrelevant to a large extent,
because it is applicable “subject to the Constitution and any legislation that specifically deals
with customary law”.19 The Constitution and particularly the Bill of Rights are now the bench-
marks. The further proviso protecting lobolo, bogadi or other similar customs from being
declared repugnant to natural justice and public policy is also under present circumstances
meaningless. Its constitutionality may be tested despite this proviso.
It is further important to note that the expression “customary law” refers to something which is, in actual
fact, not a unified system of law. South African customary law consists of the various “customs and usages
traditionally observed among the indigenous African peoples of South Africa and form[s] part of the culture
20
of those peoples”. In other words, there are various customary legal systems in operation in our country.
Nevertheless, there are enough common features of these legal systems which may be discussed together,
for instance the principles applicable to customary marriages and succession. Where differences between the
systems are material to the resolution of issues, knowledge of the common features will facilitate application
of the particular legal rules.
3.2 The new terms of recognition for customary law

3.2.1 Constitutional provisions recognising customary law
The advent of a new democratic government in South Africa provided the occasion for intro-
ducing a much stronger policy of legal pluralism, from which customary law was to be a parti-
cular beneficiary. Both the interim and final Constitutions have provisions dealing with
customary law specifically.
Customary law was initially recognised under the interim Constitution. Section 181 recog-
nised customary law indirectly and specified:
(1) A traditional authority which observes a system of indigenous law and is recognised by law immedi-
ately before the commencement of this Constitution, shall continue as such an authority and continue
________________________
14 Act 200 of 1993.

15 Act 108 of 1996.
16 1997 (2) SA 936 (T) 944B–C.
17 2009 (3) SA 152 (CC) para 22.
18 See discussion below.
19 Section 211(3) of the Constitution, discussed below.
20 See s 1 of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act 120 of 1998 under the lemma “customary law”.
All references to the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act in this chapter will be to this Act unless
indicated otherwise.
to exercise and perform the powers and functions vested in it in accordance with the applicable laws
and customs, subject to any amendment or repeal of such laws and customs by a competent authority.
(2) Indigenous law shall be subject to regulation by law.
In addition, Constitutional Principle XIII of Schedule 4 provided that:
. . . Indigenous law, like common law, shall be recognised and applied by the courts, subject to the funda-
mental rights contained in the Constitution and to legislation specifically dealing therewith.
This provision formed the basis of the recognition in terms of section 211(3) of the final Consti-
tution that reads –
The courts must apply customary law when that law is applicable, subject to the Constitution and any legis-
21
lation that specifically deals with customary law.
The mandatory wording of section 211(3) has the effect of elevating customary law to the same
position as the common law (and subject to the same provisos as application of the common
law). Hence, the courts may apply customary law:
(a) only if it is compatible with the Constitution;
(b) only to the extent that it is not amended by legislation; and
(c) only if it is applicable (in terms of choice of law rules, a topic that is considered in more
detail below).
Proviso (a) is the most complex, for it has the effect of subjecting all law to the Bill of Rights,
even in situations where private relationships are concerned.22 The scope of this provision is
extended even further by section 39(2) of the Constitution, which obliges courts “[w]hen devel-
oping the common law or customary law” to “promote the spirit, purport and objects of the Bill
of Rights”.
As part of the transformation of South African law in the last two decades, the courts might
have been expected to seize upon section 39(2) as a basis for implementing much needed incre-
mental change in customary law. As it happens, however, this has seldom proved necessary.23
Instead, the most urgent reforms were enacted in the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act24
and the Reform of Customary Law of Succession Act.25 In addition, the courts used the more
subtle technique of invoking the Bill of Rights as a ground for abandoning the version of
customary law used by state courts and administrative authorities in favour of rules actually
observed by people in their everyday lives.26
The latter species of customary law is termed “living” law, whereas the former is generally
called the “official” law. Because official customary law was captured – often many years ago –
in codes, restatements, judicial precedents or academic works, it was unlikely to reflect current
________________________
21 Emphasis added. All South African courts may also apply common law, with one exception: s 12(1) of the
Black Administration Act 38 of 1927 provides that the courts of traditional leaders are competent to apply
only customary law in civil suits. Under s 20(1)(a) of the Act, however, they may apply either common or
customary law in criminal cases.
22 Section 8(2) of the Constitution declares that a provision in the Bill of Rights will bind natural persons “if,
and to the extent that, it is applicable, taking into account the nature of the right and the nature of any duty
imposed by the right”.
23 The Constitutional Court, in particular, has not played an active role in this regard. See Mayelane v Ngwe-
nyama 2013 (4) SA 415 (CC) para 43. In Bhe v Magistrate, Khayelitsha 2005 (1) SA 580 (CC), the court
simply invalidated a customary rule of succession; in Gumede v President of RSA 2009 (3) SA 152 (CC), it
ruled on the validity of legislation concerning customary law; and, in Shilubana v Nwamitwa 2009 (2) SA
66 (CC), it approved the development of customary law undertaken by traditional authorities. In Mayelane
v Ngwenyama 2013 (4) SA 415 (CC), however, the court “developed” Tsonga customary law to remedy
what appeared to be the absence of a rule requiring a husband to secure his first wife’s consent before he
entered into another customary marriage. See below.
24 120 of 1998.
25 11 of 2009.
26 See Himonga and Bosch (2000) SALJ 319, especially at 326.
social practice. Less obvious distorting factors were the processes of translation to legal lan-
guage: these could never hope to present an accurate picture of the social reality.27
Mabena v Letsoalo28 is a good example of the way in which the courts dealt with living and
official law. According to a long-established rule of official customary law, lobolo agreements
required the consent of the bride’s and groom’s guardians. The court, however, gave effect to a
new social practice, whereby the groom could negotiate lobolo with his prospective wife’s
mother. This gender-neutral custom was upheld because it was consonant with the “spirit, pur-
port and objects” of the constitutional rights.29
The second proviso to section 211(3) – customary law must be deemed subject to legislation –
clarified a surprisingly nebulous issue. According to generally accepted legal doctrine, statutes
automatically override any conflicting precedent, custom or other authority. Customary law,
however, was sometimes considered exempt.30 It was taken for granted, for instance, that the
Divorce31 and Matrimonial Property Acts32 superseded only Roman-Dutch law. The effect of
other family-law enactments, such as the Age of Majority Act,33 was uncertain.34 Section 211(3),
however, now makes it clear that statutes will prevail only if they are specifically aimed at
amending customary law.35
3.2.2 Laws recognised under the Constitution

Section 211(3) of the Constitution speaks only of “customary law”, a term that is not defined in
the Constitution. Nevertheless, it is generally taken to mean the unwritten laws of the indigenous
peoples of South Africa, as distinct from the laws that were imported from the Netherlands and
England, and developed into what came to be termed the “common law”.
During the colonial and apartheid eras, customary law was almost always defined in racial
terms,36 but, since the new Constitution, it is now, more correctly, regarded as part and parcel of
African cultural traditions. It follows that the basis for recognising customary law derives from
the constitutional rights to culture (and religion).37
________________________
27 Sanders (1987) CILSA 405.

28 1998 (2) SA 1068 (T) 1074–1075. Also see Fanti v Boto [2008] 2 All SA 533 (C) 457–458 and the com-
ment by Bekker (2009) THRHR 684.
29 Also see Metiso v Padongelukfonds 2001 (3) SA 1142 (T), which involved the validity of a customary-law
adoption, where the biological mother and her family had not been informed of the act. The court decided
the question primarily on the basis of the child’s best interests (s 28(2) of the 1996 Constitution), holding
that it would be both irrational and, on the facts, contrary to this principle to allow failure to inform to upset
the adoption.
30 See Bennett (1981) ICLQ 86–87.
31 70 of 1979.
32 88 of 1984.
33 57 of 1972.
34 See Bekker (1975) THRHR 394. It was therefore necessary to pass s 9 of the Recognition of Customary
Marriages Act 120 of 1998 to provide that the Age of Majority Act has supervening force.
35 See, in this regard, Pilane v Pilane 2013 (4) BCLR 431 (CC), where a majority of the Constitutional Court
held that statutory recognition of a traditional leader did not preclude another (unrecognised) authority from
exercising certain rights in terms of customary rules, notably freedom of expression, association and
assembly. See Maneli v Maneli 2010 (7) BCLR 703 (GSJ), where the court held that the phrase “for the
adoption of children” in the preamble to the Child Care Act 74 of 1983 should be interpreted purposively so
as to include customary law, but not to abolish the validity of customary-law adoptions. This decision was
taken with a view to promoting the best interests of the child under s 28(2) of the Constitution.
36 It was also variously referred to as “native” or “black” law. “Black” was defined in s 35 of the Black
Administration Act 38 of 1927 to “include any person who is a member of any aboriginal race or tribe of
Africa”. The racial terminology is preserved in s 1(4) of the Law of Evidence Amendment Act 45 of 1988,
which provides that, for the purposes of the Act, “indigenous law” means the Black law or customs as
applied by the African communities in the Republic or in territories which formerly formed part of the
Republic.
37 Bennett (1991) Acta Juridica 21–22 and Bennett (1995) 23–27.
These rights are contained in sections 30 and 31 of the Bill of Rights. Section 30 provides that
all persons have the right to “participate in the cultural life of their choice”, while section 31(1)
provides that:
Persons belonging to a cultural, religious or linguistic community may not be denied the right, with other
members of that community . . . to enjoy their culture, practise their religion and use their language.
Formerly, the state assumed an absolute discretion in deciding whether and to what extent cus-
tomary law should be recognised. Now, however, it is obliged to allow people to participate in
the culture (or religion) they choose, and implicit in this obligation is a duty to uphold the insti-
tutions pertaining to that culture (or religion).38 On this understanding, for instance, the courts
have taken cognisance of systems of religious law, whether Muslim, Hindu or Jewish law.39
It follows from the above that “culture” and “religion” are critical terms for determining
whether a social group can demand recognition of its laws. Neither word, however, enjoys a
statutory or a (decisive) judicial definition.40 As a result, no distinction is drawn between the
different groups producing the various culturally (and religiously) defined laws now recognised
by the courts, although a social practice lacking the endorsement of a local culture or religion
may not warrant state recognition.41 For instance, the recently adopted practice of female genital
mutilation would not attract constitutional protection, because, inter alia, it is not associated
with an indigenous culture(or religion).42
3.3 Conflicts of laws

Because legal pluralism is about multiple and overlapping normative orders, it will inevitably
produce situations in which individuals find themselves subject to contradictory obligations. To
avoid having to solve the ensuing conflicts of law, states usually provide special choice of law
rules, which indicate which law (common or customary law) should be applied. There is no
specific list of choice of law rules and the rules must be determined by looking at existing
legislation and judgments dealing with the application of customary law.
3.3.1 Statutory choice of law rules

Previously, the South African legislature provided only minimal statutory guidance on when to
apply customary law. In general, the repealed section 11(1) of the Black Administration Act
gave a discretion to the former commissioners’ courts and their courts of appeal to apply cus-
tomary law “in all suits or proceedings between Blacks involving questions of customs followed
by Blacks . . .”. The courts were thus left to devise their own more precise guidelines on choice of
law. Initially, their attempts were frustrated by a divergence of views in the two divisions of the
________________________
38 This argument finds additional support in two sections of the Constitution. Section 15(3)(a)(i) provides that
legislation may be passed to recognise “marriages concluded under any tradition, or a system of religious
personal or family law”, and s 15(3)(a)(ii) provides that legislation may be passed to recognise “systems of
personal and family law under any tradition, or adhered to by persons professing a particular religion”. See
Himonga and Bosch (2000) SALJ 330–331.
39 See part 3 of this book.
40 See the description of religion by O’Regan J in MEC for Education, KwaZulu-Natal v Pillay 2008 (1) SA
474 (CC) para 47. With regard to definition, the judgment in Pilane v Pilane 2013 (4) BCLR 431 (CC) pa-
ra 65 is significant, because the court accepted a group’s right to determine its cultural identity subjectively,
even if others disagreed, as part of the its right to culture. Also see, Rautenbach, Jansen van Rensburg and
Pienaar (2003) 1–20.
41 Conversely, in Pilane’s case, because the group had a separate cultural identity, the Constitutional Court
found that it had the right to hold a traditional gathering to determine whether to secede from a traditional
authority. See Bennett (2009) Am J Comp L 25–29.
42 Bennett (2004) 303–304. The customs associated with African cultures enjoy certain evidentiary privileges:
they are deemed part of the state legal order, and, as such, may be treated as law, to be argued on the basis
of authoritative texts. Customs of the sort alleged in Van Breda v Jacobs 1921 AD 330, however, must be
proved by witnesses whenever they are asserted. Also see discussion below.
Court of Appeal for commissioners’ courts. One held that common law was primarily applic-
able; customary law could be applied only in matters that were “peculiar to Native Customs
falling outside the principles of Roman-Dutch law”.43 The other division took the contrary view,
namely, that customary law was primarily applicable to Africans, and only as a matter of excep-
tion the common law.44 No satisfactory solution to those opposing views has been found.45
Hence, it remains an open question as to which system of law the courts should take to be
primarily applicable.
The task of defining choice of law was further bedevilled by certain decisions holding that
customary law could be applied only if it had a rule governing the facts at issue.46 By impli-
cation, there could be gaps in the law, a supposition prompted by the wording of section 11(1) of
the Black Administration Act that customary law was applicable only when it involved “ques-
tions of customs followed by Blacks”.
On this understanding, the courts held that customary law was applicable only if it contained a
remedy.47 So persistent was this view that it survived two decisions of the Appellate Division of
the Supreme Court,48 which held that justice might best be served by applying the law that did
not have a remedy.49 In principle, of course, any choice of law rule predicated on the existence
or absence of remedies is bound to be arbitrary, and so cannot be supported.50
Choice of law rules were also contained in specific legislation. For example, in the case of the
customary law of succession or inheritance (see ch 9), the Black Administration Act51 restricted
an African’s power to bequeath property by will, and made the application of the customary law
of intestate succession mandatory to certain estates.52 Regulations promulgated under the Act
further provided that customary law was to apply if a deceased person had married by customary
law or by civil/Christian customs but out of community of property.53 These provisions have all
been repealed, and potential choice of law issues has been largely obviated by legislation impos-
ing a unified system of law for succession.54 In terms of section 2(1) of the Reform of Customary
Law of Succession and Regulation of Related Matters Act:55
________________________
43 Nqanoyi v Njombeni 1930 NAC (C&O) 13.

44 Matsheng v Dhlamini 1937 NAC (N&T) 89, 92, Kaula v Mtimkulu 1938 NAC (N&T) 68, 71 and Yako v
Beyi 1944 NAC (C&O) 72, 77.
45 The decision in Ex Parte Minister of Native Affairs: In re Yako v Beyi 1948 (1) SA 388 (A) 397 was
supposed to resolve the problem, but it was not specially helpful. The court held that s 11(1) allowed “some
elasticity and provide[d] scope for development, so as to achieve the primary desideratum of an equitable
decision between the parties without laying down any hard and fast rule as to the system of law to be used
to attain that end”. Perhaps the most useful part of the judgment is that courts should finally decide which
system of law to apply only after considering all the evidence and argument on the case.
46 Nzalo v Maseko 1931 NAC (N&T) 41, Magadla v Hams 1936 NAC (C&O) 54 and Mkize v Mnguni 1952
NAC (NE) 242.
47 Ntsabelle v Poolo 1930 NAC (N&T) 13, Nqanoyi v Njombeni 1930 NAC (C&O) 13, Magidela v Sawintshi
1943 NAC (C&O) 47, 53, Mtolo v Poswa 1950 NAC (S) 253 and Sibanda v Sitole 1951 NAC 347 (NE).
48 Ex parte Minister of Native Affairs: In re Yako v Beyi 1948 (1) SA 388 (A) 399 and Umvovo v Umvovo
1953 (1) SA 195 (A) 201.
49 Also see Mahashe v Mahashe 1955 NAC (S) 149 and Togo v Molatoli 1976 AC 20 (C) 20.
50 Bennett (1979) SALJ 413–414. See the “gap filling” approach of the court in SS v Presiding Officer,
Children’s Court, Krugersdorp 2012 (6) SA 45 (GSJ) paras 33–36, where the court noted (obiter) that
s 150(1)(a) of the Children’s Act 38 of 2005 should be interpreted to take into account customary law when
determining which relatives were responsible for children “in need of care and protection”. Also see the
interesting decision in Fosi v Road Accident Fund 2008 (3) SA 560 (C) para 16 et seq, where Dlodlo J
adverted to customary law as the basis for a parent’s claim for support from a deceased son, implicitly, it
would seem, because the duty in customary law was stronger than that under the common law.
51 Section 23 of Act 38 of 1927.
52 Annexure 24 of the Black Areas Land Regulations R188 of 1969.
53 GN R200 of 1987.
54 Reform of Customary Law of Succession and Regulation of Related Matters Act 11 of 2009. Also see
discussion at ch 9.
55 11 of 2009. Also see discussion at ch 9.
[t]he estate or part of the estate of any person who is subject to customary law who dies after the com-
mencement of this Act and whose estate does not devolve in terms of that person’s will, must devolve in
accordance with the law of intestate succession as regulated by the Intestate Succession Act . . .
The provisions leave little doubt that the customary law of succession is no longer applicable to
people living under a system of customary law. However, the Act gives some consideration to
cultural sensibilities through elaborate modifications of the common law to accommodate
polygynous unions,56 even the rare cases of seed-raiser unions and women-to-women marriages.57
There are thus circumstances where it would be necessary to determine which law is applicable
in order to decide if these modifications apply.
The Recognition of Customary Marriages Act58 is another example that modified customary
marriages quite considerably (see ch 5). Although the Act removed the elements of discrimina-
tion that resulted from a strict separation between customary and common law, it did not elimi-
nate the need for choice of laws in its entirety. The requirements for a valid customary marriage
are listed in section 3(1): the prospective spouses must be over the age of 18, they must consent
to be married under customary law and the union must be “negotiated and entered into or cele-
brated in accordance with customary law”. By virtue of the latter phrase, the courts have been
directed to apply the requirements considered necessary under the various systems of living
customary law, especially, of course, agreement on or payment of lobolo, and the handing over
of the bride to the groom’s family.59 There are thus still circumstances where it would be neces-
sary to choose between customary and common law, even if it is only to determine if the mar-
riage was validly concluded.
3.3.2 Judge-made choice of law rules

Due largely to the vagueness of the statutory rules, the courts set about establishing principles to
determine choice of law. These were based on a sense of reasonableness, namely, given the
circumstances of a case, what law would a reasonable person have expected to be applied.60
Since 1994 there have been no decided cases that had to deal with this question specifically.
In most cases, it was evident that the applicable law was customary law, but, as pointed out
recently in Gumede v President of the Republic of South Africa,61 it might be a difficult question
to determine the exact reach of customary law in a given situation. The following guidelines or
indicators have been identified by the courts.
(a) Express agreement between the parties: If the parties had concluded an express agree-
ment that a particular law should govern their relationship, then the court need only enforce
that agreement. In fact, courts everywhere welcome advance agreement on choice of law,
because it removes much of the uncertainty inherent in the conflict of laws.62 Scholars,
however, have been reluctant to allow parties complete autonomy.63 They have argued that
individuals should not be permitted to “contract out” of the mandatory rules of a legal sys-
tem that would otherwise bind them, on the grounds that they might defeat rights acquired
by a third person or might prejudice the broader interests of justice.64
________________________
56 Sections 2(2) and 3(1) of the Reform of Customary Law of Succession and Regulation of Related Matters Act.
57 Section 2(1)(b) and (c).
58 120 of 1998. Also see ch 5.
59 See Ndlovu v Mokoena 2009 (5) SA 400 (GNP) para 11 and Motsoatsoa v Roro [2011] 2 All SA 324 (GSJ).
60 Bennett (1985) 105–106.
61 2009 (3) SA 152 (CC) para 23.
62 Hence, agreements between the parties featured as statutory choice of law rules in certain African countries,
e.g., s 6(1) Rule 2 of Botswana’s Common Law and Customary Law Act Cap 16:01 and s 3(1)(a)(i) of
Zimbabwe’s Customary Law and Local Courts Act Cap 7:05.
63 Forsyth (2012) 317–319.
64 Moreover, it could be argued that, despite the parties’ freedom to adopt a culture of choice, in conflict
cases, the power to decide whether to apply customary or common law rests ultimately with the court. See
Lebona v Ramokone 1946 NAC (C&O) 14, 16.
Notwithstanding these caveats, the courts usually allowed litigants to choose whichever law
best suited their purposes.65 This standpoint was evident in the fact that persons subjected
to customary law were permitted to use the forms and institutions of the common law,
notably, of course, commercial contracts and civil/Christian marriage. Today, however,
party autonomy in choice of law may more appropriately be based on the constitutional
principle that everyone is free to participate in a culture of choice.66
(b) Tacit agreement between the parties: An agreement to apply customary law may be
explicit, but in nearly all instances it must be inferred from the parties’ behaviour. Very
often, it is apparent from the face of the plaintiff’s summons that, by seeking a particular
remedy or a type or quantum of damages, she was contemplating customary or common
law as the foundation of the suit.67 If the defendant does nothing to contest this choice, the
court may infer acquiescence.68
If a defendant does contest the plaintiff’s choice of law as it appears in the pleadings, how-
ever, the court may then investigate the parties’ conduct prior to instituting action and, from
the words and deeds out of which the claim arose, seek to discover a common intention.
(c) Cause of action: Choice of law has often been inferred from the nature of a cause
of action. Transactions typical of customary law, such as lobolo and loans of cattle, for
example, suggest that the parties had probably envisaged application of customary law,69
whereas the ordinary commercial contracts suggest the common law.70
In a post-1994 case, Maisela v Kgolane,71 the court held that customary law applies only to
contracts of sale where the principles of customary law provide for sale of the thing sold. In
this case, the sale of a tractor formed the basis of the claim. The court laid down two
important criteria:
• It is wrong to adjudicate on a sale not governed by customary law merely because the
parties are black.
• It is also wrong to regard a sale as regulated by customary law if common law princi-
ples (the so-called “voetstoots” clause applied) are not known to the customary law
agreed upon by the parties.
(d) Distinctive cultural practices: Some juristic acts are marked by culturally distinctive
forms or rituals, from which the parties’ intention to abide by a particular system of law can
be inferred. Marriage by Christian customs, for instance, used to be considered as a sign not
only of religious commitment but also as an indication that the spouses had decided to fol-
low a Western way of life. This assumption had a direct bearing on the law chosen to gov-
ern the subsequent marital relationship.72
Where, however, parties engaged in the common practice of marrying by civil or Christian
customs and also concluding a lobolo agreement, two different legal relationships ensued,
ones that were bound to generate contradictory obligations. According to common law, the
marriage is exclusively the concern of the bride and groom, while, according to customary
________________________
65 It is only where there happen to be mandatory choice of law rules, such as those formerly contained in s 23
of the Black Administration Act 38 of 1927, that the parties may not choose their law.
66 In terms of ss 30 and 31 of the Constitution.
67 Mbaza v Tshewula 1947 NAC (C&O) 72.
68 See Du Plooy v Du Plooy [2012] 4 All SA 239 (SCA) paras 22–23. That the courts have consciously
inferred consent is evident in cases where the principle of estoppel was invoked. See Warosi v Zotimba
1942 NAC (C&O) 55, 57 and Goba v Mtwalo 1932 NAC (N&T) 58.
69 Nxumalo v Ngubane 1932 NAC (N&T) 34 and Mhlongo v Sibeko 1937 NAC (N&T) 124, 125–126. Also
see Peme v Gwele 1941 NAC (C&O) 3 and Fuzile v Ntloko 1944 NAC (C&O) 2 for lobolo transactions.
70 Dhlamini v Nhlapo 1942 NAC (N&T) 62 and Maholo v Mate 1945 NAC (C&O) 63.
71 2000 (2) SA 370 (T).
72 Bennett (1991) 437.
law, the lobolo contract is between the groom and the bride’s guardian. In the event of
a conflict, which obligations were to prevail? The courts decided that lobolo is ancillary
to the marriage, and must therefore be modified by the principles on which the union
is based.73 Hence, in what are probably the most litigated issues – claims for return of
lobolo74 and parental rights to children75 – the courts applied the common-law standards of
behaviour.76
(e) Ways of life: When a juristic act is not culturally marked in any way, and is thus known to
both systems of law, the courts have delved deeper into the case in order to discover a gen-
eral cultural orientation. This they have discerned from the purpose,77 environment and sub-
ject matter of a transaction.78 Delicts, of course, seldom involve prior transactions, and, as a
result, reference to the parties’ way of living and their overall cultural orientation has had a
strong influence on choice of law.79 People who adhered to a traditionally African way of
life were deemed subject to customary law, while those who had become acculturated to a
Western lifestyle were deemed subject to the common law.80
If both parties had the same cultural orientation, the choice of law was fairly clear, but, if
the plaintiff was attached to one culture and the defendant to another, the solution was far
from obvious. Although we have no precedent to guide us here, the only feasible approach
would be to take into consideration not only the parties’ cultural backgrounds, but whatever
other connecting factors might be relevant, such as the nature of a transaction and the gen-
eral environment of a claim.81
3.3.3 Conflicts between different systems of customary law

3.3.3.1 Conflict between different South African systems of customary law
South Africa does not have a single, uniform system of customary law, although no criteria are
available to determine the divisions between the different systems.82 To cater for potential
________________________
73 Mbonjiwa v Scellam 1957 NAC (S) 41.

74 If a husband committed adultery, customary law does not always afford the wife cause for complaint (or
justification for ending the marriage). By contrast, under common law, adultery by either spouse may lead
to irretrievable breakdown. See, e.g., Fuzile v Ntloko 1944 NAC (C&O) 2.
75 Morai v Morai 1948 NAC (C&O) 14 and Madlala v Madlala 1975 BAC 96 (NE) 99.
76 No such categorical solution was possible where one of the spouses died. According to the common law,
death automatically terminates a marriage, but under customary law the union continues until lobolo obliga-
tions have been settled. The courts adopted an expedient approach by supporting continuation of the lobolo
agreement, even after the marriage had ended. See e.g. Mrubata v Dondolo 1949 NAC (S) 174, 176 and
Makedela v Sauli 1948 NAC (C&O) 17.
77 See Mpikakane v Kunene 1940 NAC (N&T) 10 and Warosi v Zotimba 1942 NAC (C&O) 55.
78 In Sawintshi v Magidela 1944 NAC (C&O) 47, for instance, the critical factor was the general environment
in which a sale was concluded. The court found that the parties lived in a reserve, and the object of the
transaction was home-grown mealies. The parties were therefore presumed to have intended customary law
to apply.
79 See, in this regard, Ramothata v Makhothe 1934 NAC (N&T) 74, 76–77; Sibanda v Sitole 1951 NAC 347
(NE) 350, and, more recently, Du Plooy v Du Plooy [2012] 4 All SA 239 (SCA) paras 22–23, where the
court held that customary law did not apply because the parties did not live according to the relevant life
style nor did they relate to one another in terms of customary law.
80 Reference to an overall cultural orientation obviously entails a degree of artificiality, since no-one, in
reality, can be said to be wholly centred in one culture. In life experience, culture “does not function as a
whole but in bits”: Van Doorne (1981) Cahiers d’Études Africaines 482.
81 Bennett (1985) 110.
82 See the problem of culture discussed above.
conflicts between different customary laws, choice of law rules can be found in section 1(3) of
the Law of Evidence Amendment Act.83 This section provides:
In any suit or proceedings between Blacks who do not belong to the same tribe, the court shall not in the
absence of any agreement between them with regard to the particular system of indigenous law to be applied
in such suit or proceedings, apply any system of indigenous law other than that which is in operation at the
place where the defendant or respondent resides or carries on business or is employed, or if two or more
different systems are in operation at that place (not being within a tribal area), the court shall not apply any
such system unless it is the law of the tribe (if any) to which the defendant or respondent belongs.
Although not explicitly stated, this section contains a hierarchy of choice of law rules. In the
first instance, courts are directed to apply whatever law was agreed upon by the parties. Because
the section does not stipulate an express agreement, the courts are free to impute a tacit or
implied agreement and, to do so, they may refer to the parties’ prior conduct, the nature or form
of a transaction or, more generally, the parties’ cultural orientation.84
If the appropriate law cannot be chosen by reference to an agreement, a court must then consider
the remaining choice of law rules listed in section 1(3). It would have to apply the law of the
place where the defendant resided, carried on business or was employed,85 provided that only
one system of law prevailed in that area. This rule bristles with difficulties. What if the defendant
is resident in one area and employed in another? What if he is resident in Johannesburg but has a
closer attachment, such as domicile, with the Eastern Cape? Why should the common-law con-
necting factor of residence be preferred to a traditional customary-law connecting factor, such as
allegiance to a traditional authority?
If more than one system of law is applicable in the defendant’s area, and, if the place of resi-
dence, business or employment is not within a “tribal area”– an anachronistic term that pre-
sumably means an urban area – and, further provided that the defendant’s tribal law is one of the
systems applicable within the area, the court is obliged to apply the law of the defendant’s
community (tribe). This rule is also highly unsatisfactory.86 On the one hand, the concept of
“tribe” is vague and confusing,87 and, on the other, it is arbitrary to prefer the defendant’s, as
opposed to the plaintiff’s “tribal” law. The roles of plaintiff and defendant are determined by the
tactics of litigation, which is hardly a principled foundation for choice of law.
3.3.3.2 Conflict between different regional systems of customary law

Given the influx of foreign workers and refugees to South Africa, conflict problems may well
arise concerning both a system of customary law and the law of a foreign state. For example,
one of the parties might be domiciled in Namibia or the cause of action might have arisen there.
Section 1(3) does not directly address this situation, although, arguably, it might be applicable
because it refers simply to parties “who do not belong to the same tribe”. If, however, a foreign
law is in issue, the better approach to the choice of law problem is to refer to rules provided by
private international law. This subject is designed to cater for conflicts conceived in territorial
terms.88
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83 45 of 1988. The difficulty of applying these rules consistently was apparent in the case of the former Natal
and KwaZulu Codes (Proc R151 of 1987 and Act 16 of 1985, respectively). Customary law is personal in
the sense that it should apply to litigants by reason of their cultural orientation, regardless of where they
happen to be. Both Codes purported to apply to the Zulu people, but several cases held that the Natal Code
was territorial in application, namely that within the province it overrode any other potentially applicable
system of personal law. Thus “foreigners” could escape the effect of the Code only by entering into an
agreement to apply another system of law: Molife v Molife 1934 NAC (N&T) 33 and Ndhlovu v Molife
1936 NAC (N&T) 33.
84 See e.g. Mahlaba v Mdladlamba 1946 NAC (C&O) 51 and Govuzela v Ngavu 1949 NAC 156 (S).
85 See Govuzela’s case above and Rubushe v Jiyane 1952 NAC (S) 69.
86 See Forsyth (1979) SALJ 418 and Lewin (1944) SALJ 269.
87 Bennett (1985) 118–119.
88 Bennett (1980) THRHR 28.
Hence, when two or more territorially defined systems of law appear to be applicable to a
case, and, when one or both of them recognise systems of customary (or religious) law, the
forum must first apply choice of law rules derived from its own system of private international
law to decide which country’s law is applicable. The court must then ask whether the customary
law or state law of the foreign country is applicable, and, to answer this question, it must apply
internal conflict rules from that country.
Cases falling into this category of conflict of laws are rarely reported, but recently one
appeared. Chitima v RAF89 concerned a claim for loss of support caused by the death of a
breadwinner in a motor car accident. The plaintiff had married her husband by customary law in
Zimbabwe. To discover whether the validity of the marriage was to be tested by South African
or Zimbabwean law, the court first referred to the South African rules of private international
law. The choice of law rule was the lex loci celebrationis (law of the place where the marriage is
celebrated), which indicated in casu Zimbabwean law. The court then turned to the rules in that
country governing recognition of customary marriages to determine validity of the union.
3.4 Ascertainment and proof of customary law

In ordinary parlance, the term “ascertain” denotes removing doubt, but, in the more specialised
sense used for systems of customary law, it usually means the gathering of information, thereby
linking ascertainment with methods of proof.90
In courts operating according to a Western tradition, custom always presents itself as trouble-
somely ambiguous, because it can be construed as either fact or law. Facts need proof, a process
governed by rules of evidence, whereas everyone is presumed to know the law (although dis-
putes as to meaning and interpretation may be argued with reference to authoritative texts).
Because customary law derives directly from social practice, it is poised awkwardly between
being law and fact.
Formerly, the Supreme Court and the Magistrates’ Courts treated customary law in the same
way as the custom of the common law. In consequence, a party arguing that a court should
enforce a particular local custom had to comply with requirements laid down for proving custom
under the common law. The leading authority in this regard was Van Breda v Jacobs,91 a case
that involved the order in which fishing nets should be cast for catching shoals of fish swimming
off the shores of False Bay.
This type of local practice is clearly distinguishable from the systems of law emanating from
indigenous cultural traditions – as the Constitutional Court later made clear.92 Nevertheless, Van
Breda’s case was taken as a basic precedent for proving customary law. As a result, witnesses
had to be called – although neither the number nor their qualifications were ever specified – to
attest to the existence of a particular usage. A court would then give effect to it, provided that
the usage was sufficiently reasonable, certain, uniform and well-established.93
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89 [2012] 2 All SA 632 (WCC). Also see Chirwa v Mandah 1956 NAC (C) 209.
90 Hinz (2012) Oñati Socio-Legal Series 85, 89.
91 1921 AD 330.
92 See below.
93 In principle, courts should apply only obligatory norms, and they cannot assume that all patterns of
behaviour are obligatory. See Himonga and Bosch (2000) SALJ 321, citing Hlophe v Mahlalela 1998 (1)
SA 449 (T) 457 and Tamanaha (1993) J Law & Soc 192, 207. Some norms are binding laws, others are
mere customs, conventions, habits, etc. Specifying the difference is admittedly a difficult, if not intractable,
problem, and there are no established rules for dealing with it. The South African courts seem simply to
overlook the issue by accepting that rules adduced by the parties are considered by the communities con-
cerned to be obligatory. Nevertheless, in certain cases, this approach seems questionable. See, e.g., Hlophe
v Mahlalela 1998 (1) SA 449 (T) 457–458 and Mabena v Letsoalo1998 (2) SA 1068 (T).
In 1988, the legislature put an end to this cumbersome procedure through the enactment of
section 1(1) of the Law of Evidence Amendment Act94 (mentioned above) which provides that
all the courts in the country may take “judicial notice” of customary law ‘in so far as such law
can be ascertained readily and with sufficient certainty . . .”. In practice this provision was
applied only when an official version of customary law was in issue. The courts did not feel
comfortable taking judicial notice of the living law, which, by its nature, is usually an as yet
unrecorded social practice.
The next milestone in the history of customary law was set by the new Constitution. Because
customary law was now considered the equal of the common law, it was to be treated with the
respect due to law, as opposed to local custom, a change that required a new approach to ascer-
tainment of the rules.
The courts immediately accepted what had previously been only an academic distinction
between the official and living versions of customary law: they held that constitutional protec-
tion of customary law also included the living law.95 On the one hand, the living law often
appeared more likely to comply with constitutional values than the official code,96 and, on the
other, law emanating directly from the people, uncorrupted by contact with the state, would
obviously be a truer realisation of the right to culture.97
A consequence of giving the living law a privileged status, however, was to exacerbate prob-
lems of proof and ascertainment.98 Initially at least, the courts seemed little concerned, for, in
most cases, they continued to apply the law as presented in precedents and texts. On occasion,
they did so deliberately, but, more often, unthinkingly.99 Sometimes, a generic brand of custom-
ary law was applied, without any inquiry into which particular form or system was in issue.100
When the courts turned their minds to the problem of proving living law, they played fast and
loose with rules of evidence.101 Without deciding whether or not reference to textual authority
was appropriate, they vacillated between taking judicial notice of customary law and requiring
proper proof.102 The overriding consideration seems to have been a desire to show that living
customary law can change as freely as any other law.103
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94 45 of 1988.
95 Alexkor Ltd v Richtersveld Community 2003 (12) BCLR 1301 (CC) para 52, Bhe v Magistrate, Khayelitsha
2005 (1) SA 580 (CC) para 109 and Ex Parte Chairperson of the Constitution Assembly: In re Certification
of the Constitution of the RSA 1996 (4) SA 744 (CC) para 197. The South African Law Commission also
used this version as the basis for its recommendations on the laws of marriage and succession: South
African Law Commission Project 90: Report on customary marriages (1998), Project 90: Report on con-
flicts of law (1999) and Project 90: Discussion paper 93 (2000).
96 See, for instance, Mbatha (2002) SAJHR 259, 268ff; Claassens and Mnisi (2009) SAJHR 276ff and Weeks
and Claassens (2011) Stell LR 823ff.
97 Himonga and Bosch (2000) SALJ 329.
98 As Langa DCJ said in Bhe’s case above, para 109, “(t)he difficulty lies not so much in the acceptance of the
notion of living customary law . . . but in determining its content and testing it, as the court should, against
the provisions of the Bill of Rights”. Cited in Mayelane v Ngwenyama 2013 (4) SA 415 (CC) para 25.
99 In Wormald v Kambule 2006 (3) SA 562 (SCA) paras 7 and 14, for instance, both the Supreme Court of
Appeal and the High Court spoke of a widow’s personal servitude of usus or habitatio over a deceased
estate. Both these concepts, however, are derived from Roman law, and are entirely alien to customary law.
100 The most egregious example of this approach was Mthembu v Letsela 1997 (2) SA 936 (T) 938–939, 1998
(2) SA 675 (T) 682 and 2000 (3) SA 867 (SCA) para 8 concerning the customary law rules of succession.
Also see Bhe v Magistrate, Khayelitsha 2005 (1) SA 580 (CC) paras 77–79. In Thembisile v Thembisile
2002 (2) SA 209 (T) 214, the court used the official version to determine whether there had been a divorce.
101 In one case, Mabena v Letsoalo 1998 (2) SA 1068 (T) 1073, the judge accepted as the only evidence of a
social practice the testimony of a friend of an interested party. In another, Mabuza v Mbatha 2003 (4) SA
218 (C), testimony was at least backed up by two expert witnesses.
102 See Bhe above para 58 and Bangindawo v Head of Nyanda Regional Authority 1998 (3) SA 262 (Tk) 267,
271 and 272.
103 Good examples are Mabena (above) 1070 and 1074, Mabuza Mabuza v Mbatha 2003 (4) SA 218 (C) para 9
and Fanti v Boto [2008] 2 All SA 533 (C) para 21.
The main precedent for this confused area of law is an almost sixty-year-old decision by the
former Appellate Division. In R v Dumezweni,104 the court noted that a dispute about a rule of
customary law could emerge either because the rule was not yet well-known or because one of
the parties contested what was already established law. In the former case, the court had to hear
evidence, but, in the latter, it could rely on its own knowledge of the law, although it should, for
purposes of the record, note the parties’ contentions and the reasons for not hearing evidence.105
Unfortunately, the danger then arises that a judge may deem a certain rule common knowledge,
when it is in fact questionable. Procedural justice, however, would demand that care is always
taken to ensure that parties have sufficient opportunity to present their own accounts of custom-
ary law.106
A clearer perspective was eventually brought to bear on the situation by the Constitutional
Court’s decision in Shilubana v Nwamitwa.107 This case concerned a woman’s right to become a
traditional leader, or hosi, of the Valoyi people. The royal family had decided to allow the oldest
daughter to succeed to this office.108 The court accepted the family’s decision as a valid instance
of customary law-making, and, in so doing, distinguished customary law from the common-law
concept of custom. The court said that custom is an exception to the general law of the land, and,
as such, fills “normative gaps”. Unlike customary law, it is not an “original source of law capa-
ble of independent development”. It is rather a subsidiary source of rules, whose “validity is
rooted in and depends on its unbroken antiquity”.109
By contrast, customary law is an independent and original source of law . . . adaptive by its very nature. By
definition, then, while change annihilates custom as a source of law, change is intrinsic to and can be invig-
110
orating of customary law.
Given the differences between the two species of norm, the court found that Van Breda’s case
was an inappropriate basis for dealing with customary law.111 It followed that the usual test for
custom – that it was certain, uniformly observed for a long period of time and reasonable – was
not applicable to ascertainment of a developing living law.112 In casu, the court could obviously
not insist on a uniform and long established practice to uphold the validity of the Valoyi royal
family’s decision. Instead, Justice van der Westhuizen said that, whenever “the contemporary
practice of the community suggests that change has occurred, past practice alone is not
enough . . .[and it] will also not be decisive where the Constitution requires the development of
the customary law in line with constitutional values”.113
The judge then continued to prescribe a new approach to ascertaining the rules.114 Henceforth,
although the traditions of the community were to be taken into account, they were to be
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104 1961 (2) SA 751 (A) 756–757. Also see S v Phokoane [1962] 2 All SA 381 (T) 384 and S v Ngidi [1969] 2
All SA 82 (N) 85–86.
105 Smit v His Majesty King Goodwill Zwelithini Kabhekuzulu 2009 JDR 1361 (KZP) 10 serves as an example
where the court relied on its own knowledge of the ritual of bull-killing. The court commented as follows:
“As will appear from the direct evidence of persons who have attended the ceremony, such as myself, and
the evidence of experts on Zulu customs and traditions, the applicants’ belief is ill-informed and is based on
a jaundiced and distorted view of the Ukweshama [bull-killing]”, and also “I have on many occasions
attended the ceremony and have personally witnessed the killing of the bull. I dispute the allegations
regarding the killing of the bull”.
106 Dlamini (1998) paras 7.4.2.3–4.
107 2009 (2) SA 66 (CC).
108 The respondent, of course, opposed the claim on the basis of the traditionally accepted customary rule of
male primogeniture.
109 Paragraph 54.
110 Paragraph 54.
111 Paragraph 53. The court cited in support Alexkor Ltd v Richtersveld Community 2004 (5) SA 460 (CC)
para 27.
112 Paragraph 56.
113 Paragraph 56.
114 Paragraphs 44–49. See Bekker and Van der Merwe (2011) SAPR/PL 115–127 who question whether there
has been any appreciable difference to proving customary law.
considered together with the community’s right to develop its law. Considerations of flexibility
and development, however, were to be weighed against the need for legal certainty, protection of
acquired rights and, of course, constitutional rights; in this respect, the courts were to remain
conscious of their duty under section 39(2) of the Constitution to promote the Bill of Rights.115
The Constitutional Court’s next major judgment on the ascertainment of customary law
appeared five years later in Mayelane v Ngwenyama.116 Drawing on earlier constitutional juris-
prudence, Froneman J, speaking for the majority of the court, proceeded to refine the require-
ments for dealing with living law.117 Although always subject to the Constitution, customary law
should be understood in its own terms, and not from a common-law perspective. It should not be
regarded as a body of fixed, formally classified and easily ascertainable rules, but rather as a
system of law prevailing in a community with its own norms and values, that were handed down
from generation to generation. The courts should therefore be aware that the rules were constantly
changing to meet the needs of the community concerned, a flexibility that allows for consensus-
seeking and the prevention and resolution of disputes. These features contribute to family unity
and encourage co-operation, as well as a sense of responsibility, which combine to nurture a
sense of ubuntu.
Froneman J laid down three basic principles: the need for “caution, patience and respect” to
ensure that living customary law reflects constitutional norms;118 such concepts as a first wife’s
“consent” to polygynous marriages must be understood from a customary-law perspective, not
from a common-law or notionally “universal” understanding;119 customary law must be devel-
oped “in a participatory manner, reflected by the voices of those who live the custom”, so as to
dispel the idea that constitutional values are foreign impositions.120
When the court came to deal with the particular rule in issue – and it will be recalled that
this was a custom concerning a first wife’s consent to her husband’s subsequent customary
marriages – Justice Froneman expressly stated that he was dealing with a matter of law not
fact.121 It followed that the issue was, technically speaking, not a question of proof but rather of
ascertainment. The court nevertheless accepted the well-established evidentiary practices for
proving customary law. It entertained testimony and affidavits from: (a) individuals living in
polygynous marriages under Tsonga law; (b) an advisor to traditional leaders; (c) various tradi-
tional leaders and (d) two experts – one an anthropologist with extensive research experience in
Tsonga customary law, and the other a senior lecturer in law and jurisprudence – who drew
conclusions from the primary materials.122
Perhaps not surprisingly, this abundant evidence proved to be inconclusive in establishing the
custom. The court, however, did not decide the matter on the usual balance of probabilities test
used for weighing factual evidence. Instead, it remarked on the
nuances and perspectives that are often missed or ignored when viewed from a common-law perspective.
Nevertheless, while we must treat customary law with respect and dignity, it remains the courts’ task to
123
bring customary law, as with the common law, into line with the values of the Constitution.
________________________
115 Cited with approval in Mayelane v Ngwenyama 2013 (4) SA 415 (CC) para 45.
116 Above.
117 Paragraph 24, drawing on the judgments in Gumede v President of the RSA 2009 (3) SA 152 (CC), together
with Alexkor, Bhe and Shilubana above.
118 Paragraph 46.
119 Paragraph 49.
120 Paragraph 50.
121 Paragraph 61.
122 Paragraph 54. Also see para 98, the judgment by Zondo J, noting that the witnesses need not be experts or
persons in positions of authority.
123 Paragraph 54.
As a result, the court perceived not contradiction in the evidence, but “nuance and accommoda-
tion”.124 In other words, it found that Tsonga law sought to “accommodat[e] the concerns of the
first wife and her family when the husband seeks to enter into another marriage”.125 Notwith-
standing the “generous spirit” of Tsonga law, the court found that the decision to marry again
clearly rested with the husband, not his first wife. It then proceeded to resolve this impasse by
“developing” customary law (in terms of section 39(2)) in accordance with the first wife’s rights
to equality and human dignity.126 Thus, a subsequent marriage contracted by the husband with-
out his first wife’s consent would be invalid.
As a highly authoritative precedent, this judgment places a heavy burden on future courts.
They will be required to reconcile both conflicting evidence and conflicting legal principles to
present conclusions that will harmonise not only with traditional African conceptions of justice,
but also those of the new constitutional era.127
In conclusion, two matters should be noted. First, in spite of the courts’ clear preference for
living customary law, reference to an existing textual authority is, almost always, the starting
point in litigation. Indeed, given the time and cost of proving customs, courts and litigants tend
to look no further. More is at stake, however, than mere convenience. The very structure of the
adjudicatory process compels litigants to open proceedings with at least implicit reference to a
pre-existing set of rules,128 and, for their part, the courts cannot decide disputes with a clean
slate: the official law serves as a broadly accepted legal framework.
Although critical scholarship may have cast doubt on this body of rules, not all parts of it are
equally suspect,129 and, conversely, not all living law is consonant with the Constitution.130 It
follows that the courts must take care to determine the validity of each rule of the official law, a
process that requires careful scrutiny of the sources.
The rules most likely to be at odds with the Constitution and current social practice are to be
found in codifications of customary law: the Natal and KwaZulu Codes are typical examples.131
Restatements are also suspect, although they have been widely used in Africa to circumvent the
rigidity of codified law.132 While of some authority, these instruments are not binding, leaving
courts and litigants free to adduce new or more accurate rules.133
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124 Paragraph 61. See Zondo J’s dissenting judgment in this regard (para 114).
125 Paragraph 71.
126 See paras 71 and 75.
127 Also see the criticisms raised by Rautenbach (2017) PER/PELJ 14–15. She prefers the dissenting viewpoint
of Zondo J, who held that “[c]ustoms and usages ‘traditionally observed’ by a group of people [are] a ques-
tion of fact and not of law. When there is a material dispute of fact in a matter brought to court by way of
motion proceedings, it cannot be decided on the papers” and evidence needs to be provided, and parties
have to get the chance to cross-examine the witnesses.
128 As was clearly shown in Ruzane v Paradzai 1991 (1) ZLR 273 (SC) 278.
129 Or offensive to constitutional values. E.g., early cases insisting on spousal consent in marriage (Gidja v
Yingwane 1944 NAC (N&T) 4) or the best interests of children in custody claims (Matsupelele v Nomba-
kuse 1937 NAC (C&O) 163) can hardly be regarded as objectionable.
130 Himonga (2001) Int J Children’s Rts 97.
131 See the comment by Moseneke J in Gumede v President of Republic of South Africa 2009 (3) SA 152 (CC)
para 17ff: “Whilst patriarchy has always been a feature of indigenous society, the written or codified rules
of customary unions fostered a particularly crude and gendered form of inequality, which left women and
children singularly marginalised and vulnerable. It is so that patriarchy has worldwide prevalence, yet in
our case it was nurtured by fossilised rules and codes that displayed little or no understanding of the value
system that animated the customary law of marriage”. These Codes were repealed by the Repeal of the
Black Administration Act and Amendment of Certain Laws Act 28 of 2005.
132 A classic example of a restatement is Schapera (1938), which was commissioned by the colonial adminis-
tration of the Bechuanaland Protectorate in the 1930s, and still has authority in Botswana’s courts. Subse-
quently, private organisations in South Africa have produced similar instruments, and, in Namibia, commu-
nities themselves have produced so-called “self-statements” of their law: Hinz (assisted by Joas) Customary
Law in Namibia: Development and Perspective (1995) 91ff. In South Africa, the Centre for Indigenous
Law, a research unit in the Law Faculty at the University of South Africa was also active in producing
(continued)
Final authority to declare the law lies, of course, with the courts.134 They are therefore enti-
tled, of their own accord, to call for evidence on disputed or questionable rules.135 This power
does not, however, allow judges to engage in private investigations.136 They should observe the
principles of procedural fairness, which means that, if any rule is in doubt, the parties must be
informed so that they have an opportunity of calling witnesses of their own.137
Scholarly research is another standard source of customary law. Although these works may
offer better representations of social practice than codes or precedents, all such texts are, to a
greater or lesser extent, the product of the authors’ own preoccupations and intellectual
milieu.138 Lawyers, especially, have a professional concern to reduce the undifferentiated reper-
toires of norms that are typical of oral traditions to a coherent system of rules, and this process
inevitably requires substantial changes to the original regime.139
In fact, whenever community practices are recorded for public consumption, whether as a
result of field work or judicial inquiry, they begin a process of transformation into the official
code. Thereafter, as courts or legislatures pronounce on these practices, they incorporate the
rules into the formal system, severing them from their origins in society.140 As far as state law is
concerned, however, these rules remain binding until challenged again in the proper manner.141
Hence, because the sources of customary law are so varied in both form and content, it may
not always be possible to draw clear-cut distinctions between official and living law. Some
sources are closer to the one pole of this continuum than others.
3.5 Decolonisation of customary law and legal education142

The discussion in the foregoing sections of this book has shown the importance of living accord-
ing to customary law on the one hand and the complexity of the process of its ascertainment
with its attendant uncertainties in judicial decision-making. Some uncertainties are inherent in
the nature of this system of law – its oral and evolving nature and flexibility – all of which are
conducive to the treatment of cases on a case-by-case basis not linked to the common law
doctrine of precedent. However, the uncertainties produced by the nature of customary law also
arise from the orientation and training of lawyers and judges in Western legal ideas about law,
lawyering and decision-making. Arguably, the challenges and solutions on the ascertainment of
customary law in particular cannot be thought of only in terms of the inherent nature of custom-
ary law but must also be thought of in terms of the idea of law and the legal education of
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restatements. See, e.g., Myburgh (ed) (1980); Prinsloo (1983); Myburgh and Prinsloo (1985); Centre for
Indigenous Law (ed) (1990).
133 See Allott (1984) J Afr Law 67–68 and Allott and Cotran (eds) (1971) 18–20.
134 Although the courts should be cautious about arrogating to themselves knowledge of community practice.
To ensure transparency, S v Sihlani 1966 (3) SA 148 (E) held that, if judges decided to rely on their own
knowledge to reach a finding, the points on which judicial notice was taken should be recorded in open
court.
135 Morake v Dubedube 1928 TPD 625, 631.
136 Rowe v Assistant Magistrate, Pretoria 1925 TPD 361, 369–370.
137 Whenever a court is uncertain whether the rule before it is an authentic representation of customary law, its
approach should in principle be that outlined by in R v Dumezweni 1961 (2) SA 751 (A) 756–757. See
above.
138 For these reasons, amongst others, the South African Law Commission Report on Customary Marriages
(1999) paras 2.2.10–13 refused to entertain a call for the restatement of customary law. It said that the facil-
ities for such a project were not available in South Africa, and that, unless regularly updated, the restate-
ment would inevitably fall behind social practice to become yet another “official” version of customary
law.
139 See Bennett and Vermeulen (1980) J Afr Law 206–217.
140 See Allott (1977) J Afr Law 5.
141 Namely, in terms of s 1 of the Law of Evidence of Amendment Act 45 of 1988.
142 This section is an adaptation of an article written by Himonga and Diallo (2017) PER/PELJ 1–19. Also see
Himonga (2017) Acta Juridica 101–123.
professionals who interpret and apply the law in the context of dispute resolution. Consequently,
the recognition, application and ascertainment of customary law calls for a rethinking of tradi-
tional concepts and the way we have been teaching customary law at universities. Thus, the
debates on decolonisation and the teaching of law in decolonised contexts are relevant to discus-
sions of ascertainment of customary law. This section of the chapter incorporates some thoughts
on the issues of decolonisation of law and the teaching of customary law in universities.
The transformation of legal education includes the rethinking of broader issues such as the
decolonisation of customary law, which in turn raises questions about the legal history of Afri-
can countries; the concept of law; the role of law in African societies; the status of indigenous
systems of law in post-independence or post-apartheid systems, and how customary law is or
should be taught in law schools.143
Alex Hotz, for example, wrote: “As a law student, I believe decolonising the law faculty goes
beyond the faculty and the institution. It speaks to what the law is and how it is used within
society.”144 The meaning of decolonisation is unsettled, if not contested.
In their joint reflection on decolonising the University of Cape Town, Max Price and Russel
Ally stated that “decolonisation . . . should certainly not be reduced to some naïve . . . desire to
return to a pristine, unblemished Africa before the arrival of the settlers”.145 This statement
seems to allude to a non-romanticised and non-rhetorical concept of decolonisation, on the one
hand, and a dynamic meaning of decolonisation, on the other hand. Himonga and Diallo agree
that the decolonisation of the law should not mean the “unconditional indigenisation of law” and
suggests that:146
a more meaningful point of departure in the decolonisation of law is the defining of law from a “non-
colonial” position and from alternative legal epistemologies. In this respect, decolonisation draws from
different sources of law and normative agencies to promote the transformative potential of law in achieving
more social and economic justice.
Decolonisation should move away from a hegemonic or Eurocentric conception of law connected
to legal cultures historically rooted in colonialism (and apartheid) in Africa to more inclusive
legal cultures.147 Decolonisation refers to locating the paradigmatic and theoretical shifts that are
required for the teaching of law, especially in teaching both the official and living versions of
customary law.148
Official customary law refers to a variety of sources of state law. In some countries, such as
South Africa, official customary law may be divided into two categories. The first category, the
old order category, consists of codifications of customary law, such as the KwaZulu and Natal
Codes of customary law; legislation purporting to embody customary law, such as the Black
Administration Act;149 court precedents or case law; and textbooks whose content is based on
legislation and court precedents or other state law sources of customary law.
The second category of official customary law, the new order official customary law, consists
of legislation arising from the provisions of the Constitution that recognise customary law. For
example, section 15 of the Constitution states that legislation may be enacted to recognise
traditional forms of marriage or marriages concluded according to custom. Section 211(3) of the
same Constitution provides that the courts must apply customary law subject to, among other
________________________
143 In 2015, during the student protests, one of the demands was the decolonisation of the curricula in law
schools.
144 See UCT (2015) Year in Review 23.
145 UCT (2015) Year in Review 23.
146 Himonga and Diallo (2017) PER/PELJ 5. Also see Himonga (2017) Acta Juridica 108.
147 Himonga (2017) Acta Juridica 108.
148 Also see the discussion of official and living customary law in ch 2.
149 Black Administration Act 38 of 1927.
things, legislation dealing specifically with customary law. In 1998, the Recognition of Custom-
ary Marriages Act150 was enacted to reform the customary law of marriage in line with the South
African Constitution, including the constitutional provisions on gender equality. This Act makes
provision for the application of both customary law and the common law. It is therefore a hybrid
form of official customary law linked to new efforts aimed at transforming indigenous institu-
tions within African constitutional frameworks.151
Although both the old order and new order categories of official customary law bear the
appellation of customary law, they often bear little resemblance to the living customary law
regulating the day-to-day lives of people on the ground.152 Most importantly, the old order
category of official customary law bears the marks of colonialism (and apartheid). This is
because it was designed to advance colonial or apartheid state interests, in the process of which
it was distorted.153 For these reasons, the inclusion of old order official customary law in legal
education would perpetuate the colonial legal legacy, which is contrary to the idea of decoloni-
sation. Therefore, this category of official customary law should not form a core part of the legal
curriculum. In contrast, the new order official customary law should be included in legal educa-
tion, because it forms part of the constitutionalisation of customary law, along with living
customary law.
Arguably, three elements are essential for decolonising law and legal education. These are the
inclusion of living customary law in legal education; a shift in theoretical paradigm within
which law is taught, and the interdisciplinary study of law.
(a) Inclusion of living customary law in legal education: living customary law is the law that
governs the legal relations of people who are subject to a given system of customary law in
their day-to-day life. An equally fitting definition is that adopted by South African legisla-
tion: “the customs and usages traditionally observed among the indigenous African peoples
of South Africa which form part of the culture of those people”.154 The use of the term “cul-
ture” in this definition is significant, as it seems to allude to the dynamic nature of living
customary law – as culture is dynamic, so is living customary law. Living customary law
represents the practices or customs observed and invested with binding authority by the
people whose customary law is under consideration.155
That living customary law is distinct from other legal systems comprising African legal
systems is clear from both academic literature and post-apartheid jurisprudence in South
Africa. In this respect, Bennett has observed:156
[R]ules of an oral regime are porous and malleable. Because they have no clear definition, it is difficult
to differentiate one rule from another, and, in consequence, to classify rules according to type. If rules
cannot be classified, they cannot be arranged into a system, and without the discipline of a system,
rules may overlap and contradict one another. In fact strictly speaking, the oral versions of customary
law should not be called systems at all. They are probably better described as repertoires, from which
the discerning judge may select whichever rule best suits the needs of the case.
What emerges from this statement is a distinctive legal tradition whose logic and method-
ology does not place primary value on organisation or systemisation, and does not aspire to
be a rigid framework of regulation, like other systems such as official customary law or the
common law.
________________________
150 120 of 1998.

151 The Reform of the Customary Law of Succession and Regulation of Related Matters Act 11 of 2009 also
falls into this category of official customary law.
152 See generally Himonga and Moore (2015).
153 See generally Chanock (1985).
154 Section 1 of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act 120 of 1998 and of the Reform of Customary
Law of Succession and Regulation of Related Matters Act 11 of 2009.
155 See further Hund (1998) ARSP 420–429.
156 See Bennett (2004) 3 note 6.
Similarly, the Constitutional Court of South Africa implicitly describes living customary
law as a distinctive and original source of law.157 Referring to the recognition of customary
law by sections 211 and 39(2) of the Constitution, the Constitutional Court has stated: “The
Constitution thus ‘acknowledges the originality and distinctiveness of indigenous law as an
independent source of norms within the legal system . . ’.”158
Arguably, the source of living customary law (i.e. the people subject to customary law); the
value of its flexibility and adaptability as an evolving oral system, and its recognition as a
distinctive and original source of indigenous law are all positive elements in the decolonisa-
tion of law. These attributes also qualify this system of law for inclusion as a core subject
of study in a decolonised system of legal education. Moreover, these qualities of living cus-
tomary law justify its development and retention in a decolonised legal system, also bearing
in mind the fact that this system of law regulates the lives of the majority of the population
in African legal systems.
Living customary law should be taught in all law faculties or law schools and at appropriate
levels of the law degree that enable students to comprehend the significance and complex-
ity of the subject within the constitutional frameworks of African countries. Future lawyers
and judges need to have an understanding of important aspects of this customary law,
including its conceptualisation; its methodology in a broad sense,159 and its development as
a system of law within African constitutional frameworks. If future lawyers and judges are
not given appropriate legal training about living customary law, they will not have the right
lens160 through which to view customary law – in its own right, and not from the perspec-
tive of other legal systems. The relevant pronouncements of the South African Constitu-
tional Court above will therefore be devoid of any practical significance.
Teaching living customary law at law schools will not be easy. A host of issues concerning
living customary law demand the attention of scientific thought in institutions of higher
learning if this system is to develop into a modern African legal system. These issues
include: the long-standing challenge of how to ascertain living customary law, with the
attendant question of how to ensure a measure of certainty about the rules of this system in
the context of judicial decision-making; the manipulation and distortion of living customary
law, especially in the context of power relations among different sections of the community
living under customary law, and because of its evolving and oral nature;161 appropriate
methods of aligning this system of law with constitutional principles and international and
regional human rights; the endurance and social legitimacy of living customary law;162 and
issues of the universal application of human rights vis-a-vis cultural rights, and whether and
how the fundamentally different world views represented by the living customary law and
common law can be merged and reconciled in one body of law – for example, that body of
________________________
157 See discussion at ch 2, para 2.4.

158 Alexkor Ltd v Richtersveld Community 2004 (5) SA 460 (CC) para 51. Also see Mayelane v Ngwenyama
2013 (4) SA 415 (CC) para 23; Bhe v Magistrate, Khayelitsha 2005 (1) SA 580 (CC) para 41; Ex parte
Chairperson of the Constitutional Assembly: In re Certification of the Constitution of the Republic of South
Africa, 1996 1996 (4) SA 744 (CC) para 197.
159 For example, including case-by-case approaches and reconciliation as the goal of dispute resolution.
160 Alexkor Ltd v Richtersveld Community 2004 (5) SA 460 (CC) para 51.
161 See Chanock (1985) 81; Kameri-Mbote, Odote and Nyamu-Musembi (2013) 50. In Bhe v Magistrate,
Khayelitsha 2005 (1) SA 580 (CC) para 154, the minority judgment of Ngcobo J identified the issue of dis-
tortion of living customary law associated with this law’s evolving and oral nature in the following terms:
“The evolving nature of indigenous law and the fact that it is unwritten have resulted in the difficulty of
ascertaining the true indigenous law as practiced in the community. . . . What is more, abuses of indigenous
law are at times construed as a true reflection of indigenous law, and these abuses tend to and undermine its
value. The difficulty is one of identifying the living indigenous law and separating it from its distorted
version.”
162 See, for example, Kane, Oloka-Onyango and Tejan-Cole (2005) New Frontiers of Social Policy 22.
law which has to regulate commerce. There is however no better place for addressing these
issues, or for the development of customary law in relation to these issues, than in the acad-
emy, in legal education.
(b) The legal theoretical framework for customary law: The predominant legal theoretical
framework within which law is taught, at least in law schools under the historical influence
of English and Roman-Dutch common law, is legal centralism and positivism. This theory
prepares future lawyers and judges to engage with western-type legal systems and legal cul-
tures and not with non-western African legal systems, let alone oral legal traditions. For
example, an important aspect of legal positivism is formalism. This strand of legal theory
separates legal rules from “nonlegal normative considerations of morality or political
philosophy”163 and requires judges to apply the rules to the facts of the case before them
deductively, with the value of legal certainty as a goal, among other things.164 However, the
rules of living customary law cannot be abstracted from their social contexts. They are
embedded in the social realities within which people live their lives. In addition, the values
of certainty, stability and predictability – which are core to western legal cultures – are not
necessarily the primary goals of dispute resolution in living customary law.165
The legal education of judges and lawyers in Africa exclusively within the theoretical
frameworks of legal positivism and centralism does not adequately prepare them to deal
with the application of non-western legal orders, such as living customary law, in which
law and its values are viewed differently. The result is that lawyers and judges view living
customary law as non-existent, or regard living customary law as informal law that is irrel-
evant to state institutions.
South African judges have shown a remarkable willingness to step beyond the influence of
the dominant mode of their legal education to embrace and recognise concepts of law, such
as living customary law, that are located in non-western legal pluralistic theoretical frame-
works. However, these judges sometimes seem to retreat into their predominantly western
law and legal theoretical training and orientation when applying customary law. The result
is that they bring ideas of legal centralism and positivism into the domain of customary law
as well.
A classic example of this retreat is the decision of the majority in Bhe v Magistrate, Khaye-
litsha.166 In this case, the Constitutional Court recognised the concept of living customary
law, including its flexibility. This flexibility means that the system of law is relatively
“processual”, and hence less rule-bound than the “positivist/centralist” system of law, in the
sense that the application of the rules to disputes follows the repertoire of norms approach
Bennett alludes to above.167 Inherently, this attribute of living customary law entails a case-
by-case approach to the application of customary law in decision-making. It also entails
some uncertainty in the outcomes of cases. In other words, ideally there is no precedent
value in cases decided under customary law, as each case is decided entirely on its own
merits.168 Interestingly, however, the majority of judges in Bhe v Magistrate, Khayelitsha169
focused on the values of certainty and uniformity associated with legal centralism and posi-
tivism in deciding whether to develop customary law in accordance with constitutional
________________________
163 Leiter (2010) Legal Theory 111.

164 See generally Posner (1986–7) Case W Res L Rev 179–217; Winerib (1988) Yale LJ 949–958.
165 With regard to certainty, see Bennett Human Rights and African Customary Law 61; Himonga (2017) Acta
Juridica 117.
166 2005 (1) SA 580 (CC).
167 See Bennett (2005) 3 fn 6.
168 Himonga (2017) Acta Juridica 120.
169 2005 (1) SA 580 (CC).
provisions. The response of the court to the argument on this issue is quoted at length in or-
der to underscore this point.
It was argued by one of the parties that if the court was not in a position to develop the
rules of customary law in this case, it should allow for flexibility in order to facilitate the
development of the law. The majority, rejecting this argument, reasoned as follows:170
The import of this [argument] was that since customary law is inherently flexible with the ability to
permit compromise settlements, courts should introduce into the system those principles that the offi-
cial system of succession violates. It was suggested that this could be done by using the exceptions in
the implementation of the primogeniture rule which do occur in the actual administration of intestate
succession as the applicable rule for customary law succession in order to avoid unfair discrimination
and the violation of the dignity of the individuals affected by it. These exceptions would, according to
this view, constitute the “living” customary law which should be implemented instead of official cus-
tomary law. . . There is much to be said for the above approach. I consider, however, that it would be
inappropriate to adopt it as the remedy in this case. What it amounts to is advocacy for a case by case
development as the best option. . . The problem with development by the courts on a case by case basis
is that changes will be very slow; uncertainties regarding the real rules of customary law will be pro-
longed and there will be different solutions for similar problems . . .
Underpinning this reasoning is the court’s support for the values of certainty and uniformity
associated with the concept of law within the legal theoretical framework of centralism and
positivism, as well as its affinity to the doctrine of precedent. Thus, the ghost of the training
of judges in legal centralism and positivism sometimes seems to follow them when they
apply customary law in decision-making.171 The training of lawyers and future judges
should therefore equip them to deal not only with the dominant common-law systems of
African countries but with living customary law as well.
This shift could be made by teaching law within legal theoretical frameworks that are
closely associated with the concept of living customary law, the most appropriate of which
is the theoretical perspective of legal pluralism.
Legal pluralism is the coexistence of distinctive legal systems in a specific social field
where “laws and institutions are not subsumed within one system but have their sources in
the self-regulatory activities of all the multifarious social fields present, activities which
may support, complement, ignore or frustrate one another”.172 Within this theoretical
framework, the existence of one legal order does not depend on its recognition by other
legal orders, including the legal order of the state. Living customary law fits perfectly into
this theoretical framework.173
Additionally, the sociological theoretical framework that deals with the concept of living
law174 could also be explored for its relevance to the teaching of law in a decolonised con-
text.175 Both the teaching of living customary law within the legal pluralistic (and sociolog-
ical) theoretical framework and the decolonisation of law would benefit from an
interdisciplinary approach to the teaching of law.
________________________
170 Bhe v Magistrate, Khayelitsha 2005 (1) SA 580 (CC) paras 110–112. Emphasis added.
171 See, however, Himonga (2017) 119 Acta Juridica for the view that the statement concerned may have
been limited to the exceptional circumstances of the decision in Bhe v Magistrate, Khayelitsha 2005 (1) SA
580 (CC).
173 For detailed discussion see Himonga and Bosch (2000) SALJ 306–341.
174 See, for example, Ehrlich (1936).
175 For a discussion of the conceptualisation of living customary law within a sociological theoretical frame-
work, see Himonga and Bosch (2000) SALJ 306–341.
(c) The interdisciplinary teaching of customary law: An interdisciplinary approach to the

study of a subject is defined as:176
[A]n approach that integrates information, data, techniques, tools, perspectives, concepts, and/or
theories from two or more disciplines or bodies of specialised knowledge to advance fundamental
understanding or to solve problems whose solutions are beyond the scope of a single discipline.
Interdisciplinary studies of law therefore offer a platform for a more profound understanding
of the relationship between law in all its manifestations and regulatory practice in society.
Law, as a social practice or legal science, has often closed itself off in epistemological
monism. Yet, the apparent assumption underlying this monism that law can explain itself,
both as theoretical corpus and social practice, cannot be established. Legal science there-
fore needs to open itself up to other disciplines through interdisciplinary studies. This is
also essential to enhance the power of law to elucidate and transform social reality. More-
over, the problems that law is supposed to address in society often lie beyond a single dis-
cipline. Understanding the epistemological problems and sharpening the instrumentality of
law in solving these problems therefore requires an integration of knowledge from different
disciplines.
The proposed interdisciplinary positioning that connects legal science to other social
sciences is especially important in the African context. Africa is characterised by plural
legal systems, originating in colonial and, in South Africa, apartheid history, with their
roots, definitions and structures in different legal traditions, frameworks and paradigms.
Interdisciplinary studies in the fields of law and anthropology, law and sociology, and law
and history would introduce students and the legal profession to a way of understanding
social realities that is gleaned from the lived experiences of people. This would be achieved
through the multiple layers of observing, interviewing, translating, writing and interpreting
(asking questions such as how to capture and understand the norms of a community, how to
understand a community or ethnic group etc.), as well as through understanding of how
legitimacy and authority are multi-vocal and often contested. Furthermore, studies in these
fields would help law students and the legal profession generally to better understand
issues concerning inequality, modes of oppression, and social justice.177 Studies in law and
history, in particular, would assist students to understand the neglect of the study of living
customary law in African colonial (and apartheid) history, as well as the need for a para-
digm shift in the thinking about customary law as a source of law in post-colonial contexts
exhibiting new constitutional mandates regarding the recognition of customary law in the
legal system.
The decolonisation of law in South Africa is important for the survival of living customary
law as a distinct legal system which regulates the lives of millions of people in Africa. This
not only reflects African legal realities, but also contributes to alternative epistemologies
that reveal the transformative potential of law in dealing with the social realities of Africa.
The teaching of living customary law and law generally is critical to both of these contribu-
tions. Unless law teaching is redesigned to shift the legal theoretical paradigm within which
law is taught and to adopt an interdisciplinary approach to the teaching of law, the project
of decolonising law in African legal systems will falter, if not fail to materialise.
The overall shift in the paradigm of teaching law will increase the potential of law to
transform African societies and enhance social justice in a manner that is consistent with
decolonisation.
________________________
176 National Science Foundation (USA) “What is interdisciplinary research?” accessible at http://nsf.gov/
od/oia/additional_resources/interdisciplinary_research/definition.jsp.
177 This idea emerged from academic discussions between Chuma Himonga and Elena Moore in 2017.
4
Religious, Personal and Family Law Systems in
South Africa
Page
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 63
4.2 South African law relating to religious marriages ..................................................... 63
4.3 The doctrine of religious entanglement in South Africa ............................................ 66
4.4 Does the Constitution apply to unrecognised religious, personal and family laws? .... 68
4.5 The potential conflict between sex and/or gender equality vis-à-vis freedom of
religion in religious, personal and family laws in South Africa................................. 69
4.6 Implications of international law for religious, personal and family laws
in South Africa ........................................................................................................... 73
61
Chapter 4: Religious, Personal and Family Law Systems in South Africa 63
4.1 Introduction
South Africa’s “rainbow nation” is reflected among others in its multi-religious make-up. The
most recent statistics for South Africa’s religious demographics are contained in the 2015
Statistics South Africa General Household Survey.1 The latter indicates that of South Africa’s
total population in 2015, its religious communities comprised mainly Christians (86%), tradi-
tional African religions (5,4%), Muslims (1,9%), Hindus (0,9%) and Jews (0,2%). At least 5,2%
of the population professed to not follow any religion and 0,4% were categorised as “other
religion”.
For historical reasons, there is a strong link between apartheid racial classifications and the
religious association of communities. For instance, during colonialism, there was an influx of
slaves, indentured labour, political prisoners and traders from the east. Consequently, Muslims
are located mainly within the coloured and Indian communities, while Hindus make up the
majority of the Indian community in South Africa. Although traditional African religions are
practised within black African communities, many black Africans also follow the Christian faith
due to the missionary work of colonisers, as do members of the coloured and white communi-
ties. Judaism is practised predominantly within the white South African community.
Religious marriages, which form a component of personal and family laws, are entered into
in all of the aforementioned religious communities. This chapter is concerned with the legal
approach to religious, personal and family law systems with particular emphasis on religious
marriages in South Africa that are currently unrecognised in terms of South African law, thus
operating in a non-state law or unofficial sphere.2 It commences with a brief synopsis of the
South African law relating to marriages, followed by a discussion about the doctrine of religious
entanglement in South Africa. Consideration is then given to whether or not the South African
Constitution applies to unrecognised religious, personal and family laws, including religious
marriages. The potential conflict between freedom of religion and sex and/or gender equality is
also briefly explored and the implications of international law for religious, personal and family
laws in South Africa are addressed. More detailed discussions about the Muslim, Hindu and
Jewish religious marriage and inheritance laws are offered in separate chapters elsewhere in this
book.
4.2 South African law relating to religious marriages

Colonialism influenced the official legal framework in South Africa. Prior to the advent of
constitutional democracy in 1994, South African law was primarily a Western-based common
law system. Various aspects of the common law system were influenced historically by Chris-
tian underpinnings. For example, in the family law sphere, the common law definition of mar-
riage mimicked the Christian heteronormative and monogamous expectation that marriage is “a
union of one man with one woman, to the exclusion, while it lasts, of all others.”3 A marriage
that had the potential to be anything other than monogamous or between members of the oppo-
site sex was considered anathema,4 uncivilised,5 contrary to public policy and not legally en-
forceable.6 On this basis, African customary marriages, Muslim marriages, Hindu marriages,
Jewish marriages and unions between same-sex couples were treated as unlawful.
________________________
1 See http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0318/P03182015.pdf (accessed 30 July 2018).

2 Also referred to as “the other law”. See Schärf and Nina “Introduction: The other law” in Schärf and Nina
(eds) (2001) 1–4.
3 Mashia Ebrahim v Mahomed Essop 1905 TS 59 61. Also see Minister of Home Affairs v Fourie 2006 (3)
BCLR 355 (CC) para 3.
4 Kader v Kader 1972 (3) SA 203 (RAD) 207B.
5 Seedat’s Executors v The Master (Natal) 1917 AD 302 307–308.
6 Ismail v Ismail 1983 (1) SA 1006 (AD) 1024E, 1025G.
Given the various forms of discrimination that black South Africans (black Africans, col-
oureds and Indians) suffered under colonialism and apartheid, which included religious margin-
alisation, the Constitution seeks among other things to recognise, respect and promote religious
diversity.7 For example, section 15(3) of the Constitution states:
(a) This section does not prevent legislation recognising–
(i) marriages concluded under any tradition, or a system of religious, personal or family law; or
(ii) systems of personal and family law under any tradition, or adhered to by persons professing a
particular religion.
(b) Recognition in terms of paragraph (a) must be consistent with this section and the other provisions of
the Constitution.
Section 31 provides:
(1) Persons belonging to a cultural, religious or linguistic community may not be denied the right, with
other members of that community–
(a) to enjoy their culture, practise their religion and use their language; and
(b) to form, join and maintain cultural, religious and linguistic associations and other organs of civil
society.
(2) The rights in subsection (1) may not be exercised in a manner inconsistent with any provision of the
Bill of Rights.
Section 15(3) creates the possibility for religious communities to have their marriages and
personal and family laws regulated by their religious laws. At the same time, sections 15(3) and
31 contain internal limitations, which respectively require legislation that recognises religious
marriages or religious, personal and family law systems and religious practices to be consistent
with provisions of the Constitution. This effectively means that exercising one’s right to reli-
gious freedom should not be achieved at the expense of sex and/or gender equality.8
In accordance with section 15(3)(a), the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act (RCMA)9
was introduced to legally recognise African customary marriages, including those that are
polygynous.10 Subsequently, the Civil Union Act (CUA)11 was passed to afford legal recogni-
tion to same-sex unions. One could therefore argue that through legislative intervention, the
common law definition of marriage is becoming more inclusive and reflective of the diversity of
South Africa’s family forms.
Notwithstanding the above, neither religious marriages nor other personal and family law
systems have been afforded legal recognition. While African customary law is now officially
part of the South African legal system, religious marriages and personal and family law systems
continue to operate in the unofficial or non-state law sphere. In some communities, religious
marriages and personal and family laws are regulated by the religious clergy or religious leader-
ship within those communities. For instance, in the Muslim community, Muslim personal law12
________________________
7 Prince v President of the Law Society of the Cape of Good Hope 2002 (3) BCLR 231 (CC) para 49; MEC
for Education, KwaZulu-Natal v Pillay 2008 (1) SA 474 (CC) para 62.
8 Amien (2006) 729–754, 750.
9 120 of 1998.
10 Polygyny is a form of marriage where a man has more than one wife. On the question of polygamy and
public policy, see Goolam (2000) THRHR 522–524.
11 17 of 2006.
12 Muslim personal law embodies family law and inheritance, which are based on the tenets of Islamic law.
Muslim family law includes Muslim marriage, divorce, and issues emanating from marriage and divorce
such as parental rights and responsibilities associated with children born of a Muslim marriage. Muslim
inheritance involves the administration of a deceased person’s estate according to Islamic law. See Pearl
and Menski, Muslim Family law, 3rd ed (1998) 29; Najma Moosa, “Muslim Personal Law Affecting Chil-
dren: Diversity, Practice and Implications for a new Children’s Code for South Africa”, 115 SALJ (1998)
479; Amien (2014) 192–218, 192; Rautenbach (2006) CILSA 244.
is regulated by the Ulama (Islamic law scholars) and in the Jewish community, Judaic personal
law is regulated by the Beth Din (Jewish ecclesiastical court). Any rulings emanating from the
aforementioned religious authorities carry only moral weight and are not legally enforceable.13
Non-recognition of religious marriages leaves parties who are married only by religious rites
unprotected. Wives in religious marriages are especially vulnerable, because many find them-
selves financially destitute when their marriages end in death or divorce. Several cases involving
Muslim, Hindu and Jewish marriages have been adjudicated during the post-apartheid era, in
which wives have approached the courts seeking relief during the course of their religious
marriages or as a result of the termination of their religious marriages.14 Some of these cases are
discussed elsewhere in this book, particularly in the chapters dealing with Muslim, Hindu and
Jewish personal law. With the exception of a few instances,15 the South African judiciary has
been proactive in providing relief to parties, especially women married by religious rites. Con-
sequently, the Muslim marriage has been recognised as a contract (nikahnama) and proven
terms of the Muslim marriage contract may be enforced through the courts.16 A Jewish marriage
contract (ketubah) containing an agreement to divorce (get) was similarly recognised by the
court.17 Several pieces of legislation have also been amended to enable spouses married by
religious rites to be treated as beneficiaries under the legislation.18 For example, monogamous
Muslim wives may claim compensation under the Multilateral Motor Vehicle Accidents Fund
Act,19 may be treated as a surviving spouse for the purpose of the Wills Act20 and may, under
the Uniform Rules of Court, be awarded interim maintenance and/or access, custody and guardi-
anship of minor children born of the marriage when there is a matrimonial action pending in the
High Court.21 Monogamous and polygynous Muslim spouses and monogamous Hindu spouses
may also inherit intestate from each other through the Intestate Succession Act22 and monoga-
mous Muslim surviving spouses may claim maintenance from their deceased spouses’ intestate
estates under the Maintenance of Surviving Spouses Act.23 Monogamous and polygynous
Muslim wives may further claim spousal maintenance from their husbands through the Mainte-
nance Act.24
________________________
13 Amien (2006) 729–754, 731.

14 Ryland v Edros 1997 (1) BCLR 77 (C); Amod v Multilateral Motor Vehicle Accidents Fund (Commission
for Gender Equality Intervening) 1999 (4) SA 1319 (SCA); Amar v Amar 1999 (3) SA 604 (W); Daniels v
Campbell 2004 (7) BCLR 735 (CC); Khan v Khan 2005 (2) SA 272 (T); Singh v Ramparsad 2007 (3) SA
445 (D); Hassam v Jacobs 2009 (5) SA 572 (CC); Govender v Ragavayah 2009 (3) SA 178 (D); Hoosain v
Dangor [2010] 2 All SA 55 (WCC); Arendse v Arendse 2013 (3) SA 347 (WCC); Moosa v Minister of Jus-
tice and Correctional Services 2018 (5) SA 13 (CC); Women's Legal Centre Trust v President of the Repub-
lic of South Africa, Faro v Bingham, Esau v Esau [2018] ZAWCHC 109 (31 August 2018).
15 For example, see Singh v Ramparsad 2007 (3) SA 445 (D). In this case, the Durban High Court refused to
recognise a Hindu marriage as a civil marriage for the purposes of the Marriage Act 25 of 1961 and conse-
quently also refused to grant the wife a civil divorce under the Divorce Act 70 of 1979.
16 Ryland v Edros 1997 (2) SA 690 (C).
17 Raik v Raik 1993 (2) SA 617 (W).
18 Apart from the legislation listed in text, other pieces of legislation that also afford partial recognition to
certain aspects of religious marriages in limited instances include the Insolvency Act 24 of 1936 (s 21(13)),
Births and Deaths Registration Act 51 of 1992 (s 1(2)(a)), Special Pensions Act 69 of 1996 (s 31) and
Demobilisation Act 99 of 1996 (s 1).
19 93 of 1989.
20 7 of 1953.
21 Amod v Multilateral Motor Vehicle Accidents Fund; Moosa v Minister of Justice and Correctional Services;
Hoosain v Dangor.
22 81 of 1987. See Daniels v Campbell; Hassam v Jacobs; Govender v Ragavayah.
23 27 of 1990. See Daniels v Campbell.
24 99 of 1998. See Khan v Khan.
The aforementioned judicial findings and legislative amendments have afforded ad hoc and
partial or limited recognition to certain aspects of Muslim, Hindu and Jewish family law. To
date, the judiciary has been reluctant to provide wholesale legal recognition to religious mar-
riages.25 One of the reasons that the South African judiciary appears to have been willing
to provide ad hoc relief thus far in the area of religious family laws is ostensibly because it did
not have to navigate issues of religious doctrine in those cases. The South African judiciary
considers itself bound by the common law doctrine of religious entanglement, which prevents
judges from becoming entangled in religious doctrinal issues.
4.3 The doctrine of religious entanglement in South Africa

South African common law contains a rule called ‘the doctrine of religious entanglement’. This
doctrine requires that South African courts avoid becoming entangled in religious doctrine
“unless some proprietary or other legally recognised right [is] involved.”26 Subsequent to the
enactment of the South African Constitution, the issue of religious doctrinal entanglement
surfaced in the area of religious family laws in the cases of Ryland v Edros,27 Taylor v Kurt-
stag28 and Singh v Ramparsad.29
In Ryland v Edros,30 the parties had been married and divorced by Muslim rites. Among oth-
ers, the ex-wife had claimed an equitable distribution of her ex-husband’s estate. By relying on
the testimony of an expert witness, she claimed that the Malaysian custom of harta sepencarian
was applicable to their former Muslim marriage, since Malaysia is a Shafi’i jurisdiction and both
parties to the marriage followed the Shafi’i school of thought (madhhab).31 Harta sepencarian is
part of Malaysian family law and enables a Malaysian court to order the equal distribution of
estates between husband and wife upon the dissolution of the marriage.32 By relying on the
testimony of his expert witness, the ex-husband in the Ryland case argued instead that a custom
akin to that of harta sepencarian is not practised in the Western Cape Muslim community. The
Cape High Court (as it then was) chose to be guided by the religious practices of the community
where the parties had resided and found against the ex-wife’s claim for an equitable distribution
of her ex-husband’s estate.33
In Taylor v Kurtstag, during the course of civil divorce proceedings between the parties, the
parties agreed that they would submit their dispute relating to, among other things, financial,
maintenance and custody considerations to an ad hoc Beth Din for settlement.34 The ad hoc Beth
Din delivered a Jewish law (halachic) ruling in which it awarded custody of the children to the
wife and directed the husband to pay arrears maintenance and ongoing maintenance to the wife
in respect of the children born of the marriage.35 When it became clear to the Beth Din that the
husband had no intention of honouring their halachic ruling, it issued an excommunication order
(cherem) to shun him from most aspects of the Jewish community.36 A cherem is a mechanism
________________________
25 See, e.g., Amod v Multilateral Motor Vehicle Accidents Fund.

26 Allen v Gibbs 1977 (3) SA 212 (SE) 218A–B.
27 1997 (2) SA 690 (C).
28 2005 (1) SA 362 (W).
29 2007 (3) SA 445 (D).
30 See a more detailed discussion of this case in Amien (2016) 57–59 and Rautenbach 2000 Recht van de
Islam 54–57.
31 Ryland v Edros at 698H–I, 715B–716D.
32 Malaysian Islamic Family Law (Federal Territory) Act of 1984.
33 Ryland v Edros at 717D–E.
34 Taylor v Kurtstag para 4.
35 Paragraph 6.
36 Paragraph 9.
through which the Beth Din attempts to enforce its rulings within the Jewish community.37 The
husband applied for an interdict to prevent the ad hoc Beth Din from publishing the cherem.38 In
considering the application, the Witwatersrand Local Division (as it then was) held that “[to]
question whether the proposed cherem or a lesser sanction would have been appropriate would
be to interfere in matters of faith, and arrogate to the court a power not constitutionally provided
for: The threshold for intervention is and should be high.”39 The court accordingly dismissed the
application.40
In Singh v Ramparsad, the parties had been married to each other by Hindu rites only, more
specifically according to the tenets of the Vedic tradition, which does not allow for divorce.41
The parties chose not to register their marriage under the Marriage Act.42 43 Subsequently, the
marriage broke down irretrievably and the wife approached the Durban and Coast Local Divi-
sion (as it then was) asking the court to recognise her Hindu marriage as legally valid under the
Marriage Act and to be granted a civil divorce under the Divorce Act.44 By relying on the
doctrine of religious entanglement, the court held that “it is not for the court to pronounce the
parties as being divorced if they elected to practise a faith and took vows which did not counte-
nance divorce.” 45 The court adopted the view that if it were to rule in the wife’s favour and
grant her divorce, it “would be interfering in theological issues which may cause offence to
members of the Hindu community.”46 The wife’s action was accordingly dismissed.47
Considering the outcomes of the Ryland and Singh cases, it appears that reliance on the doc-
trine of religious entanglement has the potential to militate against the protection of women’s
rights in the area of unrecognised religious, personal and family laws. Legal recognition of
religious marriages or personal and family laws is therefore necessary, because it will bring
those laws within the domain of the judiciary.48 Section 39(2) of the Constitution requires South
African courts “[w]hen interpreting any legislation, and when developing the common law or
customary law, . . . [to] promote the spirit, purport and objects of the Bill of Rights.” Thus,
through legal recognition of religious marriages or personal and family laws, the doctrine of
religious entanglement will most likely be rendered ineffective in respect of those laws. Legal
recognition could be achieved in one or more of the following ways: (a) develop the common
law definition of marriage to include religious marriages; (b) amend existing marriage legisla-
tion such as the Marriage Act or the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act to bring religious
marriages within their ambit; (c) enact legislation to afford recognition to religious marriages;
(d) enact legislation to recognise and regulate the features of different religious marriages.
Among the aforementioned options, women’s right to equality will most likely be best protected
through the enactment of legislation that will not only recognise religious marriages but also
regulate the specific features of each religious marriage.49 A good example of legislation seeking
to recognise and regulate the features of a religious marriage is the Muslim Marriages Bill that
________________________
37 Taylor v Kurtstag para 56.

38 Paragraph 24.
39 Paragraph 58.
40 Paragraph 65.
41 Paragraphs 1, 3.
42 25 of 1961.
43 Singh v Ramparsad para 3.
44 70 of 1979. See Singh v Ramparsad paras 4–5.
45 Paragraphs 50–51.
46 Paragraph 50.
47 Paragraph 55.
48 Amien (2013) 241–256, 255.
49 Amien (2018) The Daily Maverick accessible at https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/author/waheeda-
amien/#.Wxd3d6m-nq0.
was adopted by Cabinet in 2010 but has not yet entered the parliamentary process.50 A bit more
is said about the Muslim Marriages Bill at the end of this chapter. At this stage, it is not clear if
the Muslim Marriages Bill will be enacted. On 31 August 2018, the Western Cape High Court
delivered judgment in the case of Women’s Legal Centre Trust v President of the Republic of
South Africa,51 in which the court ordered the South African state to prepare, initiate, introduce,
enact and bring into operation legislation within the next 24 months to recognise Muslim mar-
riages in South Africa.52 The court left it to the Executive and Legislature to decide which form
the legislation should take.53 The South African state could therefore decide to present the
Muslim Marriages Bill for parliamentary consideration or it could proceed to draft an omnibus
legislation to afford recognition to all forms of marriages, including religious marriages, in
South Africa.
In the event that legal recognition and/or regulation is not afforded to Muslim or any other
religious marriages or personal and family laws, and the latter continue to operate within the
non-state sphere, the question arises whether or not unrecognised religious, personal and family
laws can be subjected to the Constitution. In other words, could parties to a religious marriage or
personal and family law system or member of a religious community challenge religious rules
and practices on the basis that they offend the Constitution? This question is considered in the
next section.54
4.4 Does the Constitution apply to unrecognised religious, personal and

family laws?
Section 8(1) of the Constitution provides that “[t]he Bill of Rights applies to all law, and binds
the legislature, the executive, the judiciary and all organs of state.”
The phrase “all law” has been interpreted to include customary law, common law and legislation.55 Whether
or not it also includes unrecognised religious personal and family laws depends on the interpretation of
“law”.
It has been suggested that when one considers the text of both the interim (1993) and current
(1996) constitutions, the definition of “law” in respect of state law versus non-state law’ and the
ambit of custom as a source of law in South Africa, the term “law” can be interpreted to encom-
pass unrecognised religious, personal and family laws. To illustrate this contention, each of the
aforementioned considerations is considered below:56
(a) Constitutional text: Firstly, section 15(3)(a) of the 1996 Constitution refers to systems of
religious personal or family “law”. The use of the word “law” in section 15(3)(a) indicates
that the drafters of the 1996 Constitution regarded religious, personal and family laws as
“law”. Secondly, section 7 of the interim Constitution made the Bill of Rights applicable
to “all law in force”. Undoubtedly, law “in force” refers to officially recognised laws. In
contrast, the words “in force” were omitted in section 8(1) of the 1996 Constitution. Read
with section 15(3)(a) of the 1996 Constitution, there is a strong indication that religious,
personal and family laws can be considered “law” for the purposes of section 8(1) of the
1996 Constitution. Secondly, as mentioned previously, section 31 of the 1996 Constitution
________________________
50 The Muslim Marriages Bill is available online at https://www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/33946_

gen37.pdf.
51 [2018] ZAWCHC 109 (31 August 2018).
52 Paragraph 252.
53 Paragraph 188.
54 Also see the discussion of Mofokeng (2009) 163–167.
55 In a previous edition of Burns (1998) 15.
56 Some of these issues are explored by Rautenbach (2003) Fundamina 134–150 and Rautenbach (1999)
PER/PELJ 50–70. Also see Amien 2010 International Journal of Law, Policy and the Family 364–365.
recognises the right of members of religious communities to, among others, practise their
religion in association with other members of their community, provided the right is exer-
cised in a manner that is not inconsistent with any other provision of the Bill of Rights. It
would be anomalous to suggest that on the one hand, religious communities have the right
to practise their religion, which includes legal rules, but that on the other hand, the enjoy-
ment of the right is not subject to the Bill of Rights because it is not included in the phrase
“all law”. Thirdly, section 2 of the 1996 Constitution affirms the supremacy of the Consti-
tution and invalidates law or conduct that is inconsistent with it. In terms of sec-
tion 172(1)(a) of the 1996 Constitution, it is the duty of a court to declare any law or conduct
that is inconsistent with the Constitution invalid “to the extent of its inconsistency”. Even if
unrecognised religious, personal and family laws are not considered “law” as envisaged by
the 1996 Constitution, they would certainly constitute “conduct” that would be subject to
the Constitution. Moreover, a view that there may be certain areas of “law” that are not
subject to the scrutiny of the Bill of Rights would make a mockery of the
supremacy of the Constitution.
(b) State law and non-state law: Arguments have been raised that “law” comprises positive
state law (official law) and positive non-state law (unofficial law).57 Positive state law
includes legislation, custom and case law. Positive non-state law includes rules of a sports
club or rules that a family head lays down for her or his family.58 Similarly, personal and
family laws of a religious community such as Muslims, Hindus and Jews also make up pos-
itive non-state law, which could equate to “law” in terms of the Constitution.
(c) Custom: It is trite in South Africa that new legal principles can be created by means of
custom. The requirements for a custom to be recognised as law were formulated in Van
Breda v Jacobs,59 namely that the custom must have been in existence for a long period, it
must be observed in general by the relevant community, it must be reasonable, and its con-
tent must be certain and clear. Religious customs would usually meet the aforementioned
requirements and could therefore be treated as law.
In light of the above, there are strong arguments to suggest that unrecognised religious, personal
and family laws can be held accountable to the Constitution. However, this has not yet been
decided by our courts. The question of whether or not unrecognised religious, personal and
family laws are subject to the Constitution is therefore still an open one. If the courts were to
find that the Constitution applies to unrecognised religious, personal and family laws, a conflict
between certain rights may arise, especially between sex and/or gender equality and freedom of
religion. The next section considers how such a conflict could manifest and would most likely
be addressed by our courts.60
4.5 The potential conflict between sex and/or gender equality vis-à-vis
freedom of religion in religious, personal and family laws in South
Africa
The main religious, personal and family law systems that operate within South African commu-
nities fall within the Christian, traditional African, Muslim, Hindu and Jewish faiths. There are
rules and practices emanating from the aforementioned personal and family law systems that
________________________
57 Van Zyl and Van der Vyver (1982) chs 7–9.

58 Van Zyl and Van der Vyver (1982) 273.
59 1921 AD 330.
60 For a more detailed discussion about the conflict between the right to freedom of religion and women’s
right to equality in the context of Muslim marriages in South Africa, see Amien (2006) Human Rights
Quarterly 729–754. Also see Rautenbach (2003) Queensland Law and Justice Journal 168–181; Rauten-
bach (2006) Griffin's View on International and Comparative Law 55–68.
arguably discriminate against women. For example, Catholicism prohibits women from termi-
nating their pregnancies. Islamic inheritance law requires females to inherit half of what their
male counterparts are permitted to inherit. African customary marriages, Muslim marriages,
Hindu marriages and Jewish marriages permit polygyny, which means that only men are entitled
to take multiple spouses. Although under Muslim and Jewish family law, both spouses are
permitted to divorce, women experience great difficulty obtaining religious divorces. The
negative effect of this difficulty is compounded, because while their husbands may remarry,
regardless of the status of their existing religious marriages, women are unable to enter into
further religious marriages while their existing religious marriages remain intact. In contrast,
Hindu family law does not permit either party to divorce. Yet, women are disparately affected –
while Hindu men may take multiple wives, Hindu women may not take multiple husbands. So
Hindu wives, along with Jewish and Muslim wives, may be held prisoner in unwanted marriages
without being able to move on with their lives.
In the above examples, a husband’s right to freedom of religion potentially comes into con-
flict with his wife’s right to sex and/or gender equality. A conflict between these kinds of rights
has not yet been adjudicated by our courts, so there is no certainty as to how it would be decided.
If such a conflict were to be presented to court while religious, personal and family laws remain
unrecognised, the court would first have to decide whether or not the Bill of Rights applies to
unrecognised religious, personal and family laws and secondly, whether or not the Bill of Rights
applies horizontally to the dispute. Since the dispute would be between two natural persons, the
court would have to consider section 8(2) of the Constitution, which provides that the Bill of
Rights “binds a natural . . . person if, and to the extent that, it is applicable, taking into account
the nature of the right and the nature of any duty imposed by the right.” If the court finds that the
Bill of Rights is applicable to the dispute, it would have to consider whether or not the hus-
band’s constitutional right to freedom of religion in terms of sections 15 and 31 violates his
wife’s constitutional right to not be unfairly discriminated against on the basis of sex and/or
gender in terms of section 9(3). Depending on the outcome, the court may have to prioritise one
right above the other.
To date, the jurisprudence in respect of freedom of religion and equality has developed sepa-
rately. The jurisprudence on religious freedom is underscored by four pivotal cases, namely, S v
Lawrence; S v Negal; S v Solberg;61 Christian Education South Africa v Minister of Educa-
tion;62 Prince v President of the Law Society of the Cape of Good Hope;63 and MEC for Educa-
tion, KwaZulu-Natal v Pillay.64 The following core elements of freedom of religion are
identifiable from the jurisprudence:65
(a) the belief or practice must be based in a religion;
(b) protecting the right to freedom of religion is of particular importance to marginalised
religious communities;
(c) the religious belief or practice must be sincerely held by the person invoking the right;
(d) a court may not decide a dispute involving whether or not a belief or practice forms part of
a religion unless the dispute is concerned with the centrality of the belief or practice to the
religion;
(e) compulsory and voluntary beliefs and practices are protected by the right to freedom of
religion;
________________________
61 1997 (10) BCLR 1348 (CC).

62 2000 (10) BCLR 1051 (CC).
63 2002 (3) BCLR 231 (CC).
64 2008 (1) SA 474 (CC).
65 For a more detailed discussion about the jurisprudence on religious freedom in South Africa, see Amien
(2013) 241–256.
(f) people may not be coerced by the state to behave in a manner that is antithetical to their
religious beliefs;
(g) state endorsement of religion must be equitable; and
(h) freedom of religion must be reasonably accommodated.
South Africa therefore adopts a form of “inclusive secularism”, which accommodates religion in
both the public and private spheres.66 In this way, South Africans are enjoined to celebrate the
religious diversity of their country. At the same time, the internal limitation in section 31(2) of
the Constitution provides that the right of persons to practise their religion and to be involved in
religious associations in association with other members of their religious community “may not
be exercised in a manner inconsistent with any provision of the Bill of Rights.” The Constitu-
tional Court interprets the section 31(2) internal limitation as ensuring that “religion cannot be
used to shield practices which offend the Bill of Rights”.67 This necessarily includes the right to
sex and/or gender equality.68
As far as the jurisprudence on equality is concerned, the South African Constitutional Court
has adopted a substantive approach as opposed to a formal approach to equality.69 This means
that we are concerned with the impact of discriminatory treatment. However, not all forms of
discrimination are prohibited; only unfair discrimination is proscribed, both by section 9(3) of
the Constitution and the Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act
(PEPUDA).70 What has come to be known as the Harksen test postulates the factors that our
courts must consider when facing an equality challenge.71 If the discrimination is on a ground
listed in section 9(3) of the Constitution, such as sex, gender and religion, unfair discrimination
is presumed.72 If the discrimination is on an unspecified ground, the impact of the discrimination
on the complainant becomes crucial.73 To determine whether or not the complainant has been
unfairly discriminated against, due regard must be had to:
(a) the position of the complainant in society (whether or not she is a member of a historically
disadvantaged group);
(b) the nature of the provision or power and the purpose sought to be achieved by it;
(c) the extent to which the complainant’s rights or interests have been impaired by the discrim-
ination; and
(d) whether or not the discrimination, among others, impaired her human dignity.74
If unfair discrimination is established, it must then be tested against the requirements of sec-
tion 36 of the Constitution, which is the general limitations clause.75
Section 36(1) permits a right to be infringed or limited by a “law of general application to the
extent that the limitation is reasonable and justifiable in an open and democratic society based
on human dignity, equality and freedom”. Human dignity, equality and freedom are the found-
ing values of the Constitution.76 In assessing the limitation, the court must consider several
factors listed in section 36(1), namely, the nature of the right that is being limited; the
________________________
66 Amien (2013) 241–256, 255.

67 Christian Education South Africa v Minister of Education 2000 (4) SA 757 (CC) para 26.
68 Amien (2006) 729–754, 750.
69 Pretoria City Council v Walker 1998 (2) SA 363 (CC) para 43.
70 4 of 2000.
71 Harksen v Lane 1998 (1) SA 300 (CC) para 53.
72 Section 9(5) of the South African Constitution.
73 Harksen para 53.
74 Paragraph 51.
75 Paragraph 53.
76 Section 1(a) of the Constitution.
importance of the purpose of the limitation; the nature and extent of the limitation; the relation
between the limitation and its purpose; and whether or not there were less restrictive means that
could have been used to achieve the purpose. Section 36 involves a proportionality analysis in
which the court balances competing rights and interests against each other.77 If the unfair dis-
crimination meets the section 36(1) test, it could pass constitutional muster.
In light of South Africa’s history of discrimination, marginalisation and oppression on the
basis of, among others, race, gender and religion, it is not surprising that the jurisprudence on
religious freedom and equality seeks to both protect religious diversity and prevent unfair
discrimination. But what will a court do when faced with a case where freedom of religion
clashes with sex and/or gender equality?
In the case of unrecognised religious, personal and family laws, if the matter involves dis-
crimination on the grounds of sex and/or gender and the court finds that the Bill of Rights
applies, unfair discrimination would be presumed. However, there would be no law of general
application to potentially save an infringement of section 9(3). Instead, the infringement on the
wife’s right to not be unfairly discriminated against on the basis of sex and/or gender would be
subject to the internal limitation contained in section 31(2). An application of the latter could
ensure that the wife’s right to not be unfairly discriminated against on the basis of sex and/or
gender is prioritised above her husband’s right to freedom of religion. Moreover, section 36(2)
provides that “[e]xcept as provided in [section 36(1)] or in any other provision of the Constitu-
tion, no law may limit any right entrenched in the Bill of Rights.” In the absence of legislation
recognising religious, personal and family laws and assuming that a court accepts religious,
personal and family laws as “law”, a religious belief or practice founded in religious law would
most likely not be permitted to limit the wife’s right to sex and/or gender equality.
In the event that legislation were to be enacted to recognise religious marriages or religious,
personal and family law systems, and the dispute involves a wife’s right to not be unfairly
discriminated against on the basis of sex and/or gender equality, sections 8 and 14 of PEPUDA
would be applicable. Section 8 of PEPUDA prohibits unfair discrimination on the ground of
gender. Section 14 of PEPUDA sets out the factors that must be considered to determine whether
the discrimination is fair or unfair. The factors listed in Harksen to ascertain unfair discrimina-
tion and those listed in section 36 of the Constitution to determine whether the unfair discrimina-
tion is justifiable or not, are combined in section 14(2)–(3) of PEPUDA. The two subsections
read as follows:
(2) In determining whether the respondent has proved that the discrimination is fair, the following must
be taken into account:
(a) the context;
(b) the factors referred to in subsection (3);
(c) whether the discrimination reasonably and justifiably differentiates between persons according
to objectively determinable criteria, intrinsic to the activity concerned.
(3) The factors referred to in subsection (2)(b) include the following:
(a) whether the discrimination impairs or is likely to impair human dignity;
(b) the impact or likely impact of the discrimination on the complainant;
(c) the position of the complainant in society and whether he or she suffers from patterns of disad-
vantage or belongs to a group that suffers from such patterns of disadvantage;
(d) the nature and extent of the discrimination;
(e) whether the discrimination is systemic in nature;
(f) whether the discrimination has a legitimate purpose;
(g) whether and to what extent the discrimination achieves its purpose;
________________________
77 S v Makwanyane 1995 (3) SA 391 (CC) para 104.

(h) whether there are less restrictive and less disadvantageous means to achieve the purpose;
(i) whether and to what extent the respondent has taken such steps as being reasonable in the cir-
cumstances to–
(i) address the disadvantage which arises from or is related to one or more of the prohibited
grounds; or
(ii) accommodate diversity.
In other words, section 14 of PEPUDA involves a proportionality analysis to ascertain whether
the discrimination is fair or unfair. If the discrimination is found to be unfair, PEPUDA will
trump the impugned legislative provision, and the religious belief or practice in question could
be rendered unlawful.78
In light of the above, although each case would have to be considered on its own merits, a
court may be hard pressed to prioritise freedom of religion above sex and/or gender equality
when the latter are undermined by a religious belief or practice.
4.6 Implications of international law for religious, personal and family

laws in South Africa
At this stage, a few comments on the impact of international law on religious, personal and
family laws in South Africa merit elucidation. To illustrate the impact, Muslim personal law will
be used as an example.
The drafters of the South African Constitution “sourced” values and principles supporting the
rights found in international human rights instruments and moulded them to conform to local
circumstances. The Constitution therefore incorporates a range of both civil and political rights
and social, economic and cultural rights.
International law is important in the context of religious personal and family laws in South Africa. Sec-
tion 39(1)(b) of the Constitution clearly provides that international law “must” be considered when a court
interprets the Bill of Rights. Most notably, section 231(4) requires domestication of international instruments
in order for the international agreement to become law. Furthermore, section 231(5) stipulates that South
Africa “is bound by international agreements which were binding . . . when this Constitution took effect, and
section 232 provides that “customary international law is law . . . unless it is inconsistent with the Constitu-
tion or an Act of Parliament.” Lastly, section 233 requires the courts to “prefer any reasonable interpretation
of the legislation that is consistent with international law over any alternative interpretation that is incon-
sistent with international law” when interpreting legislation.
International instruments, however, do not provide a clear-cut answer to the question as to
whether or not freedom to believe includes the freedom not to believe. The narrow construction
of section 15(1) (freedom of religion) in the Constitution does not include the freedom to change
one’s religion or belief. The right to change one’s religion conflicts with the constitutions of
Muslim countries, because interpretations of Islamic law do not allow a Muslim such freedom
and apostasy (or conversion from Islam, which implicitly would also include the right to change
one’s religion or belief) is punishable by death. The narrow construction of section 15(1) can
also be compared with analogous constructions of human rights instruments, which normally
include the right to practise religion alone or in community, in private or public.79 A broader
construction of section 15(1) would have allowed a Muslim the freedom to practise religion
alone, which freedom could then be extended to include the freedom to practise religion accord-
ing to a particular (modernist, conservative, feminist) interpretation of it. On the other hand,
mere recognition of Muslim personal law automatically extends to it a public and perforce
________________________
78 Section 5(2) of PEPUDA provides: “If any conflict relating to a matter dealt with in this Act arises between
this Act and the provisions of any other law, other than the Constitution or an Act of Parliament expressly
amending this Act, the provisions of this Act must prevail”.
79 See 4.6 for examples.
communal character and would thereby defeat the right to practise religion alone and in private.
For example, although the latest version of the proposed legislation in terms of which Muslim
marriages are expected to be formally recognised in South Africa, namely, the 2010 Muslim
Marriages Bill (MMB),80 defines both a “Muslim”81 and “Islamic law”,82 it cannot just be
presumed that only Muslims would want to be parties to a Muslim marriage in terms of the
MMB. Although the MMB is silent on interreligious marriages, which, although only permitted
for Muslim men, do occur among Muslims of both sexes locally, this does not detract from the
fact that potential human rights-related implications might arise from such interreligious mar-
riages (both those permitted and not permitted by Islam).
If legal effect is given to the practice of religion, a wider construction of section 15(1) has the
implication that, even if Muslim personal law is subject to the Bill of Rights, a Muslim could
exercise his or her freedom of choice to practise religion alone or in community, and as a citizen
opt for the provisions of secular law to govern both his or her public and private affairs. The
MMB has realised such by making provision for choice between systems. The general applica-
tion of the MMB addresses the situation where parties marry in terms of Islamic law either prior
to or after its enactment – in seeking to directly redress past injustices of non-recognition, the
MMB will by default (automatically) apply to all Muslim marriages already in existence prior to
its enactment, unless the parties jointly opt out of it.83 The lack of freedom of choice is under-
standably a matter of concern for those religious authorities who may not approve of the MMB
and who may, therefore, question the fairness of this position on the spouse who does not want
to be bound by its provisions but who would be because he or she is being “forced” or “coerced”
into it by the other spouse who wants to be so bound. However, in doing so, the MMB is seeking
to ensure the practical application of its provisions by holding Muslim husbands legally ac-
countable, for the first time, for the consequences of such marriages. However, if both parties do
not want the MMB to apply to their marriage and choose to exclude the marriage from its ambit,
the marriage is not invalidated, nor is it considered illegal, and the spouses are certainly not
placed beyond having recourse to existing constitutional and common law rights and protec-
tions.84 More in alignment with freedom of choice, the MMB squarely places the responsibility
on Muslims who wish to get married in terms of Islamic law to regulate their marital affairs in
accordance with a number of options available to them after the enactment of the MMB. For
example, the MMB will only apply to Muslim marriages contracted after its enactment where
parties elect to have it apply.85 Constitutionally, this approach accords with the right to culture
provided for in section 30, namely, that all individuals are free to participate in whatever culture
they choose. While it may ultimately be a matter of conscience, no person or organisation can
force a Muslim to regulate his or her personal affairs according to religious law. Conservative or
restrictive interpretations of Islamic law would, however, deny a Muslim such a choice. The
above approach also appears to be in line with section 31(1)86 of the Constitution, which deals
with minority rights.
________________________
80 The 2010 MMB is available at http://www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/33946_gen37.pdf (accessed

21 July 2018).
81 “ ‘Muslim’ means a person who believes in the oneness of Allah and who believes in the Holy Messenger
Muhammad as the final prophet and who has faith in all the essentials of Islam . . . .” (Clause 1).
82 “ ‘Islamic Law’ means the law as derived from the Holy Qur’Ɨn, the Sunnah (Prophetic model), the
consensus of Muslim Jurists (Isma) and analogical deductions based on the primary sources (QiyƗs).”
(Clause 1).
83 Clause 2(2) of the MMB.
84 Clause 2(3).
85 Clause 2(1).
86 “Persons belonging to a cultural, religious or linguistic community may not be denied the right, with other
members of that community – (a) to enjoy their culture, practise their religion and use their language; and
(b) to form, join and maintain cultural, religious and linguistic associations and other organs of civil society.
(2) The rights in subsection (1) may not be exercised in a manner inconsistent with any provision of the Bill
of Rights.”
Section 31 is closely modelled on Article 27 of the International Covenant on Civil and Politi-
cal Rights (ICCPR) of 1966,87 which is a major international instrument dealing with minority
rights protection. However, unlike Article 27 of the ICCPR, section 31 of the Constitution uses
the term “community” instead of “minority” and “cultural” instead of “ethnic” community.
Furthermore, although section 39 of the Constitution uses imperative language when it states
that a court “must consider” international law when interpreting the Bill of Rights, this consider-
ation does not mean that it is obliged to “apply” it. Nonetheless, the fact that South Africa has
subsequently (in 1998) also ratified the ICCPR, does oblige a court to also apply its provisions.88
However, while “minorities” would include a minority religious group, Article 27 of the
ICCPR is strewn with controversial provisions and lacks an authoritative definition of “minor-
ity”. Statistically, women are definitely not a minority in South Africa. Within a religious
minority group, however, they may be considered a minority within a minority, so to speak,
prejudiced by, for example, religious laws. Equal treatment under the law, although an individu-
al right, could also be claimed by a member of a minority group. Such an approach could have
interesting consequences for recognised Muslim personal law in South Africa. Although the
rights mentioned in Article 27 are individual rights, human rights ultimately function in social
contexts rather than on a purely “individual” basis. Section 31 of the Constitution seems to
provide adequate protection for minority rights and in this sense conforms to the provisions of
international instruments. This is furthermore reinforced by the national legislation89 giving
effect to sections 185 and 186 of the Constitution, which respectively deal with the establish-
ment and composition of a Commission for the Promotion and Protection of the Rights of
Cultural, Religious and Linguistic Communities.
Article 1(1)90 of the United Nation’s Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intoler-
ance and Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief of 1981 states that freedom of religion
includes the freedom to manifest one’s religion. Furthermore, while the Declaration does not
directly refer to the issue of marriage, Article 5 recognises the right to organise one’s family life
in accordance with one’s religion or belief. Section 15(1) of the Constitution has been construed
to include the right to have inter alia religiously based personal laws or marriages recognised in
order to give effect to a manifestation of such religion.91 An equitable interpretation of Islam
indicates that recognising religious and cultural rights in terms of section 30 of the Constitution
does not necessarily have to mean discrimination against women. Besides not being a binding
instrument, the Declaration has as yet not been recognised in South Africa. This does not,
however, mean that non-binding international law does not constitute international law in terms
of section 39(1)(b) of the Constitution.92 It can, therefore, also provide guidance in this regard.
________________________
87 “In those States in which ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities exist, persons belonging to such minori-
ties shall not be denied the right, in community with the other members of their group, to enjoy their own
culture, to profess and practise their own religion, or to use their own language.” See
http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/b3ccpr.htm (accessed 21 July 2018). The ICCPR was signed on
3 October 1994 and ratified on 10 December 1998. See http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/research/
ratification-southafrica.html (accessed 21 July 2018).
88 In the event of domestication of the international laws, as per s 231(4) of the Constitution, courts are
obliged to do it. In other instances, they must consider it in terms of s 39(1)(b) when they interpret the Bill
of Rights.
89 See the Commission for the Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Cultural, Religious and Linguistic
Communities Act 19 of 2002.
90 “Everyone shall have the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. This right shall
include freedom to have a religion or whatever belief of his choice, and freedom, either individually or in
community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in worship, observance,
practice and teaching.” See http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/d4deidrb.htm (accessed 21 July 2018).
91 Section 15(3)(a)(i)–(ii) and (b).
92 In S v Makwanyane 1995 (6) BCLR 665 (CC) para 35, Chaskalson P clearly stated (although he did so in
the context of s 35(1) of the interim (1993) Constitution which is the equivalent of the current s 39), that
“. . . public international law would include non-binding as well as binding law” and further that “. . . [t]hey
may both be used under the section as tools of interpretation.”
The Bill of Rights, especially the equality clause (section 9), guarantees that the status of Mus-
lim women in South Africa can be different to, or better than, that of their counterparts else-
where in the world. However, provisions in international instruments have not been of much
help in this regard. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against
Women of 1979 (CEDAW) is a United Nations (UN) document that embodies women’s rights
and makes provision for states “to embody the principle of the equality of men and women
in their national constitutions or other appropriate legislation if not yet incorporated therein
and to ensure, through law and other appropriate means, the practical realisation of this
principle”.93
While acceptance of CEDAW by South Africa certainly marks an enormous step forward, it
also has the limitations of all similar international instruments insofar as there is little power to
demand its implementation. Within the UN itself, it is not regarded as an instrument with strong
“teeth” since countries, especially Muslim countries, often do not comply with its provisions
(and ratify it with reservations). “The most contentious reservations by far, are those which
indicate that the obligations of major articles of the Convention are accepted only to the extent
that they are compatible with the Islamic Sharia or with traditional customs and practices.”94
While it may be encouraging that the Bill of Rights has both a direct (section 8(2)) and indi-
rect (section 39(2)) horizontal application and may in this way include Muslim personal law
within its ambit, not enough protection is provided for women who are subjected to discrimina-
tion in both public and private spheres. Since South Africa ratified CEDAW95 in 1995 without
any reservations, its requirements, for example in Article 2, which includes a general condemna-
tion of discrimination against women, and Article 16, which directs states to take steps to elimi-
nate discrimination against women in the sphere of personal law, can also provide additional
protection and furthermore affirm South Africa’s commitment to its obligations under CEDAW.
A horizontal operation of international instruments also means that the state as well as private
bodies and individuals can be held accountable for international human rights violations and
infringements. In this way, wrongs in the private sphere can be brought within the ambit of human
rights protection without abolishing the distinction between the public and private spheres.96
Forming part of the international Bill of Rights, both the 1966 Covenants,97 for example, contain
a [fifth] preambular paragraph that reads as follows: “Realising that the individual, [having
duties to other individuals and to the Community] to which he belongs, is under a responsibility
to strive for the promotion and observance of the rights recognised in the present Covenant”.
Ratification of these instruments, which helped shaped our Bill of Rights, could, therefore,
provide weight in favour of a direct horizontal operation of the South African Bill of Rights to
unrecognised religious legal systems.
Similar arguments may be raised regarding the implications of international law on other reli-
gious, personal and family law systems, including Jewish and Hindu law.98
________________________
93 CEDAW part 1: s 2(a).

94 Kathree (1995) SAJHR 432.
95 CEDAW was signed on 29 January 1993 and ratified on 15 December 1995. See http://www1.umn.edu/
humanrts/research/ratification-southafrica.html (accessed 21 July 2018).
96 Clapham (1993) 91–94, 134.
97 The United Nations International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) of
1966 and the ICCPR of 1966. South Africa signed the ICESCR on 3 October 1994 and eventually ratified
it on 18 January 2015. See http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/research/ratification-southafrica.html and
https://www.escr-net.org/news/2015/government-south-africa-ratifies-icescr (both accessed 21 July 2018).
98 Also see the discussion by Rautenbach (2001) 353–356.
Part
2
African Customary Law
5
Family Law
Page
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 81
5.2 Betrothal ..................................................................................................................... 81
5.2.1 Marriage negotiations .................................................................................... 81
5.2.2 Consequences of betrothal ............................................................................. 82
5.2.3 Ways of terminating the engagement ............................................................ 83
5.3 Customary marriage ................................................................................................... 84
5.3.1 Recognition of customary marriages ............................................................. 84
5.3.2 Requirements for customary marriages concluded before
15 November 2000......................................................................................... 85
5.3.2.1 Consent of the father or guardian of the man.................................. 86
5.3.2.2 Consent of the father or guardian of the woman ............................. 86
5.3.2.3 Consent of the prospective husband................................................ 86
5.3.2.4 Consent of the prospective wife ...................................................... 86
5.3.2.5 Delivery or handing over of the wife .............................................. 86
5.3.2.6 Agreement that lobolo will be delivered ......................................... 87
5.3.2.7 Non-existence of a civil marriage ................................................... 87
5.3.3 Requirements for customary marriages concluded after 15 November 2000 88
5.3.3.1 General ............................................................................................ 88
5.3.3.2 Prohibition relating to blood and affinity relations ......................... 89
5.3.3.3 Negotiations, conclusion and celebration according to
customary law ................................................................................. 90
5.3.3.4 Lobolo ............................................................................................. 92
5.3.4 Registration of a customary marriage ............................................................ 94
5.3.5 Equal status and competencies of spouses ..................................................... 96
5.3.6 Proprietary consequences .............................................................................. 97
5.3.6.1 Marriages concluded before the commencement of the Act .......... 97
5.3.6.2 Marriages concluded after the commencement of the Act ............. 99
5.3.6.2.1 A monogamous customary marriage ............................. 99
5.3.6.2.2 A polygynous customary marriage ................................ 100
79
Page
5.3.7
Dissolution of customary marriages through divorce .................................... 101
5.3.7.1 Grounds and reasons (justifications) for divorce ............................ 101
5.3.7.2 Jurisdiction ...................................................................................... 102
5.3.7.3 Consequences of divorce ................................................................ 102
5.3.7.3.1 The interests of children ................................................. 102
5.3.7.3.2 Patrimonial consequences .............................................. 103
5.3.7.3.3 Return of lobolo ............................................................. 104
5.3.7.3.4 Maintenance ................................................................... 105
5.3.7.4 Joinder ............................................................................................. 106
5.3.7.5 Interim legal assistance ................................................................... 106
5.3.8 Dissolution of customary marriages by death................................................ 106
5.3.9 Woman-to-woman marriages ........................................................................ 107
5.3.10 Evaluation ...................................................................................................... 107
5.4 Adoption practices ...................................................................................................... 108
5.5 Civil marriages and civil unions................................................................................. 112
Chapter 5: Family Law 81
5.1 Introduction
Customary family law is an important branch of customary law, and family relationships are of
fundamental importance as far as customary law is concerned. Traditional customary family law
was drastically amended by the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act.1 The Act requires that
customary marriages be negotiated, entered into or celebrated in accordance with customary law.
While this chapter focuses on and discusses the various sections of the Act, attention is also
given to other aspects of customary family law.
5.2 Betrothal
5.2.1 Marriage negotiations
In traditional customary law, marriage is a matter between two family groups and not merely a
bond binding two parties. Betrothal is therefore mainly an agreement between two family
groups.2 Marriage negotiations were usually initiated by the man or his family group, approach-
ing the woman’s (the prospective wife’s) family with a request. These days, however, the parties
are regarded as individuals. If it is the man’s first wife, the initiative for negotiations will be
taken by his father or guardian. The man may also initiate negotiations himself, in which case
they are conducted with the father or the guardian of the woman. Negotiations without the
approval of the man or the woman will, however, be futile as their consent is a requirement for
the marriage.3 The negotiations take place in order to reach consensus regarding the proposed
marriage and, more specifically, the amount of lobolo to be paid. Reaching consensus leads to a
formal betrothal.
For a variety of reasons, the initiative for the negotiations can also be taken by the woman’s
father. This could be to strengthen relationships with an important family or to avoid her from
becoming a spinster.4
The ukuthwala5 custom is especially prevalent among the Xhosa. This custom is still popular
and widely practised in rural areas where people follow a traditional lifestyle. A case study also
shows that ukuthwala is still “vigorously” practised in certain rural areas of KwaZulu-Natal.6
The woman is “abducted” by the suitor or his friends to force her family to enter into negotia-
tions regarding the conclusion of a marriage7 or differently put, to open marriage negotiations
between two families.8 In most instances, this is done with the woman’s consent, but she will
feign resistance. The woman is taken to the young man’s parental home, where she is received
and cared for with the utmost kindness.9 There are three forms of ukuthwala, namely (a) where
the woman is aware of the intended abduction and there is therefore collusion between the par-
ties, (b) where the families agree, but the woman is unaware, and (c) where neither the woman
nor her family has prior knowledge of the abduction. If the woman was abducted
without her parents’ consent, it would, under certain circumstances, constitute a delict, and
________________________
1 120 of 1998 (hereafter the Act/ the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act).
2 Olivier et al (1998) 12.
3 Also see Van Schalkwyk (2003) De Jure 296 and the authorities cited therein.
5 Ukuthwala literally means “to carry off”. See Karimakwenda “Today it would be called rape: a historical
and contextual examination of forced marriage and violence in the Eastern Cape” in Claassens and Smythe
(eds) (2013) 340.
6 Matshidze et al (2017) 9010.
7 For different views on whether the ukuthwala custom may be prosecuted under the crime of abduction see
Kruger and Oosthuizen (2012) PER/PELJ 285–287.
8 Matshidze et al (2017) 9007.
9 Bekker and Koyana (2007) De Jure 139–144.
damages, in the form of cattle,10 could be claimed.11 This will, for example, be the case where
thwala took place but was not followed up by a marriage proposal. Traditionally, the young man
is not allowed to have intercourse with the woman during this time.12 If the young man seduces
the woman, a seduction head of cattle and, in appropriate circumstances, a pregnancy beast will
be payable.13 Negative press reports in the recent past indicate that offences are committed
against minors and forced marriages14 take place under the pretence of a so-called thwala action.
In State v Mvumeleni Jezile15 a man was convicted on accounts of human trafficking, assault and
three accounts of rape and was sentenced to 22 years in prison for abducting a girl from her
home and forcing her into a customary marriage. On appeal, apart from the assault convictions
which were set aside, the human trafficking and rape convictions and sentences were con-
firmed.16 Therefore, a totally different content and colour is given to this recognised customary
practice through the abuse thereof.17 Consequently, the South African Law Reform Commission
drafted the “Prohibition of Forced Marriages and Child Marriages Bill”.18
Although successful marriage negotiations usually result in a betrothal, an engagement is
not a prerequisite for a valid marriage. Betrothals of infants and children are void ab initio.
Betrothals can be either short or long. This is determined by agreement between the parties and is
usually dependent on the period of time required by the man/his father to gather the lobolo cattle.
5.2.2 Consequences of betrothal

No enforceable rights are created by the betrothal agreement. An engagement could be terminat-
ed, and the aggrieved party would have no claim for breach of promise. The legal consequences
of termination are limited to patrimonial consequences where property was transferred. In this
regard, a distinction has to be made between the following categories of property:
(a) Betrothal gifts: Betrothal gifts are given as a symbol of the betrothal promise and can
consist of clothing, blankets, other household articles and cattle.19 Right of ownership of
these articles passes to the recipient (the woman or her father) upon delivery.20 If the
engagement is terminated for some or other reason, the gifts are not returned to the man or
his family as a matter of course. Blameworthiness determines whether gifts have to be
returned. If the man is to be blamed for the termination of the engagement, the gifts are not
returned, but if the woman carries the blame, the gifts are to be returned. If the engagement
is terminated by agreement, the gifts are usually returned to the giver, or the parties can
reach an agreement about the matter.21
(b) Lobolo handed over during the betrothal: It is customary that a reasonable amount of
lobolo is handed over before the wedding takes place. The parties can also agree that all the
________________________
10 The so-called bopha cattle.

11 Bekker (1989) 98.
12 The girl would be under the supervision of the older women of the house. See Matshidze et al (2017)
Gender & Behaviour 9007 and the authorities cited there.
13 Bekker and Koyana (2007) De Jure 141.
14 See Kruger and Oosthuizen (2011) CARSA 51–52 in this regard.
15 Wynberg Regional Court, Case number SHM59/11.
16 Jezile v S 2015 (3) All SA 201 (WCC).
17 See Matshidze et al (2017) Gender & Behaviour 9013–9014 for case studies of the original version of
ukuthwala versus the distorted version of ukuthwala as well as an analysis thereof. Also see Mabasa (2015)
De Rebus 1–5.
18 See South African Law Reform Commission Discussion Paper on the Practice of Ukuthwala (2015) 57.
19 The so-called “earnest cattle”.
20 Olivier et al (1998) 13–14.
lobolo is to be delivered before marriage. Custom sometimes prescribes the amount. Own-
ership over lobolo property and any accrual of livestock remains vested in the giver until
the conclusion of the marriage. After the marriage, the lobolo becomes the property of the
recipient, and outside KwaZulu-Natal, any accrual is not added to the original number. The
giver bears the risk of loss/deaths during the betrothal, but the recipient is obliged to report
any loss of livestock.22 Upon termination of the engagement, all the lobolo gifts plus the ac-
crual have to be returned, regardless of whose fault it was.23
(c) KwaZulu-Natal – Sisa cattle: In terms of section 58(1) of the Codes,24 any cattle given
before the marriage has been contracted are regarded as sisa25 cattle. The position is the
same as in (b) above, except that any accrual forms part of the lobolo.26
5.2.3 Ways of terminating the engagement

(a) Mutual agreement: The parties may, for a variety of reasons, agree to terminate the
engagement, for example, if they realise that the marriage will not be a success or if the
relationship between the family groups has soured. The agreement to terminate cannot be
effected without the co-operation of the woman.
(b) Unilaterally: The engagement can be terminated by either of the parties with or without
good reason. The marriage agreement is entered into in good faith and any act of the other
party contrary to this is a good reason for termination.27
Good reasons for the man (and his family) would be the indecent behaviour of the woman;
breach of accepted norms of behaviour28 by the woman, especially towards her future hus-
band and his family; an unreasonable postponement of the marriage by the woman’s father,
more specifically when it is accompanied by demands for more lobolo despite delivery of
the agreed or a reasonable number; and where the man, after having become engaged, has
developed a serious disorder making the marriage impossible.
Good reasons for the woman and her father are where the man/his father refuses to deliver
the agreed amount of lobolo; the man’s continuous neglect of the woman or any other
behaviour signifying the fact that he will be an unfit spouse; or when the man, who was
unmarried at the time of the betrothal, enters into a customary marriage with another. The
woman herself has to decide whether or not she wants to terminate the engagement.29
(c) The death of the man or woman: The engagement is terminated when either the man or
the woman dies, but in certain communities, provision is made for substitution. The place
of the deceased man or woman is usually taken by a brother or sister. Their co-operation is
inevitably required.30
________________________

23 Olivier et al (1998) 17. In the Cape, Transkei and Ciskei, the courts, incorrectly, also refer to these cattle as
“earnest cattle” and blameworthiness also applies when considering what has to be returned. Olivier et al
(1998) 13.
24 The KwaZulu Act on the Code of Zulu Law 16 of 1985 and the Natal Code of Zulu Law Proc R151 of 1987
(GG 10966 9 October 1987). However, the Codes stand to be repealed, see para 5.3.2 below.
25 Section 1 of Act 16 of 1985 defines “sisa” as “a custom whereby cattle or other livestock are deposited by
their owner with some other person on the understanding that such person shall enjoy the use of them, but
that the ownership shall remain with and increase accrue to the depositor”.
26 Bekker (1989) 99; Olivier et al (1998) 14.
27 Bekker (1989) 101. See Olivier et al (1998) 14–16 for a short discussion of the reasons.
28 “Hlonipa rules” or “a particular form of respect”. See Nkosi (2007) International Journal of African
Renaissance Studies 204.
29 Mehlomakulu v Jikejela 1942 BAC (C&O) 110.
5.3 Customary marriage

5.3.1 Recognition of customary marriages
The Recognition of Customary Marriages Act came into operation on 15 November 2000 and
brought to an end the uncertainties and the doubtful nature of the recognition of a customary
marriage.31 The Act provides for monogamous and polygamous32 customary marriages that were
concluded before as well as after the commencement of the Act. The Act retains the customary
law requirements for customary marriages that were concluded before the commencement of the
Act.33 In order to be recognised, monogamous and polygynous customary marriages concluded
after the commencement of the Act must comply with the requirements of the Act.34 The
requirements and consequences of these marriages are, in many ways, similar to those that apply
to civil marriages. A customary marriage is defined as a “marriage concluded in accordance with
customary law”. Customary law is defined as the “customs and usages traditionally observed
among the indigenous African peoples of South Africa and which form part of the culture of
those peoples”.35 In terms of this definition, it is clear that “customary law” implies African cus-
tomary law. A superficial reading of this section could lead to the impression that such a mar-
riage can be concluded only by and between Africans. Section 30 of the Constitution provides,
inter alia, that everyone has the right to take part in the cultural life of his or her choice. This
means that any person who wishes to do so could get married according to customary law. It
should, however, be borne in mind that section 3(1)(b) of the Recognition of Customary Mar-
riages Act requires that “the marriage must be negotiated and entered into or celebrated in
accordance with customary law”. During registration of the customary marriage, the husband
has to make a declaration stating the traditional community’s rules and customs in accordance
with which the marriage has been concluded. The traditional leader or his delegate (if available)
and the representatives of the different marriage parties (who serve as witnesses) have to make
similar declarations.36
The Recognition of Customary Marriages Act repeals sections 337 and 3838 of the Transkei
Marriage Act.39 However, it does not specify whether marriages concluded according to the
Transkei Act, where the man is a party to both a customary marriage and a civil marriage out of
community of property, are valid. Such marriages are valid in the Transkei, and it is suggested
that they should be regarded as valid customary marriages in terms of present law.40
________________________
31 A detailed discussion of developments since the commencement of the Act is provided by Bakker (2016)
THRHR 231–247 (Part 1) and 357–368 (Part 2).
32 “Polygamy”, strictu sensu, means that either a man or a woman can have more than one spouse at the same
time; “polygyny” means the husband is allowed to take more than one wife; “polyandry” means that a wife
may have more than one husband simultaneously. Heaton (2010) 15. Also see Heaton and Kruger (2015)
13.
33 Some authors contend that there is still no clarity about the validity of certain marriages. See, e.g., Bonthuys
and Pieterse (2000) THRHR 621–622; Maithufi (2000) THRHR 511.
34 Section 2 of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act. For the requirements of a valid customary
marriage, see, inter alia, Bekker (1989) 105–109; Olivier et al (1998) 17–21.
35 Section 1 of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act.
36 The registration procedure and the various forms that have to be completed are contained in GN 6909
GG 21700 of 1 November 2000.
37 Section 3 of the Transkei Marriage Act permitted dual marriages under certain circumstances in the
Transkei.
38 In brief, s 38 stated that the status and legal rights of women and children in dual marriages would be
determined by customary law.
39 21 of 1978; s 13.
40 Bonthuys and Pieterse (2000) THRHR 623.
Statistics South Africa reported that the number of marriages recorded in the marriage regis-
tration system of the Department of Home Affairs for the period 2013–2015 was:41
2013 2014 2015
Customary marriages 3 498 3 062 3 467
Civil unions 993 1 144 1 185
Civil marriages 158 642 150 852 138 627
5.3.2 Requirements for customary marriages concluded before

15 November 2000
The validity of marriages concluded before 15 November 2000 is determined by the customary
law which was in force at the time of concluding the marriage.42 Since the Zulu law is partly
codified, a distinction has to be drawn between KwaZulu-Natal and the rest of the country. The
requirements for a customary marriage in KwaZulu-Natal are contained in section 38 of both of
the Codes of Zulu Law,43 namely:
(a) the consent of the father or guardian of the intended wife (where such is legally necessary
(if she is a minor)), which may not be withheld without good reason;
(b) the consent of the father or guardian of the prospective husband (if he is a minor);
and
(c) a public declaration by the prospective wife to the official witness or witnesses at the
wedding ceremony that she voluntarily submits to the marriage and that she gives her con-
sent thereto.
Although the Codes do not expressly require it, it is in fact inconceivable that a customary mar-
riage can be concluded without an agreement for the delivery of lobolo.44
Certain sections in the Codes have been found by the courts to be invalid45 and the Codes
stand to be repealed in their entirety by the KwaZulu-Natal Traditional Leadership and Govern-
ance Act.46 The Codes are seen as “remnants of an apartheid South Africa.”47
According to Olivier et al,48 the requirements outside KwaZulu-Natal are:
(a) the consent of the father or guardian of the man under certain circumstances;
(b) the consent of the father or guardian of the woman;
(c) the consent of the prospective husband;
(d) the consent of the prospective wife;
(e) the handing over of the woman to the family group of the man or to the man himself (as the
case may be);
(f) an agreement that lobolo will be delivered; and
(g) that there should be no existing civil marriage.
________________________
41 The results are accessible at https://www.enca.com/south-africa/marriage-stats and http://www.statssa.

gov.za/publications/P0307/P03072014.pdf (accessed 30 November 2017).
42 Section 2(1) and (3) of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act.
43 The KwaZulu Act on the Code of Zulu Law 16 of 1985 and the Natal Code of Zulu Law Proc R151 of
1987. As regards customary marriages, the Codes are basically identical.
44 See 5.3.3.4 for a discussion of the institution of lobolo.
45 For example, s 20 of the Codes was found to be unconstitutional. See para 5.3.5 below.
46 5 of 2005, s 53(1).
47 See ch 9 on Law of Succession and Inheritance.
48 Olivier et al (1998) 17–21. Also see the provisions of s 31 of the Transkei Marriage Act.
5.3.2.1 Consent of the father or guardian of the man

The consent of the father or guardian of the man is, strictly speaking, no longer required. This is
rather significant, as, traditionally, there used to be a legal obligation on the father or guardian of
the young man to help him with the lobolo for his first wife. Where a man provides his own
lobolo, the consent of his father or guardian becomes unimportant, except if the son is a minor.49
A father’s disapproval of the marriage can be used to prove that there was no agreement between
the two contracting family groups.50
5.3.2.2 Consent of the father or guardian of the woman

The consent of the father or guardian of the woman (prospective wife) was a sine qua non,
regardless of the age of the woman. Tacit consent could be inferred from the circumstances. If
the father, for example, accepted lobolo or allowed the couple to live together as man and wife,
consent could be inferred.51
The mother of the woman did not have any contractual capacity and could, in any case, not
enter into marriage negotiations on behalf of the group. In Mabena v Letsoalo,52 Le Roux held
that a woman’s mother was legally justified to negotiate for the lobolo and receive it in respect
of the woman. She is also justified to act as the woman’s guardian and in approving her mar-
riage. Although this decision was criticised by some as a distortion of African marital law, it can
also be regarded as an illustration of the application of unofficial customary law (“living law”)
and of the fact that customary law is not static.53
5.3.2.3 Consent of the prospective husband

The consent of the prospective husband, whether express or tacit (for example through behavi-
our), is imperative. The prospective husband may be represented at the formal wedding ceremo-
ny and need not necessarily be physically present himself.54
5.3.2.4 Consent of the prospective wife

In earlier days, marriages were arranged, but since official courts came into existence, presiding
officials have insisted that the woman’s consent is essential. Her consent may be in express
terms, but it can also be inferred from the circumstances, for example that she had no objection
to participating in the wedding arrangements and ceremonies.55
5.3.2.5 Delivery or handing over of the wife

The delivery or handing over of the wife was related to the fact that the wife had to be integrated
into her husband’s family in some or other way. This was usually accompanied by ceremonies.
Subsequent circumstances would indicate whether she had indeed been “handed over”. Couples
could agree to live together before the wedding, or circumstances could prevent them from
living together after the wedding. Non-integration was usually related to other factors such as
neglecting to deliver the object of the lobolo or failure to make satisfactory arrangements relat-
ing to the lobolo. In some cases, the deal might have turned sour, or the parties might have
________________________
49 Mabena v Letsoalo 1998 (2) SA 1068 (T).

51 See above.
52 1998 (2) SA 1068 (T). Also see Fanti v Boto 2008 (5) SA 405 (C).
53 In Bhe v Magistrate, Khayelitsha 2005 (1) BCLR 1 (CC) para 111, Langa referred with approval to Mabena
as indicative of the development of customary law in accordance with the “spirit, purport, and ideals” of the
Bill of Rights.
55 Olivier et al (1998) 22–23.
lost interest in each other before the marriage had been concluded. The conclusion of some
marriages could be a protracted process. The process was not limited to a single event as in the
case of a civil marriage ceremony.56 In Mabuza v Mbatha,57 the existence of a valid customary
marriage was in dispute because of the wife’s alleged non-integration into her husband’s family
according to the ukumekeza custom (which is an accepted ritual in terms of Swazi law). The
court found that the parties could agree to waive the ukumekeza requirement and that perfor-
mance of these specific rituals is not an essential requirement. The decision was criticised in
that the real issue, namely whether the wife had in fact been integrated into her husband’s
family, had been overlooked. The integration of the wife into the husband’s family runs like a
golden thread through all customary marriages.58
5.3.2.6 Agreement that lobolo will be delivered

The agreement that lobolo will be delivered relates to the measure and not to the actual delivery
of lobolo. The number of cattle or the amount of money required and the period of delivery
differ from group to group. An agreement that lobolo will be handed over is the main component
of the customary marriage.59
5.3.2.7 Non-existence of a civil marriage

A person married according to civil customs cannot enter into a customary marriage. Until 1988,
parties to a customary marriage could freely conclude a civil marriage between themselves or with
some other person. The civil marriage simply dissolved the preceding customary marriage.60
Knowledge of the above requirements is still important, as the existence of a valid customary
marriage concluded before the commencement of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act
has, on several occasions, been disputed in the courts.61 An example of such a matter is the case
of Nontobeko Virginia Gaza v Road Accident Fund.62 The deceased was killed in a motor
vehicle accident in February 2000. At the time of his death, he was married to the plaintiff by
customary rites. The customary marriage was registered in terms of the Natal Code of Zulu
Law63 on 15 July 1987. The deceased was also married by civil rights to another woman. The
civil marriage was contracted before the conclusion of the customary marriage with the plaintiff.
Both women claimed for loss of maintenance as a result of the negligent death of their bread-
winner. The trial court64 granted absolution from the instance on the basis that the legislature
“did not intend to afford a person such as the present plaintiff a right to claim for loss of
support”.
In terms of section 36(2) of the Natal Code of Zulu Law, a man was prohibited from contract-
ing a customary marriage during the continuation of a civil marriage with another woman. The
plaintiff’s marriage to the deceased therefore seems to be invalid. Furthermore, section 31(1) of
the Black Laws Amendment Act65 provides for a partner to a customary union to claim for loss
of support from any person who unlawfully causes the death of the other partner, provided such
partner or such other partner is not at the time of such death a party to a subsisting marriage.
________________________

57 2003 (7) BCLR 743 (C); 2003 (4) BCLR 1 (CC).
58 Bekker (2004) THRHR 146–150. Also see the discussion of Fanti v Boto 2008 (5) SA 405 (C) in 5.3.3.3.
59 Olivier et al (1998) 24. Also see 5.3.3.4.
60 Nkambula v Linda 1951 (1) SA 377 (A). For further discussion, see 5.5.
61 See, e.g., Mabena v Letsoalo 1998 (2) SA 1068 (T); Mabuza v Mbatha 2003 (7) BCLR 743 (C); Mthembu v
Letsela 1997 (2) SA 936 (T).
62 Durban and Coast Local Division, unreported, Case number 314/04.
63 Proclamation R151 of 1987.
64 Durban and Coast Local Division.
65 76 of 1963.
Hence, as the deceased was a party to a civil marriage, the judgment of the trial court seems to
be correct.
However, leave to appeal was granted by the Supreme Court of Appeal (SCA) in September
200666 and on 19 November 2007, without dealing with the legal issues between the parties, the
SCA set the judgment of the trial court aside. The SCA ordered that any claimant who was a
spouse in a customary marriage where her spouse was, at the time of his death, a spouse to a
civil marriage as well, be compensated by the Road Accident Fund. The Minister of Justice and
Constitutional Development was also ordered to review the continued existence of the relevant
legislation within a specific time.67
According to Maithufi and Bekker68 this is clearly a matter that requires the urgent attention
of the legislator.
5.3.3 Requirements for customary marriages concluded after 15 November 2000

5.3.3.1 General
In terms of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act, each of the parties of the marriage has
to be 18 years or older, both must have consented to the customary marriage,69 and the marriage
has to be negotiated and entered into or celebrated in accordance with customary law.70
Spouses married according to customary law are precluded from concluding a civil marriage
during the continuance of the customary marriage.71 However, this does not prevent a husband
and wife who are married in terms of customary law from converting their marriage into a civil
marriage, as long as neither of them is a partner in a subsisting marriage with another person.72
The Act further provides that if either of the spouses is a minor, both of the parents or the
guardian of that spouse have/has to consent to the marriage.73 Despite the rules of customary
law, the age of majority for men and women is now 18 years.74
If the consent of the parents cannot be obtained, section 25 of the Marriage Act applies.75
Section 25 provides that the Commissioner of Child Welfare may grant consent to the marriage
of a minor. If the parents, guardian or Commissioner of Child Welfare refuse/refuses to give
consent, the minor can approach the court for consent. This implies that the Commissioner may
withhold consent to the marriage if the parents refuse to grant consent. The court will give
permission only if the refusal to give consent by the parents, guardian or Commissioner was
without adequate reason and contrary to the best interests of the minor.76 Apart from this, the
________________________
66 See Maithufi and Bekker (2009) Obiter 168.

67 The continued existence of s 31 of the Black Laws Amendment Act 76 of 1963 is discussed in ch 8 on the
Law of Delict.
68 Maithufi and Bekker (2009) Obiter 170–171.
69 Section 3(1)(a) of Act 120 of 1998. The requirement of consent is essential to prevent the conclusion of a
forced marriage. There has to be consensus that it is going to be a customary marriage, otherwise the mar-
riage will be void because of error in negotio: Van Schalkwyk (2003) De Jure 297. The age requirement
was never part of customary law and is a new concept.
70 Section 3(1)(b) of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act. This requirement is discussed more fully in
5.3.3.3. For a general discussion of the customary marriages in South Africa, see Rautenbach and Du Ples-
sis 2012 Mc Gill Law Journal 749–780.
71 Section 3(2) of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act.
72 Section 10(1). Also see the discussion in 5.5.
73 Section 3(3).
74 Section 17 of the Children’s Act 38 of 2005. This section repeals the Age of Majority Act 57 of 1972 and
commenced on 1 July 2007.
75 25 of 1961.
76 See further Van Schalkwyk (2000) THRHR 483–486 regarding customary marriages and the requirement of
consent by a minor.
Minister of Home Affairs, or any officer in the public service authorised thereto by him or her in
writing, is empowered to grant written permission to a person under the age of 18 years to
conclude a customary marriage if the Minister or the said officer considers the marriage
desirable and in the interests of the parties concerned.77 Permission by the Minister or somebody
authorised by him or her, however, does not exempt the parties to the marriage from the
obligation to comply with other requirements stipulated by law.78
If a person under the age of 18 years has entered into a customary marriage without the
written permission of the Minister or the relevant officer, the Minister or his or her delegate has
a discretion to declare the marriage (in writing) to be a valid customary marriage if he or she
regards the marriage as being desirable and in the interests of the parties concerned, and as long
as it was concluded according to the Act79 in all other respects.
If a minor concludes a customary marriage without the consent of a parent, guardian, Com-
missioner of Child Welfare or judge, as the case may be, the marriage is voidable and the pro-
visions of section 24A of the Marriage Act apply.80 Section 24A stipulates that an application for
annulment must be brought by a parent, guardian or by the minor personally. The application
must be lodged with the High Court within prescribed time limits set by the section. If the
parents or guardian of a minor apply/applies for annulment, they must do so before the minor
reaches the age of 18 years and within six weeks after they have become aware of the existence
of the marriage. The minor may bring an application for an annulment at any time before he or she
reaches the age of 18 years, or within three months after having turned 18.81 The court will grant
the application for annulment only if it is convinced that it is in the minor’s best interests to do so.
The Recognition of Customary Marriages Act does not alter the prohibition of a customary
marriage between persons on account of their relationship by blood or affinity. This is still
determined by customary law.82
The state is not involved when the marriage is concluded: no provision is made for the services
of a marriage officer, and registration of the marriage after it has been concluded is also not a
requirement for the validity of the marriage. This is seen as a grave omission in the Act and a
speedy amendment of the Act is neccesary, especially in view of the fact that under traditional
customary law, it is difficult to ascertain at what point the marriage is concluded.83
Some aspects need further discussion.
5.3.3.2 Prohibition relating to blood and affinity relations

Prohibited marriages cannot be treated generally, as the laws and customs of the various ethnic
groups differ. The following could serve as guidelines:
The Nguni group
Among the Thembu, Xhosa, Bomvana, Pondo and Bhaca in the Transkei, sexual intercourse
with a woman in the same clan (that is, having the same isibongo) as the man, irrespective of
how distant their relationship may be, and even if there is no relationship, is regarded as incest.84
________________________
77 Section 3(4)(a) of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act 120 of 1998.

78 Section 3(4)(b).
79 Section 3(4)(c).
80 Section 3(5).
81 See Heaton and Kruger (2015) 220, 227–228 for a discussion of the patrimonial consequences of a custom-
ary marriage of a minor who did not have the proper assistance to be married.
83 Van Schalkwyk (2003) De Jure 299.
84 Bekker (1989) 123.
Among the Zulu, marriage with blood relations of any kind is strictly prohibited. A Zulu
member may not marry another of the same clan nor of the clan of his mother’s people.85
On the other hand, the Swazi consider certain marriages between relatives desirable,
especially between a man and a woman belonging to the clan of his paternal grandmother or
maternal grandparent of either sex.
The Sotho group
Among the Sotho and the Tswana, a man may not marry an ascendant or descendant. Cross-
cousin marriages, that is, marriages between a man and a daughter of his mother’s brothers, or
his father’s sisters, are preferred. Marriages between other cousins are allowed.
The Tsonga group
Among the Tsonga, a man may not marry the daughter of a paternal or maternal uncle or aunt.
The Venda group
The Venda also have a preferred form of marriage. It is desirable for a man to marry a woman
from his maternal uncle’s family.86
5.3.3.3 Negotiations, conclusion and celebration according to customary law

As has been pointed out above, section 3(1)(b) of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act
requires the marriage to be negotiated, concluded or celebrated according to customary law.
Customary marriages have not been completely codified and are therefore not marriages if these
requirements are not met. Without these requirements, it would be rather difficult to say whether
a customary marriage existed because there are numerous similarities between the other require-
ments and the requirements of civil marriages. This provision has raised the indigenous negotia-
tions and ceremonies to a statutory level.87
To indicate what makes a customary marriage binding and valid, we quote an excerpt from
the decision in Sila v Masuku,88 which should give the reader an understanding of the subject:
[The] process of [marriage] is gradual and involves a series of changes in (1) the attitude of the two
contracting groups towards each other; (2) the actual transaction which consists of the exchange of the rights
in the woman for cattle and thereafter follows, (3) the adjustment of the woman in her new office: (a) her
elevation from maidenhood to wifehood; (b) her departure from and farewell to the group and its ancestors;
and (c) her introduction to the new group and its ancestors and her affiliation thereto.
These are still the underlying components of a customary marriage. There are usually three
distinct stages:
(a) The first stage, as described in Sila v Masuku, “involves visits, pourparlers and the exchange
of social courtesies, all designed to establish concord between the groups, culminating in the
consent of the groups to the marriage”.
(b) In the second stage, the extent of the lobolo is arranged. This is the most important legal
aspect of the marriage and is the contract proper.89 It is often accompanied by other social
and religious ceremonies, but as between the groups, the contracting parties, this stage com-
pletes the transaction. As recently as 1998, it was stated that “negotiations to determine the
amount of lobolo (bride wealth) still form the basis of most Zulu weddings. Although many
rituals and ceremonies precede a wedding, only once agreement on the ilobolo has been
reached does the engagement become official”.90
________________________
85 Bekker (1989) 124.

86 Bekker (1989) 125.
87 Bekker (2004) THRHR 146.
88 1937 NAC (N&T) 121.
89 Also see Himonga and Nhlapo (eds) (2014) 188–191 for a discussion of lobolo as a customary law contract.
90 De la Harpe et al (1998) 122. In general, also see Vorster et al (2000).
Although lobolo is not mentioned as a requirement for a customary marriage in the Recogni-
tion of Customary Marriages Act, it is obviously a requirement.91
(c) The third stage involves the bride in person and not the groups as contracting parties. She
must formally leave her ancestral family home. This is usually accompanied by some sym-
bolic ritual. Thereafter she is aggregated to her husband’s group, again symbolised by rit-
uals. Once she is aggregated, she “belongs” to her husband’s group. Any children born to
her belong to the husband’s group, and even death does not dissolve the marriage.92
In Fanti v Boto,93 the importance of performing customary practices, ceremonies and rituals was
again emphasised. The non-performance of the ceremonial handing over of the bride to the
husband’s family and the fact that there was no agreement on or lobolo paid, resulted in a
finding that no customary marriage came into existence. Criticism against the judgment is that
although it was alleged that the marriage was contracted in 2005, no mention was made of the
Recognition of Customary Marriages Act and the requirements stipulated therein.
In Motsoatsoa v Roro94 the court dismissed the application for registration of a customary
marriage as the handing over of the bride in the presence of the families of both spouses did not
take place, in spite thereof that the lobolo negotiations had been done and part of it had been
delivered. The court held that a wife cannot hand herself over; she must be accompanied by
family members.95
In Ntoagae v Makabanyane,96 the court referred to Fanti v Boto and Motsoatsoa v Roro to
also come to the conclusion that a customary marriage could not have been concluded where the
bride was not handed over to the bridegroom’s family. The court found that the applicant’s
argument “that the deceased handed herself over by residing with him cannot stand.”97 The court
came to this conclusion even though lobolo was paid and referred to the fact that a customary
marriage is not only about the parties themselves but “envelopes [sic] the families of the respec-
tive parties,” hence this requires the involvement of both families “from the inception of the
lobola negotiations to the ultimate handing over of the bride.”98 Therefore the court found that
the mother of the deceased could bury the deceased as the applicant had not established a right
to do so.99
In Mkabe v Minister of Home Affairs100 however, the court stated that the handing over of the
bride cannot be over emphasised and also referred to the financial constraints and huge cost of
traditional ceremonies.101 The court found that there was indeed a customary marriage in light of
the other rituals performed as well as the fact that part of the lobolo was paid.102 The court in
Mkabe referred to the Mabuza case where it was stated that “it is inconceivable that ukumekeza
has not evolved and that it cannot be waived by agreement between the parties and/or their
families in appropriate cases”.103 The court in Mkabe found that the handing over of the bride to
________________________
91 Also see Bekker and Koyana (2014) THRHR 28–30.

92 Bekker (1989) 108–109.
93 2008 (5) SA 405 (C).
94 [2011] 2 All SA 324 GSJ paras 19–24.
95 Motsoatsoa v Roro 2011 (2) All SA 324 (GSJ) para 20. Also see Heaton (2011) Annual Survey of SA Law
475–476 in this regard.
96 [2015] ZANWHC 78 (12 November 2015).
97 Paragraph 15.
98 Paragraph 15.
99 Paragraph 16.
100 [2016] ZAGPPHC 460 (9 June 2016) (hereafter Mkabe).
101 Paragraph 38.
103 Paragraph 34.
the family of the plaintiff was condoned and/or waived by the parties.104 However the Mabuza
case was, as stated earlier, criticised in that the real issue, namely whether the wife had in fact
been integrated into her husband’s family, had been overlooked.105
5.3.3.4 Lobolo
The importance of the lobolo custom is obvious from the previous paragraph. In the Recognition
of Customary Marriages Act,106 lobolo is defined as:
. . . property in cash or in kind, whether known as lobolo, bogadi, bohali, xuma, lumalo, thaka, ikhazi,
magadi, emabheka or by any other name, which a prospective husband or the head of his family undertakes
to give to the head of the prospective wife’s family in consideration of a customary marriage.
In the case of the man’s first marriage, it is customary that his father takes part in the marriage
negotiations and also provides the lobolo. If the man is a major and economically self-sufficient,
he undertakes the negotiating himself. Traditionally, lobolo consisted of cattle, which were occa-
sionally supplemented with sheep, horses or money. Nowadays, lobolo consists of money,
property or both, but is generally still referred to as “cattle”.107 There are differing approaches to
the size of the lobolo and how it is determined. The size can be determined in various ways,108
such as negotiation procedures and agreement between the parties109 or by tradition.110
It is probably impossible and unwise to provide a narrow description of the meaning and func-
tion of the lobolo custom. Olivier et al 111 summarise the traditional functions of lobolo as follows:
It serves to legalise the marriage, to legitimate the children born of the woman, to act as a form of compensa-
tion in a general sense, to place the responsibility upon her father to support her if it should become neces-
sary, to stabilise the marriage, and to ensure proper treatment of the wife by the husband and his family. It is
clear, however, that the primary function of the lobolo is to transfer the reproductive capacity of the woman
to the family of her husband; in other words, there is a direct correlation between (a) the transfer of lobolo,
112
and (b) the reproductive potential of the woman.
There are diverging opinions among writers about whether the handing over of lobolo is an
essential requirement for the validity of a customary marriage and whether it is a relative
requirement, which naturally belongs to the matrimonial agreement, but does not affect the
contractual validity of the marriage and can therefore be amended by agreement between the
parties.113
________________________
104 Mkabe, para 39.

105 See 5.3.2.5 above.
107 Olivier et al (1995) 28; Mofokeng (2005) THRHR 277–288.
108 Olivier et al (1995) 30–31.
109 Various groups use these methods, including the Tsonga, Ndebele, Swazi and some Xhosa communities.
The KwaZulu-Natal Codes also provide that lobolo can be determined by means of negotiations, but pre-
scribes the maximum number of cattle that may be received in specific instances. Also see the Transkei
Marriage Act 21 of 1978.
110 Including the Hlubi and the Venda. It can also be determined unilaterally by the man’s family, e.g., the
Tswana. Among some Xhosa communities, it is not agreed upon beforehand, but depends on the circum-
stances. These communities follow the theleka custom according to which the wife’s father is permitted to re-
move the wife and her children from time to time and “impound” her. The husband has to deliver additional
lobolo for their return. This process continues until the wife’s family has received a reasonable amount of lobo-
lo in this manner.
111 Olivier et al (1995) 38–39.
112 For an evaluation of the present functions of lobolo, see Labuschagne (1991) THRHR 545–550; Knoetze
(2000) TSAR 532–542; Mofokeng (2005) THRHR 277–288; Bekker and Boonzaaier (2007) De Jure 283–
285.
113 Vorster and De Beer (1988) SA Journal of Ethnology 182–188; Knoetze (2000) TSAR 532–542; Church in
Sanders (ed) (1981) 29; Bekker (1989) 107; Van Schalkwyk (2003) De Jure 299–301.
Although the institution of lobolo has traditionally been regarded by the various communities
as an essential requirement for a customary marriage,114 it is not expressly provided for in the
Recognition of Customary Marriages Act, and the debate as to whether it is an essential
requirement continues.115 Dlamini116 is of the opinion that the fact that lobolo is not an express
requirement for a valid customary marriage implies that lobolo in the customary marriage fulfils
the same function as in civil marriages. This is the approach that was previously accepted in
KwaZulu-Natal.117 For a civil marriage, lobolo is not a necessity. However, Africans still regard
lobolo as indispensable, even for a civil marriage. The courts have decided that it is a subject of
a separate agreement and subsidiary to a civil marriage.118 Therefore, lobolo has social implica-
tions only, for example, serving as a sign of appreciation and enhancement of the wife’s dignity.
It also acts as a cultural symbol to obtain the approval of and the gift of fertility from the ances-
tral spirits. Traditionally, lobolo transfers the authority that the family head has over his daughter to
her husband, and the status of a wife is therefore subject to a deep-rooted tradition of patriarchy.
For this reason, lobolo is often regarded, especially by feminists, as a way of reinforcing the
authority of the husband over his wife.119 Research undertaken by the Law Reform Commission
has shown that African women do not agree as to the effect of lobolo on their status. Some hold
the view that the giving of lobolo enhances their status, while others find it demeaning and they
argue that they are treated as mere pieces of property.120 Empirical research by Prinsloo, Van
Niekerk and Vorster, published in 1998, showed that the greater majority of African women
(85%) and African men (82,2%) do not regard the lobolo institution as demeaning of the wife’s
dignity and that in fact lobolo enjoys general support.121
Additional criticism against the lobolo custom involves its changing composition. The fact
that these days it is usually paid in cash leads to the emphasis on the economic aspect.122 Origi-
nally, commercialising the custom was opposed. At present, the economic side has influenced
the custom to such an extent that the amounts to be paid have, in some instances, become exces-
sive. Therefore, it may take some time to gather the lobolo, which in its turn causes the prolifera-
tion of cohabitation and uncommitted relationships. This instability promotes additional social
problems.123 Limiting the extent of the lobolo through legislation will most probably be ineffec-
tive as it cannot be successfully enforced.124
The reason for the continued popularity of lobolo, in spite of changes in African communities,
is that for many Africans lobolo is an essential constituent of a valid marriage. Even if there is
full compliance with all the prescribed requirements of a valid marriage, most Africans will still
not regard it as a “real” marriage if no arrangements have been made for the payment of lobolo.125
________________________
114 Vorster and De Beer (1988) SA Journal of Ethnology 182–188.

115 Mofokeng (2005) THRHR 277–288; Horn and Janse van Rensburg (2002) TRW 170–179.
116 In Bekker et al (eds) (2002) 41.
117 Dlamini (1984) De Jure 148.
118 Fuzile v Ntloko 1944 NAC (C&O) 2; Raphuti v Mametsi 1946 NAC (T) 19; Matchika v Mnguni 1946 NAC
(N&T) 78; Mbonjiwa v Scellam 1957 NAC (S) 41; Sekupa v Jonkman 1966 NAC (C) 20; Khumalo v
Ntshalintshali 1971 NAC (C) 59.
119 Knoetze (2000) TSAR 536.
120 South African Law Commission Project 90: Discussion Paper 74 (1997) 41.
121 Prinsloo, Van Niekerk and Vorster (1998) De Jure 314; (1997) De Jure 99. However, the situation might
have changed, and fresh research is needed in this regard.
122 See e.g. Reddi (2007) Obiter 511–512.
123 Labuschagne (1991) THRHR 550; Dlamini (1985) CILSA 365; South African Law Commission Project 90:
Report on customary marriages (1998) 51–52; Jansen and Ellis (1999) TRW 46–47.
124 Jansen and Ellis (1999) TRW 46–47 and the authorities cited there.
125 Also see Southon v Moropane (14295/10) 2012 ZAGPJHC 146 para 81 (hereafter Southon).
In Southon v Moropane126 the court indicated that provision of the lobolo in part will not ren-
der a customary marriage invalid as long as there is an undertaking to provide the agreed lobolo.
The court in Mkabe v Minister of Home Affairs127 also confirmed that payment of lobolo in full
cannot be such an essential requirement as to invalidate a customary marriage.
Lobolo therefore embodies and expresses the views and convictions of the African community
in terms of the distinction between a real and binding marriage and an informal relationship.128
The cultural importance of lobolo should not be under-estimated.129 For this reason, the South
African Law Reform Commission felt that it would be premature to abolish it without further
ado. The dismantling of lobolo should be left to other forces, but the Commission does not see it
as a requirement for a valid customary marriage.130 In terms of section 1 of the Law of Evidence
Amendment Act,131 the courts are prohibited from declaring this institution as being inconsistent
with public policy. Bekker and Koyana132 predict that the constitutionality of the institution will
be scrutinised sooner or later.
5.3.4 Registration of a customary marriage

A customary marriage entered into before the commencement of the Act had to be registered at
the Department of Home Affairs before 15 November 2002.133 A customary marriage concluded
since the commencement of the Act, has to be registered within three months after such conclusion
or within such longer period as determined by the Minister from time to time in the Gazette.134
Although the Act provides for registration, this is not a requirement for a valid customary
marriage.135 A registration certificate serves as prima facie proof of the existence of a customary
marriage and of the particulars contained therein. It makes it easier to prove the existence of a
marriage.136 The spouses of a customary marriage are placed under a duty to ensure that their
marriage is registered.137 Any spouse may apply for the registration by completing the pre-
scribed form and supplying the prescribed information as well as any additional information that
the registration official may require (to allow him or her to ascertain whether the marriage
exists).138 Should the registration official be satisfied that the spouses have concluded a valid
customary marriage, then he or she must register the marriage and issue them with a registration
________________________
126 Southon paras 82–83.

127 Mkabe para 35.
128 Dlamini (1984) De Jure 154–155. Also see Mofokeng (2005) THRHR 279–280; Bekker (1989) 107 and
Bennett (1995) 118, where he observes “[t]o the African way of thinking, the most important ingredient
of a valid marriage is bridewealth, the time-honoured practice that gives the union its distinctively African
character”.
129 Knoetze (2000) TSAR 539.
130 South African Law Commission Project 90: Report on customary marriages (1998) 61. However, see
Mofokeng (2005) THRHR 277–288.
131 Law of Evidence Amendment Act 45 of 1988.
132 Bekker and Koyana (2014) THRHR 31.
133 The registration period was originally limited, in s 4(3)(a), to one year after the commencement but the
period was extended by GN 1228 GG 22839 of 23 November 2001.
134 Section 4(3)(b) of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act.
135 Section 4(9). With regard to the registration requirement in the Transkei Marriage Act 21 of 1978, there is
no unanimity: see the minority judgment of Combrinck in Wormald v Kambule 2006 (3) SA 562 (SCA) 27–
37. After 15 November 2000, s 4(9) of Act 120 of 1998 is also applicable in the Transkei.
136 Section 4(8). In the absence of a registration certificate, the existence of the marriage can be proven in other
ways. This can, however, be a difficult task: see Baadjies v Matubela 2002 (3) SA 427 (W) De Koker
(2001) TSAR 257.
138 Section 4(3).
certificate which contains the prescribed particulars such as their identity, the date of the mar-
riage, any lobolo agreed upon and other prescribed particulars.139
In addition, the Act provides that if a customary marriage is not registered, any person who
has sufficient interest in the matter may apply to the registration official to determine the exist-
ence of the marriage. If the registration official is convinced that a valid marriage exists or did
exist between the spouses, he or she must register the marriage and issue a registration certifi-
cate.140 Should the registration official not be convinced that a valid customary marriage had
been concluded between the parties, he or she must refuse to register the purported marriage.141
The court can order the registration or cancellation of the registration of a customary marriage if
such application has been made and after the court has investigated the matter.142
The Act determines that the Minister of Justice, in consultation with the Minister of Home
Affairs, may make regulations relating to: the requirements to be complied with and the infor-
mation to be furnished to the registering officer in respect of the registration of a customary
marriage; the manner in which the official must satisfy himself or herself as to the existence or
validity of the customary marriage; the manner in which any person, including any traditional
leader, may participate in the proof of the existence or in the registration of any customary
marriage; the form and content of certificates, notices, affidavits and declarations required for
the purposes of the Act; the custody, certification, implementation, rectification, reproduction
and disposal of any document relating to the registration of customary marriages or of any docu-
ment prescribed in terms of the regulations; any matter that is required or permitted to be pre-
scribed in terms of the Act; and any matter that should be prescribed for the effective registration
of customary marriages or the efficient administration of the Act.143
Unfortunately, spouses (and their children) whose marriages are not registered might have
valid marriages according to the law, but the full enjoyment of their rights is sometimes restricted
as a registration certificate is necessary to, for example, access pension benefits.144 A massive
publicity campaign145 regarding the importance of registration is desperately needed.
The fact that one party can apply for registration, enhances the chance of a fraudulent registra-
tion of an alleged customary marriage.146
An alternative to late registration is to obtain a court order that the customary marriage be
registered.147 On account of the exorbitant costs of this option, it is virtually inaccessible for
poor and middle-class people and the position is currently unsatisfactory. Many customary mar-
riages are in fact not registered and, as indicated, this aggravates the plight of people who have
to prove the existence of the marriage to claim their rights.148
________________________

140 Section 4(5).
141 Section 4(6).
142 Section 4(7).
143 Section 11(1). These regulations were published in GN 6909 GG 21700 of 1 November 2000.
144 Müller-van der Westhuizen and Nhlapo (2016) Journal for Juridical Science 12 and the authorities cited
there.
145 Maithufi and Bekker (2009) Obiter 174.
146 De Kock (2007) Without Prejudice 52–53.
147 Section 4(7)(a) of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act.
5.3.5 Equal status and competencies of spouses

In the past, the wife in a customary marriage was subject to the marital power of the husband
and was regarded as a perpetual minor.149 Section 6 of the Recognition of Customary Marriages
Act now provides that the wife in a customary marriage has:
On the basis of equality with her husband and subject to the matrimonial property system governing the
marriage, full status and capacity, including the capacity to acquire assets and to dispose of them, to enter
into contracts and to litigate, in addition to any powers that she might have at customary law.
This is in accordance with the equality clause as contained in section 9 of the Constitution. The
proviso that the wife’s status is subject to the matrimonial property system means that sections 6
and 7(1) go hand in hand. Section 7(1) provides that the patrimonial consequences of a custom-
ary marriage which was concluded before the commencement of the Act are subject to custom-
ary law. This means that the husband remains the family head and controls all family property.
The wife’s capacity to acquire and deal with property and her contractual capacity are therefore
severely restricted by this section.150
In Gumede v President of the Republic of South Africa,151 section 7(1) was declared unconstitu-
tional as far as it relates to monogamous customary marriages. All monogamous customary
marriages entered into before the Act came into operation are, as from 8 December 2008 (the
date of the judgment), ipso facto in community of property and of profit and loss between the
spouses.152 It has no bearing on customary marriages which had been terminated by death or by
divorce before the date of the judgment.153 Section 7(2) was also declared unconstitutional
insofar as it distinguishes between a customary marriage entered into before and after the com-
mencement of the Act. The court in Gumede took note of the fact that the judgment perpetuates
the existing inequality between women in monogamous marriages and those in polygynous
marriages but declared that “the proprietary consequences of polygamous relationships will be
regulated by customary law until parliament intervenes.”154
To date, Parliament has not intervened with respect to the issue of polygamous customary
marriages, although it was addressed in the High Court in 2016. The court, in Ramuhovhi v
President of the Republic of South Africa,155 found that section 7(1) of the Recognition of
Customary Marriages Act is inconsistent with the Constitution with respect to polygamous
customary marriages as well. It found that the provision is discriminatory also on the basis
of race and/or ethnic or social origin insofar as women in “old” polygamous customary marriages
are excluded from the protection afforded to women in monogamous marriages.156 The
declaration of constitutional invalidity of section 7(1) by the High Court was confirmed by
________________________
149 Section 11(3) of the Black Administration Act; s 27 of the Natal Code of Zulu Law Proc R195 of 1967.
150 Heaton and Kruger (2015) 229; Vorster (1999) Obiter 90; Horn and Janse van Rensburg (2002) TRW 61;
Jansen (2002) TRW 115; Pienaar (2003) Stell LR 262–264. Also see the discussion at 5.3.6.1. Doubts have
been raised as to whether the full implications of this section were considered. Mqeke (1999) Obiter 61 – 64.
151 2009 (3) BCLR 243 (CC) (hereafter Gumede).
152 In all monogamous customary marriages, whether concluded before or after the commencement of the Act,
the capacity to enter into contracts and to litigate of both spouses is limited by the Matrimonial Property Act
88 of 1984 where the marriage is in community of property.
153 Paragraph 52 of Gumede.
154 Paragraph 56. Also see Bekker and Van Niekerk (2009) SAPR/PL 206–222. The court in Gumede also
declared s 20 of both KwaZulu-Natal Codes on Zulu Law unconstitutional. S 20 provides that the family
head is the owner of and has control over all family property in the family home. S 22 of the Natal Code,
which provides that the inmates of a kraal are in respect of all family matters under the control of and owe
obedience to the family head, was also declared unconstitutional.
155 2016 (6) SA 210 (LT).
156 Paragraph 46.
the Constitutional Court157 on 30 November 2017.158 The Constitutional Court suspended the
declaration of constitutional invalidity for a period of 24 months to afford Parliament an oppor-
tunity to correct the defect giving rise to such invalidity.159 If Parliament fails to address the
defect, the regime ordered by the court will continue to apply after the period of suspension.160
Wives and husbands will have joint and equal ownership and other rights to, and joint and equal
rights of management and control over, marital property. The order does not invalidate a wind-
ing up of a deceased estate that has been finalised or the transfer of marital property that has
been effected.161 However this does not apply to any transfer of marital property where, at the
time of transfer, the transferee was aware162 that the property was subject to a legal challenge on
the same grounds as in this case.163 Any interested person may approach the court for a variation
of the order in the event that she or he suffers harm not foreseen in the judgment.164
In African communities, there is traditionally a deeply embedded patriarchal way of living.
Irrespective of laws and judgments, patriarchal values will continue to influence these communi-
ties but not in the same way as it did in the past. The status of women in these communities has
changed dramatically. As a result of economic and social circumstances, a large number of
women have assumed responsibilities and powers previously reserved for males.165
5.3.6 Proprietary consequences

5.3.6.1 Marriages concluded before the commencement of the Act
Section 7(1) of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act provides that the patrimonial con-
sequences of customary marriages which were concluded before the commencement of the Act are
still governed by customary law.166 As explained above,167 section 7(1) was, until recently, only
applicable to polygynous customary marriages, which implied that such a marriage is neither in
nor out of community of property.168
Traditionally, with respect to polygynous customary marriages, the position is as follows: The
husband has to establish separate houses with their separate house property. He is the family
head of all the houses regardless of which form of ranking system applies to the particular
family group. He is also in control of all house property and family property of his household.
House property is primarily used for the benefit of the house to which it belongs. The family
________________________
157 Ramuhovhi v President of the Republic of South Africa 2013 (4) BCLR 431 (CC).
158 Paragraph 71.
159 Paragraph 71.
160 Paragraph 71.
161 Paragraph 71.
162 The court referred to its decision in Bhe v Magistrate, Khayelitsha 2005 (1) BCLR 1 (CC) where it was
stated that it will be just and equitable to limit the retrospectivity of the order so that the declaration of inva-
lidity does not apply to any completed transfer to an heir who is bona fide in the sense of not being aware
that the constitutional validity of the provision in question was being challenged. It is fair and just that all
transfer of ownership obtained by an heir who was on notice ought not to be exempted. See Ramuhovhi v
President of the Republic of South Africa 2018 (2) BCLR 217 (CC) para 59.
163 Ramuhovhi v President of the Republic of South Africa 2017 ZACC para 71.
164 Paragraph 71.
165 Bekker and Van Niekerk (2009) SAPR/PL 212.
167 See 5.3.5.
168 Bekker (1989) 71.
head must administer family property to the collective advantage of the family.169 The family
head has a duty to keep the estates of the various houses in his family home separate and to
settle disputes relating thereto.170
However, the Constitutional Court in the 2017 case of Ramuhovhi v President of the Republic
of South Africa ordered that wives and husbands will have joint and equal ownership and other
rights to, and joint and equal rights of management and control over marital property which will
be exercised as follows: (i) in respect of house property, by the husband and the wife of the
house concerned, jointly and in the best interests of the family unit constituted by the house
concerned; and (ii) in respect of all family property, by the husband and all the wives, jointly
and in the best interests of the whole family constituted by the various houses.171 Each spouse
retains exclusive rights to her or his personal property.172 The order does not invalidate a wind-
ing up of a deceased estate that has been finalised or the transfer of marital property that has
been effected.173 However this does not apply to any transfer of marital property where, at the
time of transfer, the transferee was aware174 that the property was subject to a legal challenge on
the same grounds as in this case.175 Any interested person may approach the court for a variation
of the order in the event that she or he suffers harm not foreseen in the judgment.176 With respect
to a monogamous customary marriage, there was a single undivided economic unit under the
control and almost complete discretion of the husband as head of the family. This means that
whatever is in the household belongs to the family pool, irrespective of the manner in which the
property was acquired by the individual members. The head of the household is required to
administer the matrimonial estate for the common good of the family.177 The main limitation on
his management is a general duty to maintain dependants. Thereafter he can use the property to
settle his own lobolo debt and any damages due for wrongs committed by members of the house.
Then he is free to use the assets to satisfy his personal wants and needs. He has a moral duty to
consult his wife on matters of major importance. Section 6, which purports to provide equality,
is in effect useless when the patrimonial consequences of the marriage are subject to customary
law.178 In Gumede v President of the Republic of South Africa, section 7(1) was declared uncon-
stitutional as far as it relates to monogamous customary marriages. All monogamous customary
marriages entered into before the Act came into operation are, as from 8 December 2008
(the date of the judgment), in community of property and of profit and loss between the spouses.
The court order has no bearing on customary marriages which had been terminated by
death or by divorce before the date of the judgment.179 Section 7(2) was also declared
________________________
169 Bekker (1989) 71; Mqeke (1999) Obiter 63–64; Sijila v Masumba 1940 NAC (C&O) 42; Mpungose v
Mpungose 1946 BAC (N&T) 37. Heaton and Kruger (2015) 222 – 223. See ch 6 on Law of Property for a
discussion of the difference between family property, house property and personal property and the rights
and duties of the family head relating to each category.
170 See Olivier et al (1995) 60–61 for a discussion of the family head’s right of control and disposal.
172 Paragraph 71.
173 Paragraph 71.
174 See explanation in footnote 168 in 5.3.5 above.
176 Paragraph 71. See paras 52–65 of the judgment for more insight into the court’s order, especially the issue
of retrospectivity.
177 Mqeke (1999) Obiter 63. In Mpungose v Mpungose 1946 BAC (N&T) 37–40, the court said the following:
“. . . native social system regards the family as a whole and all members of the family participate in its pos-
sessions. The head of the family is virtually a trustee or director of the possessions of the family and not, as
in common law, the owner.”
178 Pienaar (2003) Stell LR 269; Jansen (2002) TRW 118–122; Akinnusi (2000) TRW 147–148 and Mqeke
(1999) Obiter 61–64.
179 Paragraph 52 of Gumede.
unconstitutional insofar as it distinguishes between a customary marriage entered into before and
after the commencement of the Act. The words “entered into after the commencement of the Act”
where therefore declared unconstitutional. The patrimonial consequences of monogamous custom-
ary marriages entered into before and after the commencement of the Act, are now the same.180
Spouses in a customary marriage entered into before the commencement of the Act may apply
to a court jointly for leave to change their matrimonial property system. If the husband is a
spouse in more than one customary marriage, all persons with a sufficient interest in the matter,
and particularly the applicant’s existing spouses, must be joined in the proceedings.181 The court
will grant the application only if (i) there are sound reasons for the proposed change, (ii) suffi-
cient written notice of the proposed change has been given to all creditors of the spouses for
amounts exceeding R500 or such amount as may be determined by the Minister of Justice by
notice in the Gazette, and (iii) no other person will be prejudiced by the change. Parties are
authorised to enter into a written contract in terms of which the future matrimonial property
system of their marriage or marriages will be regulated on conditions determined by the court.182
It is suggested that few, if any, marriages will be changed in this way as doing so would be
expensive. It will also be difficult for wives in a polygynous marriage to convince their spouses
to relinquish sole control of the matrimonial assets.183
With respect to the position in the former Transkei, the Supreme Court of Appeal, in
Holomisa v Holomisa184 held that a civil marriage concluded in 1995 between the appellant and
the respondent was a marriage out of community of property. This was in terms of section 39(1)
of the Transkei Marriage Act which was in operation within the territory of the former Transkei.
5.3.6.2 Marriages concluded after the commencement of the Act
5.3.6.2.1 A monogamous customary marriage
If a customary marriage (before or after commencement of the Act) is concluded and a spouse is
not a party to any other existing customary marriage, the marriage is in community of property
and of profit and loss between the spouses, except if such consequences are specifically excluded
by the spouses in an ante-nuptial contract.185 This implies a drastic departure from customary
law regarding the patrimonial regime of a customary marriage.186 Chapter 3 and sections 18, 19,
20 and 24 of Chapter 4 of the Matrimonial Property Act187 apply to customary marriages in
community of property. For civil and customary marriages in community of property the rules
which govern the following are exactly the same: joint control of the communal estate, litigation
by or against a spouse, compensation for non-patrimonial damages paid or recovered by a
spouse, delictual liability of spouses and statutory protective measures that spouses can apply
against each other.188
________________________
180 The position as set out in 5.3.6.2.1 is also applicable to these marriages.
182 According to Van Schalkwyk (2003) De Jure 307, spouses who had concluded polygynous marriages
before the commencement of the Act can only change their matrimonial property system to a complete sep-
aration of property.
183 Jansen (2002) TRW 121. Also see Ramuhovhi v President of the Republic of South Africa para 42.
184 [2017] ZASCA 64 (29 May 2017).
185 Section 7(2) of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act; see s 10(2). Also see 5.3.6.1.
186 Some writers doubt the wisdom of the provision that a customary marriage should be in community of
property; see Mqeke (1999) Obiter 64.
187 88 of 1984.
188 Sections 7(3) and 10(3) of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act.
Section 21 is applicable when spouses, having been married after the commencement of the
Act, wish to change their matrimonial property system.189
5.3.6.2.2 A polygynous customary marriage

A husband190 in an existing customary marriage, who wishes to conclude a further customary
marriage with another woman after the commencement of the Act, has to apply to the court to
have a written contract approved which will regulate the future matrimonial property system of
his marriages.191 The court must, in the case of an existing marriage in community of property or
out of community of property but subject to the accrual system, terminate the matrimonial
property system and effect a division of the matrimonial property. In doing so, the court must
ensure a fair division, taking into account all relevant circumstances of the family groups which
would be affected if the application is granted. The court has the discretion to allow further
amendments to the terms of the contract and grant the order subject to conditions as the court
may deem just, or refuse the application if the interests of the parties would not be sufficiently
protected by means of the proposed contract.192
All persons having a sufficient interest in the matter (especially the applicant’s existing
spouse or spouses and his prospective spouse) must be joined in the proceedings.193 If the court
grants the application, the registrar or the clerk of the court must furnish each spouse with the
court order including a certified copy of the contract and the same must be sent to each registrar
of deeds of the area in which the court is situated.194
The Act is silent about the consequences if there is no approved contract in terms of sec-
tion 7(6) of the Act. However, in light of the prejudice to the second wife, the Supreme Court of
Appeal, in Ngwenyama v Mayelane,195 found that section 7(6) of the Act is not a validity re-
quirement for a further customary marriage and found the second marriage to be a valid custom-
ary marriage. According to the Supreme Court of Appeal, if the husband has failed to make the
application to court in terms of section 7(6) of the Act, the applicable regime is one of out of
community of property and of profit and loss.196 The matter went to the Constitutional Court
(MM v MN197) and although the SCA judgment regarding section 7(6) not being a validity
requirement for a further customary marriage was confirmed, the second marriage was found to
be invalid, based on the fact that the first wife was not informed about the second marriage.198
The Constitutional Court held that the Xitsonga customary law had to be developed to require
the permission of the first wife to a consecutive marriage concluded by her husband.199
The order regarding the development of Xitsonga customary law in this respect operates
prospectively200 (hence from the date of judgment201).
________________________
189 Section 7(5) of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act. For a discussion of the options available to
marital parties, see Heaton and Kruger (2015) 221– 226; Van Schalkwyk (2000) THRHR 490; Van Schalkwyk
(2003) De Jure 307–308. Also see Heaton and Kruger (2015) 227–228 for a discussion of the patrimonial con-
sequences of the customary marriage of a minor who did not have the required assistance to get married.
190 See Bekker and Koyana (2014) THRHR 31–32 regarding polygyny and equality.
192 Section 7(7).
193 Section 7(8).
194 Section 7(9).
195 2012 (4) SA 527 (SCA). Also cited as MN v MM.
196 Paragraph 38. Also see Ramuhovhi v President of the Republic of South Africa 2018 (2) BCLR 217 (CC)
paras 31, 35.
197 2013 4 SA 415 (CC) para 89.
198 See para 87.
199 Paragraph 89.
200 Paragraph 89.
201 30 May 2013.
The consequences of the final judgment, specifically referring to the matrimonial property
system(s) applicable to such marriages, are however not without difficulties.202 The possibility
of declaring such a “marriage” a putative marriage should be considered.203
It would appear from section 7(6) of the Act that only one matrimonial property system is
applicable for all marriages204 (provided that the section 7(6) application was done). It would
further appear that the only possible option then is total division of assets. This does not cause
many practical problems, but is very unfair towards wives who do not have the opportunity of
building up their own estates. In a divorce action, however, the court has the power to make an
equitable order that it deems just.205
5.3.7 Dissolution of customary marriages through divorce

Section 8 contains the provisions for the dissolution of a customary marriage. These are precisely
the same for marriages that were concluded before and after the commencement of the Recog-
nition of Customary Marriages Act.
5.3.7.1 Grounds and reasons (justifications) for divorce
According to the Act, the only ground for granting an order for divorce is the irretrievable
breakdown of the customary marriage.206 The court may grant an order for divorce if it is satis-
fied that the marriage relationship between the parties has reached such a state of disintegration
that there is no reasonable prospect of a normal marriage relationship between them.207 While
some might regard the use of irretrievable breakdown as simply being a superimposition of a
civil ground of divorce on a customary marriage, this is not necessarily so. The irretrievable
marriage breakdown concept has always resembled the ground for divorce in customary law.
The position at traditional customary law was that a customary marriage could be dissolved only
if it had totally broken down.208 The grounds for divorce that were enumerated in the Code of
Zulu Law, for example, were in conflict with the true spirit of customary law. The use in the Act
of irretrievable breakdown as a ground is therefore not inappropriate. The circumstances which
traditionally were seen as good reasons or justifications209 for divorce in customary law, should
still play a role when determining whether the marriage has irretrievably broken down. Olivier et
al210 mentions the following “grounds” on behalf of the husband: Adultery by the wife – not a
single act but persistent transgressions. A single act of incest is sufficient. If the wife falls
pregnant and refuses to divulge the name of the party responsible and makes it impossible for
her husband to claim damages; premarital pregnancy not caused by the husband and of which he
had no knowledge at the conclusion of the marriage; absconding by the wife under certain
circumstances and her subsequent refusal to return to him when requested to do so by him
________________________
202 For a discussion of the matrimonial property system(s) the contract can provide for see Heaton and Kruger
(2015) 224–226. Also see Müller-Van der Westhuizen (2014) LitNet Akademies 155–168 and the authori-
ties cited there.
203 Monareng (2007) Agenda 124–128. If the Domestic Partnerships Bill of 2008 (GG 30663 of 14 Janu-
ary 2008) is promulgated, it can benefit people in a permanent domestic partnership. Also see Müller-Van
der Westhuizen (2014) LitNet Akademies 155–168.
204 The Act uses the singular form.
205 For a comprehensive discussion, see Heaton and Kruger (2015) 223–226 and the authorities cited there.
Also see 5.3.7 below.
207 Section 8(2).
208 For a discussion, see Bekker (1976) CILSA 346; Whelpton and Vorster (2001) SA Journal for Ethnology
56–61.
209 See Himonga and Nhlapo (eds) (2014) 149–150 for a brief discussion of the use of the words “grounds of
divorce” in customary law.
210 Olivier et al (1998) paras 54 and 55.
(when he phuthumas her) and any behaviour on the part of the wife that amounts to the clear and
unequivocal repudiation of the marriage. On behalf of the wife, the following are examples of
good reasons for divorce in customary law: serious assault and physical ill-treatment by the
husband; when the husband accuses the wife of witchcraft; when the husband drives his wife
away and his subsequent failure to fetch (phuthuma) her; when the husband abandons his wife
for a long time and when the husband is impotent and the wife was ignorant of the impotence
before the marriage. These reasons are not a numerus clausus.
5.3.7.2 Jurisdiction
The Act provides that a divorce order dissolving a customary marriage can be obtained only
from a high court, a family court or a divorce court.211 This is a radical amendment of customary
law. However, the Act clearly states that the provisions of section 8 may not be construed as
limiting the role recognised in customary law of any person, including any traditional leader, in
the mediation of any dispute (which arises prior to the dissolution of a customary marriage)
according to customary law.212
In the past, the dissolution of a customary marriage was, with the exception of KwaZulu-
Natal, an extra-judicial matter, and the State was not involved. In terms of customary law, the
customary marriage was dissolved by way of agreement between the parties involved in the
original marriage agreement (the prospective wife’s father or guardian and the prospective bride-
groom) and the return of the lobolo or at least one head of cattle as a symbol of the dissolution.213
5.3.7.3 Consequences of divorce

5.3.7.3.1 The interests of children
The Mediation in Certain Divorce Matters Act214 and section 6 of the Divorce Act215 are applic-
able to the dissolution of a customary marriage.216 These laws deal with the interests and welfare
of the children of the spouses at divorce and equate the position of children born of customary
marriages with those born of civil marriages.217 The Mediation in Certain Divorce Matters Act
deals with the appointment of family advocates as well as family counsellors who assist family
advocates in providing advice with regard to custody and control of minor children. The Act
authorises the court to make an order regarding guardianship, custody, access and maintenance
of any minor child of the marriage.218
In terms of customary law, the father’s right to the custody and guardianship of his children
was absolute and could not be taken from him. In a customary law context, it is more appropri-
ate to say that the children belong to the family group of the father. The court, as the upper
guardian of all minors, has however (long before the commencement of the Recognition of
Customary Marriages Act) modified customary law in this respect by emphasising that the best
interests of the children are decisive.219 In determining the best interest of the child, the
________________________
211 Section 8(1) read with s 1 of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act.
212 Section 8(5).
213 Bekker (1989) 198; Olivier et al (1998) 67–85; Thembisile v Thembisile 2002 (2) SA 209 (T).
214 24 of 1987.
215 70 of 1979.
217 Van Schalkwyk (2003) De Jure 309.
218 Also see “Maintenance” (5.3.7.3.4).
219 Section 28(2) of the Constitution; Hlophe v Mahlalela 1998 (1) SA 449 (T); also see Bekker (1989) 217,
227; Devenish (1998) 371; Vorster, Dlamini-Ndandwe and Molapo (2001) SA Journal of Ethnology 62–66;
Jansen and Ellis (1999) TRW 47–49.
court should take African cultural values and belief systems into account, for example the link
with their ancestors. An award of custody to the mother is interpreted as breaking the child’s
link with the family group of the father (to which the child “belongs”). It is submitted that
children’s interests will be best served by granting joint custody to both parents, unless there are
specific reasons for not doing so.220 The new Children’s Act221 favours the idea of awarding joint
custody.222
5.3.7.3.2 Patrimonial consequences
When granting a decree for the dissolution of a customary marriage, the court has the powers
contemplated in sections 7, 8, 9 and 10 of the Divorce Act and section 24(1) of the Matrimonial
Property Act.223 These are concerned with the question of the redistribution of assets and bene-
fits of the marriage. In the case of a husband who is a spouse in more than one customary mar-
riage, the court must take into account all the relevant factors, including any contract, agreement
or order made in terms of section 7(4), (5), (6) or (7) and must make any equitable order that the
court considers just.224 In general, the court’s competencies are the same as when a civil mar-
riage is dissolved: To incorporate a settlement agreement into the divorce order, to grant a post-
divorce maintenance order for the benefit of a spouse, to redistribute assets if the marriage is
subject to a total separation of property, to order the forfeiture of matrimonial benefits, and to
make an order as to costs. At a later stage the court may also rescind, vary or suspend a mainte-
nance order or an order regarding the parties’ children. The pension interests of the spouses are
also deemed to form part of their assets.
As to the court’s competence to order a redistribution of assets in a customary marriage, there
are several interpretation-related difficulties.225 Section 7(3) of the Divorce Act limits the court’s
redistribution power to marriages subject to complete separation of assets and is therefore also
applicable to customary marriages. There is no agreement among writers as to whether this
redistribution power can also apply to customary marriages concluded before the commence-
ment of this Act. This question currently relates only to polygynous marriages. Some are of the
opinion that such marriages are not subject to complete separation of assets as required in
section 7(3) of the Act.226 Others hold that the patrimonial consequences of such a marriage in
effect amount to a complete separation of property and that the court therefore does have a
redistribution power in such marriages. The latter viewpoint provides the fairest result. Addi-
tional support for the correctness of this viewpoint is probably the fact that at the dissolution of
the marriage, the woman was not, according to customary law, entitled to take any of the family
or house property with her, but only her personal belongings, when returning to her father’s or
guardian’s family home.227
________________________
220 Bekker (2008) Obiter 395, 403–404; Bekker and Van Zyl (2002) Obiter 116–117, 123.
221 38 of 2005.
222 Bekker and Boonzaaier (2007) De Jure 287.
223 Section 8(4)(a) of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act.
224 Section 8(4); also see Vorster, Dlamini-Ndandwe and Molapo (2001) SA Journal of Ethnology 62–66;
Heaton and Kruger (2015) 229–230.
225 See Heaton and Kruger (2015) 229–232 and the sources cited there for a comprehensive discussion.
226 In terms of Gumede v President of the Republic of South Africa 2009 (3) BCLR 243 (CC), all monogamous
customary marriages concluded before the commencement of the Act are, as from 8 December 2008 (the
date of the judgment), in community of property and of profit and loss between the spouses. Van Schalk-
wyk (2000) THRHR 496; Bonthuys (2001) THRHR 211; Jansen (2002) TRW 123.
227 South African Law Commission Project 90: Report on customary marriages (1998) 122; Jansen (2002)
TRW 122; Singh (1999) De Jure 315.
Contrary to the position in regard to civil marriages,228 the court’s redistribution powers in
regard to customary marriages is, in terms of section 8(4)(a), not limited to marriages concluded
before the commencement of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act and is therefore also
applicable to marriages subject to complete separation of assets concluded after the commence-
ment of the Act. This amounts to an inequality before the law and unequal protection and benefit
of the law, which violates section 9(1) of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa.229
The differentiation may also amount to unfair discrimination based on the ground of race230 as it
is unclear whether people who are not African (“black”) may enter into a customary marriage: If
customary marriages are restricted to African people the racial discrimination would be direct
but even if customary marriages are open to all races, there would still be indirect discrimination
because customary marriages would remain largely the preserve of African people.231
Regarding the question of whether the provisions of section 7(7) and (8) of the Divorce Act
(concerning the pension interests of the spouses) apply to customary marriages concluded before
the commencement of the Act, there is a similar lack of agreement. Some232 consider it doubtful
whether these provisions apply to marriages subject to customary law, while others233 see no
reason why they should not apply. The fact that it may be strange to customary law is not suffi-
cient reason for excluding such from the provisions.
There are also writers who maintain that forfeiture of benefits cannot be applicable to custom-
ary marriages concluded before the commencement of the Act, while another writer is of the
opinion that neither the wording of section 8(4)(a) of the Recognition of Customary Marriages
Act, nor that of section 9 of the Divorce Act suggests that.234
Section 8(4)(b) provides that where a man is a spouse in more than one customary marriage,
the court must take into account all relevant factors, including any contract, agreement or order
in terms of subsections 7(4), (5), (6) or (7) and must give any equitable order it deems just. Sub-
sections 7(4)–(7) are concerned with the post-marital amendments of the spouses’ matrimonial
property regime where the husband had concluded a further customary marriage. Any orders in
that regard are therefore relevant. When dissolving an individual marriage which is part of a
polygynous marriage, the court can therefore redistribute the assets as the court deems
just.235
5.3.7.3.3 Return of lobolo
In traditional customary law the dissolution of the marriage did have an effect on the return of
lobolo. According to Olivier et al,236 the following were the most important considerations:
(a) the number of children born of the marriage;
________________________
228 In the case of civil marriages of all persons, except Africans, the redistribution competence is limited to
marriages concluded before the commencement of the Matrimonial Property Act 88 of 1984 and in the case
of civil marriages between Africans; it is limited to marriages concluded before the commencement of the
Marriages and Matrimonial Property Law Amendment Act 3 of 1988.
229 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996. Heaton and Kruger (2015) 141–143.
230 Section 9(3) of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996.
231 See Heaton and Kruger (2015) 141–143 for a discussion on the constitutionality of the prerequisites
in s 7(3).
232 Van Schalkwyk (2000) THRHR 496.
233 Heaton and Kruger (2015) 231.
234 See above.
235 Nor is the court’s competence to order a redistribution limited by the requirements of s 7(4) of the Divorce
Act that the spouse applying for redistribution, should have contributed to the maintenance or increase of
the other spouse’s estate as in the case of redistribution in terms of s 8(4)(a) of the Recognition of Custom-
ary Marriages Act, see Heaton and Kruger (2015) 231.
236 Olivier et al (1998) 83–85.
(b) the amount of lobolo already delivered (as well as that which is still outstanding); and
(c) which party was primarily responsible for the breakdown of the marriage.
If the break-down was solely the fault of the man, he forfeited the lobolo. If the woman was the
only one to blame, the lobolo had to be returned, except for the lobolo that could be retained in
terms of the customary rules. If both were blameworthy an attempt was made to reach a settle-
ment. As indicated above, the customary marriage was dissolved, according to customary law,
by agreement between the parties involved in the original marriage agreement (the woman’s
father or guardian and the bridegroom). This agreement, coupled with the return of the lobolo
(or at least one head of cattle), were regarded as symbolising the dissolution.237 As long as the
lobolo had not been returned, the marriage was not yet regarded as completely dissolved and the
parties could still be reconciled.238 In terms of the Act, the dissolution of a customary marriage is
a judicial matter and it is not a requirement that the lobolo be returned. Among the Zulu, in
particular, the return of lobolo is not seen as a requirement. The reason is that after payment of
lobolo, the bride has to procure gifts and furniture for her parents-in-law and for the marriage. In
doing so, she uses the money that came by way of lobolo, resulting in her father being left with
nothing. Requiring the father to return lobolo where he has none amounts to punishing him for
the indiscretion of the daughter. The approach in the Act is therefore supported.239
In Thembisile v Thembisile,240 the court regarded the return of the lobolo as a necessary
requirement for the dissolution of the customary marriage. This case, however, dealt with the
dissolution of a customary marriage before the commencement of the Act.
Lobolo does not relate to the spouses’ matrimonial property as the lobolo agreement is
between the prospective husband and the father of the prospective bride. If the return of the
lobolo is in dispute, the father has to be joined in the divorce proceedings.241 It is important to
note that the jurisdiction of divorce courts is limited to the granting of divorces and these courts
therefore cannot decide about the return of lobolo. The High Court, however, has inherent
jurisdiction to decide such claims.242
5.3.7.3.4 Maintenance
According to traditional indigenous law, the woman returned to her father’s family home upon
the dissolution of the marriage. Being the holder of the lobolo, he maintained her, and she again
became a daughter in the house. The reason behind the dissolution of the marriage was to sever all
ties between the spouses and there was no maintenance system between the erstwhile spouses.
According to the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act, section 7(1) and (2) of the Divorce
Act applies also to customary marriages. These provisions empower the court to grant a mainte-
nance order against a spouse for the benefit of the other spouse. In granting an order for the
payment of maintenance, the court has to take into account any provision or arrangement made
in terms of customary law.243 The delivery of lobolo to the woman’s father is probably a factor
that could be considered, which could undermine the woman’s position.244 In the case of a
________________________
237 Bekker (1989) 198; Olivier et al (1998) 67–85.

238 See Jansen (2003) TRW 130–131 and the sources cited there.
239 Dlamini (1983) LLD thesis 488; also see Whelpton and Vorster (2001) SA Journal for Ethnology 56–61.
240 2002 (2) SA 209 (T) para 28; also see Bennett (1991) 269–270.
241 See 5.3.7.4.
242 Maithufi and Bekker (2002) CILSA 187.
243 Section 8(4)(e) of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act.
244 Pienaar (2003) Stell LR 267.
maintenance order, especially with regard to children, the fact that the father had paid isondlo245
to the person maintaining the child has to be taken into account.246
This right to claim maintenance from the other spouse is a radical change to customary law
and many of the problems encountered in the maintenance court can be ascribed to it.247
5.3.7.4 Joinder
The court can order that anyone who has a sufficient interest in the matter be joined in the divorce
proceedings.248 This probably includes the husband’s other wives as well as the woman’s father
as lobolo holder.249
5.3.7.5 Interim legal assistance

In Baadjies v Matubela,250 it was confirmed that Rule 43 of the Uniform Rules of Court is
applicable to spouses in a customary marriage, pending their divorce. Anyone of the spouses
may therefore apply for maintenance pendente lite, a contribution to costs and interim custody of
or access to a child. In Baadjies, however, the existence of a customary marriage could not be
proved, and the application was refused.
5.3.8 Dissolution of customary marriages by death

The position in traditional customary law (with the exception of KwaZulu-Natal)251 is that, at the
death of any of the spouses, the marriage agreement between the two family groups continues to
exist.252 It is expected of the widow to remain with the family group of her late husband and to
be available for the procreation of children for the deceased by means of the ukungena253 cus-
tom. Should the wife die first, her house continues to exist, and her husband may take a seed-
raiser or seantlo254 to raise children for the house of the deceased (or infertile) wife. Any child
born after the death of a spouse is regarded as offspring of the deceased spouse.255 Amongst the
Nguni, the husband marries a “seed raiser” and a new lobolo agreement is concluded. At the
marriage ceremonies an announcement is made regarding the specific house for which this wife
is to be a seedraiser. Amongst the Tswana and other groups, a sister of the deceased (or infertile)
wife is provided as a seantlo by her family to bear children for the household of the deceased
wife. No additional lobolo is paid for the seantlo and it is not a new marriage as with the seed
________________________
245 Also known as dikotlo (Setswana). The payment of one or two beasts to a person who has raised a child by
a parent who seeks to acquire custody of the child. Himonga and Nhlapo (eds) (2014) 154.
246 See Maithufi (2000) THRHR 515 for additional factors to be taken into account.
247 See Jansen (2002) TRW 122–123 and the authorities cited; Jansen and Ellis (1999) TRW 47–49.
248 Section 8(4)(c). Recognition of Customary Marriages Act.
249 Jansen and Ellis (1999) TRW 54–55; Maithufi and Moloi (2002) TSAR 609–610; Maithufi and Bekker
(2002) CILSA 194–195.
250 2002 (3) SA 427 (W).
251 Section 36(1) of the Codes of Zulu Law provides that the death of anyone of the spouses terminates the
customary marriage.
252 See Himonga and Nhlapo (eds) (2014) 153. However, according to Bekker and Boonzaaier, this idea is
dying out. See (2007) De Jure 285.
253 Or “levirate”. Also known as kungena and kenela. The practice where a man’s widow cohabits with one of
his brothers or some other nominated male relative, for the purposes of raising an heir. Himonga and
Nhlapo (eds) (2014) 153.
254 Or “sororate”. Also known as inhlanti. The practice of, when the wife is infertile, a younger sister or half-
sister of the wife marries the husband and bears children on her sister’s behalf. Himonga and Nhlapo (eds)
(2014) 149, 151.
255 Jansen (2002) TRW 124; Olivier et al (1998) 188–193.
raiser.256 The Reform of the Customary Law of Succession and Regulation of Related Matters
Act257 gives acknowledgment to the seed raiser and seantlo, but not to the ukungena custom.258
The fact that the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act contains no ruling as to the disso-
lution of customary marriages by death is regarded as a serious shortcoming. This failure pre-
sumably provides recognition for the above and similar levirate and surrogate customs.259 These
institutions are becoming less and less prevalent.260
5.3.9 Woman-to-woman marriages

A traditional woman-to-woman marriage261 is where a woman marries one or more other women
because of her powerful position and riches or because she is childless. Although this custom
occurs all over Africa, it does not occur frequently, and little is known about it. It has been
reported in ten groups in South Africa.262 All the customary rituals, such as the payment of
lobolo, are followed and this type of marriage is considered as normal in these communities.
A near blood relative of the female husband will act as genitor and the children are for all
purposes regarded as her children. Most authors have emphasised the fact that woman-to-woman
marriages are not homosexual in nature,263 but within the traditional context should be seen as a
relationship between two families, aimed at the procreation of an heir and the distribution of
property.264 There are two main motivations for this type of marriage:265 The first is the situation
in which a woman is past the child-bearing age and marries another woman who either already
has children or will have them during the marriage, and they will be considered to be the off-
spring of the female husband. The second situation is when a woman has independently gained
wealth or power, for instance as a political leader or a traditional healer. O’ Brien states that “in
some societies, if women are expected to symbolise power, they must be conceptualised as male,
or at least not take the subordinate status of wife.”266
5.3.10 Evaluation
The customary marriage is generally seen as based on African values. These values accentuate
social solidarity. The Recognition of Customary Marriages Act not only makes provision for the
recognition of customary marriages that have been concluded before and after the commence-
ment of the Act, but has also brought about radical changes in respect of such marriages.267
There had previously been a tendency to emphasise the differences between civil and customary
marriages,268 but these differences have decreased considerably. The only remaining difference
is that a civil marriage is inherently monogamous, while a customary marriage is potentially
________________________
256 Olivier et al (1998) 34–35.

257 11 of 2009.
258 See ss 1, 2(1)(b), 3(1) and (2).
260 Olivier et al (1998) 34. Also see Bekker and Koyana (2014) THRHR 32–34 regarding cognate unions and
the inferior position of women in this regard.
261 Or “women-marriages.” See Oomen (2000) THRHR 274.
262 It occurs mainly amongst the Venda.
263 For a discussion on same-sex partnerships in indigenous African societies, see Nkosi (2007) International
Journal of African Renaissance studies 2 (2) 205–207.
264 Oomen (2000) THRHR 274–277, 280; Bekker (1989) 147.
265 Oomen (2000) THRHR 276 and the authorities cited there.
266 See Oomen (2000) THRHR 276.
267 Dlamini (1983) LLD thesis 383.
268 Bronn v Frits Bronn’s Executors (1860) 3 Searle 313; Guma v Guma 4 BAC (1919) 220.
polygynous.269 However, the critical question is whether all the changes to customary marriages
are effective or whether they will only be paper law. In order to be effective, drastic educational
initiatives will have to be launched.270 The reason for this uncertainty is that family law is
generally considered to be intertwined with the emotions of people and is therefore more
opposed to change.271
Section 15(3) of the Constitution provides for legislation that recognises marriages concluded
in terms of any tradition or system of religious, personal or family law. The Recognition of
Customary Marriages Act falls within the ambit of section 15(3). This section also provides that
such legislation has to be consistent with the rights entrenched in section 15 and other provisions
of the Constitution (for example the Bill of Rights).
In the discussion of the lobolo custom above,272 reference was made to the different view-
points it engendered. Some considered that it enhanced the dignity of the wife, while others held
that it unfairly discriminated against women, infringed the woman’s right to dignity and
augmented the husband’s authority over his wife. There are also divergent views regarding
polygyny: on the one hand it is seen as enhancing male domination, while on the other hand
there are benefits for the wife, such as the division of labour and an increased opportunity for
women to be economically active.273
Although the practice of polygyny is still a relatively widespread phenomenon among elderly
people particularly in rural areas, it may be becoming obsolete among the younger generation.274
Even though the Gumede decision, which declared section 7(1) and relevant parts of section 7(2)
of the Act invalid, was welcomed, the unintended result was an unequal position between
women in monogamous customary marriages and especially women in “old” polygynous cus-
tomary marriages for many years. However, the situation was addressed in the 2017 Constitu-
tional Court case of Ramuhovhi. The judgments regarding the patrimonial consequences in
respect of “old” polygynous customary marriages (Ramuhovhi) as well as “new” polygynous
customary marriages (MM), seemed to have lifted the status of women in such marriages.
However, some practical problems might still be encountered.
5.4 Adoption practices

Adoptions under common law are recognised in the Children’s Act,275 however the Act makes
no reference to adoptions under customary law. Despite this, customary law adoptions have been
recognised in a number of cases. In ML v KG,276 the court recognised an adoption under custom-
ary law that had occurred after the commencement of the Children’s Act for the purpose of a
claim for loss of support.
However, some might argue against the existence of adoption in customary law277 or contend
that it is not recognised by all the various cultural groups in South Africa.278 Despite this, it
________________________
269 Dlamini (1985) CILSA 701. Also see Mwambene (2014) 20 PER/PELJ 1–33 for a detailed discussion of
what she regards the future of polygyny to be in Africa.
270 Mqeke (1999) Obiter 64.
271 Allott “Reforming the law in Africa – aims, difficulties and techniques” in Sanders (ed) (1981) 228–229.
272 See 5.3.3.4.
273 See Van Schalkwyk (2003) De Jure 293; Pienaar (2003) Stell LR 265.
274 Bekker and Boonzaaier (2007) De Jure 285–286.
275 38 of 2005. The whole of the Children’s Act, including Chs 15 and 16, respectively dealing with adoptions
and inter-country adoptions, took effect on 1 April 2010. Also see Bosman-Sadie, Corrie and Swanepoel
(2013) ix; Van der Walt (2014) Obiter 448.
276 [2013] ZAGPJHC 87 (8 April 2013).
277 See, e.g., Bennett (1995) 107.
278 For example, the Zulu and Swazi groups. See ch 9 on Law of Succession and Inheritance.
seems that different forms of adoption practices indeed exist in customary law today. These
include a relative or friend adopting a child; the natural father of a child born out of wedlock
adopting the child and having the child affiliated to his family group; a male adopting his
deceased brother’s child; a female adopting her deceased sister’s child; a childless couple
adopting an orphaned child, and so-called “step-parent adoption”.279 The latter is also known as
oe gapa le namane280 in Sepedi/Setswana/Sesotho.281 This type of adoption involves the groom
marrying the bride and simultaneously adopting the child(ren) born from previous relation-
ship(s).282 Lobola is delivered for both the mother and her child(ren), and the child(ren) is/are
affiliated to the husband’s family.283
“Customary law adoption” refers to a process with legal consequences that are similar to those
of adoption in terms of common law.284 As such, it entails the adopted child becoming a child of
the adoptive parent(s) or family for all intents and purposes,285 and the adoptive parent(s) assum-
ing responsibility for the maintenance of the adopted child.286
The requirements for a customary law adoption generally appear to be as follows:287 The fam-
ilies of the adopted child and the adoptive parent(s) must agree288 and due publicity must be
given to the adoption. Publicity occurs in the form of a small ceremony.289 The adoption is
usually reported290 to the traditional leader291 to indicate that the child has been formally trans-
ferred from the family giving the child to the family of the adoptive parent(s). Unlike the posi-
tion under common law, a court order is not required for a customary law adoption, nor is an
assessment by a social worker. By contrast, adoptions under common law (hence, adoptions
under statute) are regulated by Chapter 15 of the Children’s Act and require a court order.292 All
guardians of the child must consent to the adoption.293 Consent from the adopted child
him/herself is also required where the child is aged 10 years or older, or if below 10 years of
age, where the child is of an adequate age, maturity and stage of development to understand the
implication of such consent.294 The Children’s Act also provides for an adoption social worker to
make an assessment to determine whether a child is adoptable.295
________________________
279 See Mokotong (2015) THRHR 347 and the authority cited therein for this non-exhaustive list.
280 Loosely translated as “you lead it with its calf.” ML v KG [2013] ZAGPJHC 87 (8 April 2013) para 11.
281 Or stiefoueraanneming in Afrikaans. See Mokotong (2015) THRHR 344. He also lists variations in other
languages.
282 See Mokotong (2015) THRHR 347–348.
283 Mokotong (2015) THRHR 348. In ML v KG, the court explained that oe gapa le namane was specifically
aimed at recognising the importance of the bond between a mother and her new-born child, and the need for
a child to be with its mother in early childhood. ML v KG [2013] ZAGPJHC 87 (8 April 2013) para 14.
284 See Maithufi 2001 De Jure 391.
285 Maithufi 2001 De Jure 392. Compare s 242(3) of the Children’s Act.
286 Maithufi 2001 De Jure 392. Compare s 242(2)(a) of the Children’s Act.
287 Maswanganye v Baloyi 2015 JOL 34005 (GP) paras 12–13. Also see inter alia Metiso v Padongelukfonds
2001 (3) SA 1142 (T) 1147; Maithufi 2001 De Jure 391-392; Olivier et al (1995) 154; Olivier, Olivier and
Olivier (1989) 462.
288 Expert evidence led in Metiso v Padongelukfonds 2001 (3) SA 1142 (T) 1147 suggested that in terms of
customary law it is the paternal family of a child who must decide whether such child should be adopted.
Bekker states that it is “the relatives both of the family head giving the child and of the adoptive parent”
that must be called to the meeting at which the adoption takes place. See Bekker (1989) 236.
289 Maswanganye v Baloyi para 13.
290 Even where the customary law adoption was not reported, the adoption would still be valid if due publicity
was given to the process and there was agreement between the families. Maswanganye v Baloyi para 12.
291 Or his or her representative. Maswanganye v Baloyi para 12.
292 Section 228 of the Children’s Act.
293 Bosman-Sadie, Corrie and Swanepoel (2013) 329.
294 Section 233(1)(c) of the Children’s Act.
295 Section 230(2).
The difference in the requirements for customary law adoptions as opposed to those under
statute must be seen against the backdrop of the different values underpinning the issue of
adoptions within the two legal systems. For example, African children “belong” to a group or
extended family, whilst in a Western setting, children are members of a nuclear family with only
the biological parents serving as their guardians and custodians.296
A few judgments have dealt with the issue of customary law adoptions for the purpose of
allowing a maintenance or loss of support claim.
In Metiso v Padongelukfonds,297 two minor children had allegedly been customarily adopted
by their father’s brother (their uncle) after their father’s death.298 The children’s mother left the
community shortly after the father’s funeral and made no contact with her children, nor did she
show any interest in them. The plaintiff testified that the children were transferred into the care
of their uncle by means of a formal ceremony and that the uncle subsequently assumed respon-
sibility for maintaining the children. The uncle later died in a car accident and an action for
damages for loss of support with respect to the children was instituted against the Road Accident
Fund.299 The court had to decide whether it could allow the claim on the basis that a valid
adoption took place. One of the objections raised against the validity of the adoption was that the
biological mother and her family had not been informed of the children’s adoption. The court
found in favour of the children on the ground that even if the adoption were found to be invalid
under customary law, the deceased uncle still had a maintenance duty, due to his undertaking to
maintain the children.300 After considering expert evidence, the court also noted that the mother
and her family seemed to have no locus standi to “interfere” in the adoption.301 The Road Acci-
dent Fund was consequently held liable for the children’s loss of support.302
In Thibela v Minister van Wet en Orde303 the plaintiff instituted an action for damages for loss
of support against the then Minister of Law and Order after the police had killed her husband.304
The plaintiff and the deceased were married under customary law. The deceased had agreed to
pay an amount of R600 as lobola305 for the plaintiff and her minor son from her previous rela-
tionship.306 She also sued on behalf of this son.307 During the plaintiff's pregnancy, the biological
father paid for certain clothes of the mother as well as the hospital costs. The biological father
then “disappeared from the scene”, but he did offer to pay maintenance at some stage. At the
recommendation of the deceased, the mother declined the biological father’s offer to pay
maintenance.308 The court found that the child had in essence become the child of the deceased,
which implied that he had a duty to maintain the plaintiff’s son.309
In ML v KG,310 the applicant relied on a customary law adoption311 as grounds for an applica-
tion for an interim maintenance claim for her minor children not born of the respondent, pending
________________________
296 Bekker 2008 Obiter 396.

297 2001 (3) SA 1142 (T) (hereafter Metiso).
298 Metiso 1146.
299 Metiso 1143.
300 Heaton (2010) Annual Survey of South African Law 453; Metiso 1150.
301 Metiso 1149.
302 Heaton (2010) Annual Survey of South African Law 453; Metiso 1150.
303 1995 (3) SA 147 (T) (hereafter Thibela).
304 Mokotong 2015 THRHR 347–348; Thibela 148.
305 Or bogadi, as the plaintiff belonged to the Pedi community. See Thibela 150; Mokotong 2015 THRHR 348.
306 Thibela 149. Although not specifically referred to, oe gapa le namane was clearly addressed in this case.
Also see Mokotong 2015 THRHR 347.
307 Mokotong 2015 THRHR 348; Thibela 148.
308 Thibela 149.
309 Thibela 150; Mokotong 2015 THRHR 348.
310 [2013] ZAGPJHC 87 (8 April 2013) (hereafter ML v KG).
311 The applicant relied specifically on oe gapa le namane. See ML v KG 9.
a divorce action.312 The court stated that it was common cause that the child had been disclosed
to the respondent, moved to the respondent’s home and the respondent maintained the child in
various respects.313 The court further argued that “. . . oe gapa le namane is assumed,314 for a
child under the age of 14, unless it is expressly excluded”.315 The court concluded that the
applicant had placed sufficient facts before it to find in the interim that the respondent was liable
for the maintenance of the minor child born from the mother’s previous relationship.316
In a final example, that of Maneli v Maneli,317 the applicant sought maintenance for the minor
child that she and the respondent had allegedly adopted in terms of Xhosa customary law before
the breakdown of their marriage.318 The applicant approached the maintenance court for a
maintenance enquiry and an order in terms of the Maintenance Act319 determining the amount of
maintenance that the respondent was to contribute in respect of the child.320 The maintenance
court developed the common law to hold that a man who adopted a child under customary law
had a legal duty to maintain the child.321 The matter was subsequently referred to the High Court
to determine whether the maintenance court’s finding was correct.322 The High Court confirmed
the maintenance court’s finding.323 The High Court stated that the Xhosa customary law of
adoption was not “in conflict with the Bill of Rights or section 18(1)(a) of the Child Care Act324
and sections 23 and 25 of the Children’s Act”.325 The court also ordered the director-general of
the Department of Home Affairs in terms of “section 2 of the Births and Deaths Registration
Act”326 to register the child as the parties’ adopted child.327
The facts in the Metiso case clearly show that the mother abandoned the children. Abandoned
children are adoptable in terms of the Children’s Act,328 and the consent of a parent who aban-
dons a child is not needed.329 Apart from circumstances of abandonment and certain other, listed
circumstances,330 however, both parents’ consent is generally required.331 Therefore, merely
“informing” one of the spouses is not acceptable when children are adopted under common law.
In the Metiso case, the court’s conclusion regarding the notification of the biological mother and
her family might prove to be problematic in future.
In contrast to the facts in the Metiso case, where the mother showed no interest in her chil-
dren, the biological father in the Thibela case seems to have shown some interest in his child.
Nevertheless, the biological father still had no say in the adoption of the child into another
family. The Children’s Act requires the consent of both parents for the adoption of their chil-
dren, regardless of the parents’ marital status.332
________________________
312 Mokotong 2015 THRHR 350; ML v KG paras 2, 3, 9.

313 ML v KG para 20.
314 Own emphasis.
315 ML v KG para 16.
317 2010 (7) BCLR 703 (GSJ) (hereafter Maneli).
318 Maneli paras 2–8.
319 99 of 1998.
320 Heaton (2010) Annual Survey of South African Law 453.
321 See Heaton (2010) Annual Survey of South African Law 455–456 for critique relating to the development of
common law in this regard. Maneli case para 1.
322 Maneli para 1.
323 Heaton (2010) Annual Survey of South African Law 453.
324 74 of 1983.
325 Maneli para 19.
326 51 of 1992; Maneli para 45.
327 Heaton (2010) Annual Survey of South African Law 454–455; Maneli para 45.
328 Section 230(3)(c) of the Children’s Act.
329 Section 236(1)(b).
330 Section 236.
331 Section 233(1)(a).
332 Section 233(1)(a).
The view that a customary law adoption is assumed in certain circumstances, as held by the
court in ML v KG, seems to contradict other judgments. In the Thibela case, for example, it was
evident from the facts that the man had agreed to adopt the woman’s child born from a previous
relationship by having agreed to pay lobola for both of them. In Maswanganye v Baloyi,333 the
court indicated that careful consideration is needed when deciding on a matter of adoption
outside the statutory framework and that adoption “should not easily be inferred.”334
The judgment in the Maneli case is problematic for various reasons, such as the fact that no
mention was made of the requirements of a Xhosa customary law adoption or whether the
parties had adhered to such requirements.335 The judgment further creates a broader scope than
other judgments dealing with customary law adoptions, where a mere parental duty of mainte-
nance336 was created.337
5.5 Civil marriages and civil unions

Section 10(4) of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act provides that no spouse in a civil
marriage is competent to enter into any other marriage. Section 8(2) of the Civil Union Act338
provides that a person in a civil union may not conclude a civil marriage or a customary mar-
riage. Section 8(3) of the Civil Union Act provides that a party to a customary marriage “may
not register a civil union”. As there is no express reference to competence in this section, the
nature of the invalidity of a civil union which is concluded in contravention of this section is not
clear.339 Furthermore, because of the prescription in section 13(2)340 of the Civil Union Act, the
rule that a civil marriage which is concluded in contravention of sections 3(2) and 10(1) of the
Recognition of Customary Marriages Act is void, cannot simply be applied to a civil union
which is concluded during the subsistence of a customary marriage.341 It is however submitted
that not only are customary marriages concluded contrary to section 10(4) of the Recognition of
Customary Marriages Act, void, but that customary marriages that is concluded during the
subsistence of a civil union are also void.342
Section 3(2) of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act provides that no spouse in a cus-
tomary marriage is competent to conclude a civil marriage during the subsistence of the custom-
ary marriage. They may, however, enter into a civil marriage with each other as long as neither
is a spouse in a subsisting marriage with another person.343 As registration is not a requirement
for the validity of the customary marriage, it is possible that, should a customary marriage not be
registered, the marriage officer concluding the civil marriage between one spouse and another
person may not be aware of the existence of the prior customary marriage. Taking into account
the express prohibition in the Act, a subsequent civil marriage, in contravention of these provi-
sions, will be void. The same will happen when the husband who, as a party to more than one
________________________
333 2015 JOL 34005 (GP).

334 Maswanganye v Baloyi 2015 JOL 34005 (GP) para 16.
335 Also see Schäfer (2011) 310. Heaton (2010) Annual Survey of South African Law 456.
336 Which could in turn give rise to a breadwinner’s action. See Schäfer (2011) 310.
337 Schäfer (2011) 310.
338 17 of 2006.
340 Section 13(2) of the Civil Union Act determines that “with the exception of the Marriage Act and the
Customary Marriages Act, any reference to marriage in any other law, including the common law, includes,
with such changes as may be required by the context, a civil union; and husband, wife or spouse in any other
law, including the common law, includes a civil union partner”.
343 Section 10(1) of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act; Maithufi (2000) THRHR 509.
customary marriage, concludes a civil marriage with one of his customary law wives.344 Sec-
tion 10(2) provides that should the two spouses in a customary marriage later also conclude a
civil marriage with each other, the marriage will be in community of property and of profit and
loss unless an ante-nuptial contract excludes these consequences.
Unfortunately, the Act is silent about the consequences of converting a customary marriage
into a civil marriage. There is still no clarity whether the former customary marriage still sub-
sists and whether the two parties are to be regarded as simultaneously married according to two
legal systems. The most acceptable view is that the customary marriage is terminated on the date
that the civil marriage is concluded, but that the termination is not retrospective. According to
this view, customary law rules are applicable to a customary marriage and its consequences until
the civil marriage is concluded and thereafter the rules applicable to civil marriages apply.345
The aim of sections 13(2) and 10(1) is to avoid the situation which existed in the past. A dis-
tinction should be made between the different time periods.
Position before 2 December 1988346
Generally, before 2 December 1988, the spouses in a customary marriage could enter into a civil
marriage with each other or with anybody else. The result was an automatic dissolution of the
customary marriage.347
In the past, legislation attempted to provide some protection for the other spouse (the so-
called “discarded spouse”) to the prior customary marriage. Section 22(1) of the Black Admin-
istration Act348 provided that:
No male Black shall, during the subsistence of any customary union between him and any woman, contract a
marriage with any other woman unless he first declared upon oath, before the magistrate or commissioner of
the district in which he is domiciled, the name of every such first-mentioned woman; the name of every child
of any such customary union; the nature and amount of the movable property (if any) allotted by him to each
such woman or House under Black custom; and such other information relating to any such union as the said
official shall require.
The effect of the above declaration was merely to provide proof of any allotment of property but
the husband was not required to endow anything to his customary law wife/wives or houses.349 If
the husband omitted to make the declaration, it did not affect the validity of the civil marriage.350
In terms of section 22(6), these civil marriages were automatically out of community of
property. Due to the very desperate situation of customary spouses, section 22 was amended by
the Marriage and Matrimonial Property Law Amendment Act 3 of 1988. This Act commenced on
2 December 1988.
________________________
344 Bonthuys and Pieterse (2000) THRHR 622.

345 See Heaton and Kruger (2015) 236–237.
346 The date the Marriage and Matrimonial Property Law Amendment Act 3 of 1988 commenced.
347 Nkambula v Linda 1951 (1) SA 377 (A). Also see Jansen (2003) TRW 120–132.
348 38 of 1927.
349 Olivier et al (1998) 106. S 22(7) also provided some protection.
350 Bennett (1991) 439–440; Jansen (2003) TRW 122. In terms of s 22(5) of the Black Administration Act, it
was an offence to either enter into a civil marriage without making the declaration or to make a false decla-
ration. In terms of s 22(6), these marriages were automatically out of community of property. If the husband
was not also a party in a customary marriage with any other woman, the parties could jointly make a decla-
ration within one month prior to the marriage, before a magistrate, Commissioner or marriage officer that
they desired to be married in community of property and of profit and loss. In terms of s 22(7), the civil
marriage, concluded during the subsistence of a customary marriage between the husband and another
woman not being the partner, had no effect on the material rights of any partner to the customary marriage
or a child born of it, and the widow from such a civil marriage and the children from the same did not have
greater rights to the estate of the deceased spouse than she or they would have had if the said (civil) mar-
riage had been a customary marriage.
Position between 2 December 1988 and 15 November 2000

The amended section 22(1) and (2) read as follows:
(1) A man and a woman between whom a customary union subsists are competent to contract a marriage
with each other if the man is not also a partner in a subsisting customary union with another woman.
(2) Subject to subsection (1) no person who is a partner in a customary union shall be competent to con-
tract a marriage during the subsistence of that union.
Subsection 22(6) has been repealed and all civil marriages concluded since 2 December 1988 are
in community of property and profit and loss, except if an ante-nuptial contract was entered into
to regulate the matrimonial property.351
The intention of the legislature was to provide more protection for the wife in the customary
marriage. Contrary to the position before 2 December 1988, a customary marriage is not auto-
matically terminated by the subsequent civil marriage (concluded in contravention of sec-
tion 22).352 To regard the civil marriage as not necessarily invalid would be untenable. The pos-
sibility of declaring the second marriage a putative marriage should be considered.353
In the 2011 case of Netshituka v Netshituka,354 the Supreme Court of Appeal held that because
the deceased husband reconciled with his “previously deserted” wives, the customary marriages
with them were revived after the termination of his civil marriage in 1984 and therefore that a
later civil marriage concluded by him in 1997, was null and void.355
In the 2014 case of Murabi v Murabi,356 the Supreme Court of Appeal again held that a civil
marriage concluded between the deceased and the first respondent in 1995 was invalid, due to
the fact that the deceased was already a party to a customary marriage with the applicant which
was concluded in 1979. Although the deceased also concluded a customary marriage with the
first respondent in 1975, the marriage could not be converted into a civil marriage due to the
deceased being a party in another customary marriage (with the applicant) as well.
Position since 15 November 2000
Section 22(1)–(5) was repealed by the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act and replaced
with similar provisions in sections 3(2), 10(1) and 10(4).357
Theoretically this means that the previous problems which resulted from multiple marriages,
including a civil marriage, are something of the past. In practice, however, this is not the case;
Thembisile v Thembisile358 serves to illustrate this point. The position was further complicated
by the decision in Nontobeko Virginia Gaza v Road Accident Fund.359 The court ordered that
any claimant who was a spouse of a customary marriage where her spouse was, at the time of his
death, also a spouse to a civil marriage, be compensated by the Road Accident Fund. Customary
________________________
351 Section 22(6) of the Black Administration Act provided that a civil marriage between Africans was auto-
matically out of community of property. If the husband was not also a party to an existing customary mar-
riage with another wife, the parties could, within one month before the conclusion of the marriage, jointly
make a declaration before a magistrate, Commissioner or marriage officer that they desired to be married in
community of property and profit and loss. The redetermination of s 22(7) is in essence the same as before
2 December 1988.
352 The person was, however, subjected to a penalty for transgressing the provisions of the Act. See Dlamini
(1989) TSAR 411; Jansen (2003) TRW 123–128.
353 Jansen (2003) TRW 123–128.
354 2011 (5) SA 453 (SCA) paras 7–15.
355 For critique against the judgment, see Bakker and Heaton (2012) TSAR 589–593.
356 [2014] ZASCA 49.
357 In terms of the Repeal of the Black Administration Act and Amendment of Certain Laws Act 28 of 2005.
358 2002 (2) SA 209 (T). See Jansen (2003) TRW 123–128 for a discussion of the various views and options
available to a court under such circumstances.
359 Durban and Coast Local Division (unreported) Case number 314/04.
marriages are still contracted during the subsistence of a civil marriage and a civil marriage
during the existence of a valid customary marriage. Maithufi and Bekker submit that polygamy
in these marriages should be legalised to avoid the harsh results for the woman in the invalid
marriage. This clearly demands the urgent attention of the legislator.360
________________________

6
Law of Property
Page
6.1 Characteristics of customary law property rights ....................................................... 119
6.2 Rights relating to property .......................................................................................... 119
6.2.1 Family property ............................................................................................... 120
6.2.2 House property ................................................................................................ 120
6.2.3 Personal property ............................................................................................ 121
6.3 Acquisition of customary law rights to property ........................................................ 122
6.3.1 Allocation of property other than land ............................................................ 122
6.3.2 Inheritance ....................................................................................................... 122
6.3.3 Marriage .......................................................................................................... 123
6.3.4 Other methods of acquiring property .............................................................. 125
6.4 Land ............................................................................................................................ 126
6.4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 126
6.4.2 Historical background ..................................................................................... 126
6.4.2.1 Constituting traditional areas ........................................................... 126
6.4.2.2 Complexity: Different land control forms and legislative
measures ........................................................................................... 127
6.4.3 Traditional customary law tenure ................................................................... 130
6.4.3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 130
6.4.3.2 Communal land tenure in practice ................................................... 131
6.4.4 Land reform..................................................................................................... 133
6.4.4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 133
6.4.4.2 Communal Land Rights Act............................................................. 135
6.4.4.2.1 Purpose ........................................................................... 135
6.4.4.2.2 Measures to achieve objectives ...................................... 135
6.4.4.2.3 Constitutional challenge ................................................. 135
6.4.4.3 Reformative measures ...................................................................... 136
6.4.4.3.1 Green Paper on Land Reform ........................................ 136
6.4.4.3.2 Communal Land Tenure Policy ..................................... 137
6.4.4.3.3 Communal Land Tenure Bill of 2017 ............................ 138
117
Page
6.4.4.4 Holding measure: Interim Protection of Informal Land Rights Act ... 140
6.4.4.5 “Spontaneous” tenure reform under auspices of the Constitution ... 141
6.4.4.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................ 141
6.4.5 Other statutory land rights............................................................................... 141
6.4.5.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 141
6.4.5.2 Extension of Security of Tenure Act (ESTA) .................................. 142
6.4.5.3 Land Reform (Labour Tenants) Act ................................................. 142
Chapter 6: Law of Property 119
6.1 Characteristics of customary law property rights

Traditional customary law granted rights, including rights to property, to family or agnatic
groups with the members sharing in the groups’ rights to property.1 This is the case, both with
regard to movables and immovable property, especially land, set out in more detail at 6.4 below.
Under colonial influence, heads of families, who were normally married males, were perceived
to be the only persons with full legal capacity in terms of customary law.2 This does not, howev-
er, imply that other members of the family could not acquire rights to property. Customary law
protected, and still protects, the rights of individuals through their families. Thus, an individual
in customary law is deemed to have acquired or to acquire a right through his or her family head.
The right is usually protected in the same manner.3 The co-operation of the family members
represented by the family head is of the utmost importance in the acquisition and disposal of
property rights.4
In African traditional communities, the emphasis usually falls on the family group or house-
hold, as an individual person has status and functions within the group context.5
It is not difficult to understand why the position described above existed and to some extent,
still exists today. As the family head was perceived by colonial administrators to be the only
person with full legal capacity, he was responsible for the contracts concluded by members
of his family and the delicts they committed. He was, thus, for all intents and purposes, the
guardian of all the members of his family and controlled and administered whatever was
acquired by such members.6
Bekker describes this position as follows:7
In original customary law, both in theory and in practice, a family head was in control of the family home
and its property. An unemancipated individual could not own anything individually, and whatever he might
have acquired vested in the family head. Yet, as has been shown, the property of the family home was not
owned outright by the family head, but was held in communal ownership by the family as a unit, under his
administration and control.
Accordingly, customary law property rights were generally characterised by a family or house-
hold approach and were usually male-dominated, although individuals were accommodated and
protected within a family context. The commencement of the Constitution with a Bill of Rights,
coupled with the Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act8 and the land reform
programme, elaborated on in more detail below, have contributed to important developments
impacting on the customary law of property generally and land tenure in particular.
6.2 Rights relating to property

Customary law recognises the right of ownership and other limited real rights to property,
though not necessarily identical to or in the same format as understood under common law or
________________________
1 Bennett (2004) 374; Braude (2017) Stell LR 68.

2 Bekker (1989) 69; Bennett and Murray “Traditional leaders” in Woolman et al (eds) (2009) 26–8. They
underline that conquest, colonialism and apartheid changed traditional concepts and approaches to property
and land in general dramatically. Also see Himonga and Nhlapo (eds) (2014) 187.
3 Chenitz and Richardson “Taking stock of the risks associated with the individualisation of land rights” in
Mostert, Verstappen and Zevenbergen (eds) Land law and governance: African perspectives on land tenure
and title (2017) 113.
4 Bekker (1989) 82.
5 Sinclair (1996) 162; Himonga and Nhlapo (eds) (2014) 187–188.
6 Bekker (1989) 71–76; Bennett (2004) 328–329; Himonga and Nhlapo (eds) (2014) 187.
7 Bekker (1989) 82.
8 41 of 2003.
Western-style property approaches.9 It is critical that the nature and content of these rights must
be understood within the framework of family relationships, which is in the context of marriage,
family and succession.10 Consequently, customary law recognises the following categories of
property: family property, house property and personal property.
6.2.1 Family property

Family property is property that has not been allotted to any houses, or that does not automati-
cally accrue to a specific house.11 This property is controlled by the head of the family, although
he is not the “owner” of the property in the Western common-law sense, since the family mem-
bers share in the property. Family property includes property which the family head inherited
from his mother’s house, property acquired by the family head by his own efforts and labour,
and land allotted by the traditional authority to the family group but which has not been allocated
to a particular house.12
The distinction between family and house property was more pronounced under the traditional
marriage dispensation, before the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act13 commenced in
2000. The distinction has, however, remained important within polygynous family set-ups.
6.2.2 House property

House property has been defined as “[t]he property which accrues to a specific house, consisting
of a wife and her children and has to be used for the benefit of that house”.14
This property belongs to a house in that it automatically accrues to it in terms of customary
law or when it has been allotted by a family head to a house.15 In polygynous family constructs,
property is specifically allocated to a particular house within the family set-up. Property that has
not specifically been allocated to a particular house remains family property. A variety of things
fall within this ambit, invariably the result of allocations, donations and delicts. House property
includes earnings of the members of the house, livestock allocated to the house and its increase,
property given to a wife at her marriage, lobolo received for daughters of the house on their
marriage, compensation received in respect of delicts committed against members of the house
(including compensation received in respect of seduction and adultery claims), agricultural
products produced by the wife on her fields, and other products produced by the members of the
house.16
House property is to be used for the benefit of the house to which it belongs.17 If it is used for
the benefit of another house, an inter-house debt (ethula) is created.18 Where inner-house debts
resulted, it had to have been due to a transfer of property that was necessary or reasonable in the
________________________
9 Mostert and Pope (eds) (2010) 108–109 underline that conventional common law property terminology
does not do justice to the actual meaning of property rights and interests in a customary law context. In this
regard terminology has to be understood within the right context. Also see Pienaar (2014) 461.
10 In terms of customary law, whenever a marriage is concluded, a house is created. The house is regarded as
consisting of a wife, her children as well as property brought into such house at marriage or allotted to the
house and property acquired by the members of the house during the marriage. Thus, the term “house” indi-
cates the property of the wife and children of the marriage. Also see Mofokeng (2009) 78; Himonga and
Nhlapo (eds) (2014) 129.
11 See Bekker (1989) 72; Olivier et al (1995) 50; Himonga and Nhlapo (eds) (2014) 129.
12 See Bekker (1989) 72; Olivier et al (1995) 49–50; Bennett (2004) 258–259.
13 120 of 1998.
14 Bennett (2004) 256.
15 Himonga and Nhlapo (eds) (2014) 129 refer to this kind of property as “general property”, being property
acquired by members of a house. These authors only distinguish between general and family property.
16 Bekker (1989) 135.
17 Mhlongo v Mhlongo 1919 AD 470; Sijila v Masumba 1940 NAC (C&O) 42; Bennett (2004) 256–258.
18 Bekker (1989) 140.
circumstances.19 If property was transferred in a frivolous or unjust manner the house that has
been prejudiced has an immediate right of action against the family head to restore the status
quo.
Despite being house property, the family head still retains control over it. In his use and con-
trol of house property, the family head has to consult the wife as well as the oldest son of such
house.20 Any interest that a family member has in the house and its property is a collective,
rather than a personal, one.21 As a result of modernisation and urbanisation, new types of property
have been acquired, notably houses held in terms of customary or statutory law, which are
regarded as house property.22 The children and the wife of the house established by the marriage
have a special interest in or rights to such property. Under traditional customary law when a
marriage was dissolved, their rights or interests were normally not terminated, as they continued
to reside in such house. That was also the case when the husband died, as the widow acquired
control of the property and after her death, this control passed to one of her children.23 It is this
property, commonly known as a house, over which children of the marriage acquire a special
interest. In the normal course of events, the property is often used by the youngest son of the
marriage,24 and, in the event that one of his sisters is unmarried or is divorced and returns home,
such sister and her children, if she has any, reside in such house. This is, in effect, the adaptation
of rules of customary law to suit the changing needs of society.25 The property is to be found in
both rural and urban areas.26
However, since the commencement of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act and the
Reform of Customary Law of Succession and Regulation of Related Matters Act,27 proprietary
consequences of marriages and dissolution of marriages have changed. See in that respect the
relevant chapters dealing with marriage and succession respectively.
6.2.3 Personal property

This is property that belongs to a person who has acquired it, although it may be under the
control of the family head. Such property is usually regarded as house property, that is, as part of
the property of the house to which the individual belongs. This was the case in original custom-
ary law and, nowadays, this property serves the needs of a specific individual.28 Personal property
usually consists of clothing and other items of a personal nature (such as a walking stick, snuff
box or necklace).
The individual who has acquired the property in his or her personal capacity has the power to
use and dispose of it as he or she pleases. In his or her use of the property, however, customary
law prescribes that the family head has to be consulted. This is a moral rather than a legal
obligation.
With regard to certain types of property, women and customary law wives have absolute con-
trol. In this regard, the thing acquired remains the personal property of the particular individual
and cannot be taken away, not even after divorce.29 These include the ngquthu beast and its
progeny and the ubulunga or umendisa beast, set out in more detail below.
________________________
19 Mofokeng (2009) 80.

20 Mlangeni v Macal 1947 NAC (C&O) 1; Maganu v Maganu 1938 NAC (N&T) 37.
21 See e.g. Mthembu v Letsela 1998 (2) SA 675 (T).
22 Strydom (1985) 35.
23 Watney (1992) LLD thesis 63.
24 Bekker and De Kock (1992) CILSA 366; Watney (1992) LLD thesis 60.
25 See Watney (1992) LLD thesis; Siegel (2015) SAJHR 358.
26 See Bekker (1989) 81.
27 11 of 2009.
28 Strydom (1985) 8; Olivier et al (1995) 50; Bennett (2004) 259.
29 Mpungose v Zulu 1981 AC 50 (NE). Also see Mofokeng (2009) 81.
6.3 Acquisition of customary law rights to property

Property rights in customary law may be acquired in various ways. Well-known methods of
acquiring property in customary law are by means of allotment, succession and through certain
customary law transactions relating to marriage.30 In light of the importance of land and its
integral place in customary law and culture,31 the acquisition of land by way of allotment and
the developments in this area of law are set out separately, at 6.4. In this regard, the acquisition
of movable property is set out forthwith.
Apart from succession and certain transactions relating to marriage, ownership of property
may also be acquired by original means (appropriation of ownerless things, manufacture, culti-
vation and administrative allotment)32 and by derivative means (transfer of property on purchase
or exchange of things).33
6.3.1 Allocation of property other than land

Any kind of property may be allotted to a person in terms of customary law. A well-known
example is the allocation of property by the family head to his children and wife or wives.
Property given to a wife is allotted to her house. The property thus allotted becomes what is
known as house property, set out above. Although, in theory, the wife does not obtain control
over such property, it belongs to her house and the property cannot be used without her consent
or authorisation. Thus, for all practical purposes, she is the owner of this property. Children too,
may be allotted property in terms of customary law.34 Traditionally, only livestock could be
allotted, but today, any kind of property can be given to children. This custom is known as
gotswaisa among the Batswana.35 Schapera36 explains the position as follows:
Daughters may be given cattle in the same way as sons, but this is not often done. More usually daughters, if
they receive anything at all, will be given goats, with whose offspring cattle may afterwards be purchased
for them. But, among the Ngwato and Kgatla, a woman on marriage commonly receives from her father, if
he can afford it, one or more heifers as ketéétso or serotwana. She may subsequently be given other cattle of
her own by her husband; and she also receives one beast from the bogadi paid for her daughter. An unmar-
ried woman who is a concubine may likewise be presented with cattle by her lover.
This custom is found among all African communities of South Africa.37
6.3.2 Inheritance
Traditionally, it was generally accepted that the principle of male primogeniture, then applicable
to succession in customary law, applied equally to the inheritance of property.38 This principle
implied that the oldest surviving male relative of the deceased succeeded the deceased and
inherited all his property. Such successor also became liable for the debts of the deceased,
irrespective of how much he inherited.39
________________________
30 Myburgh (1985) 89–90; Himonga and Nhlapo (eds) (2014) 97–99.

31 See Pienaar (2014) 50–51.
32 Van der Walt and Pienaar (2016) ch 8.
34 Bekker (1989) 77–80.
36 Schapera (1955) 216.
37 Koyana (1980) 80.
38 Mthembu v Letsela 1997 (2) SA 936 (T); Bhe v Magistrate, Khayelitsha 2005 (1) BCLR 1 (CC). Also see
discussion in ch 9.
39 Bekker (1989) 300; Bennett (2004) 334.
Such successor or heir was also responsible for the maintenance of the widow(s) and children
of the deceased.40 These rights and responsibilities have been described as follows:
The heir steps into the shoes of his predecessor and inherits all the latter’s rights and liabilities past, present
41
and potential, in respect of the family and property of the house of which he is the heir.
Although this might have been the position in original customary law, the current position holds
that, subsequent to the death of a person, the distribution of his or her property is determined at a
family group meeting specifically called for this purpose. The oldest surviving male (usually the
oldest son of the deceased) plays a significant role in determining the portions to be inherited by
the other heirs. Any kind of property may be acquired by means of inheritance in terms of
customary law.
During his or her lifetime, a person may also indicate that a specific property which belongs
to him or her will be obtained by another person after his or her death. The property so indicated
is regarded as a donation.42 Ownership of such property will be acquired only upon the death of
the person making the donation. Before the owner’s death, the person to whom the donation will
be made acquires only a special interest in such property and the owner is not obliged to transfer
it to him or her.43
Following the commencement of the Constitution, the rules of male primogeniture have been
declared unconstitutional.44 Presently, these matters are dealt with in the Reform of Customary
Law of Succession and Regulation of Related Matters Act, discussed in detail below.45
6.3.3 Marriage
In customary law property and marriages are inter-linked.46 This means that marriage generally
provides access to property, both in relation to movable and immovable property. In this regard,
the inter-connectedness emerges at various points in time: before the marriage is concluded as
forming part of the marriage negotiations; during the existence of the marriage with regard to
proprietary regimes; and after a marriage had been terminated, either by divorce or death.
Entering into a polygynous marriage, especially after the commencement of the Recognition of
Customary Marriages Act, also has particular proprietary requirements and consequences for
parties involved.
Marriage in African tradition in South Africa is characterised by the transfer of goods between
the families of the prospective spouses. The most important transaction that precedes a marriage
is the lobolo contract.47 This transaction involves an agreement for the transfer of goods by the
prospective husband represented by his family head to the family head of the prospective wife.
Ownership of such goods passes to the wife’s family head once the marriage is concluded.
Lobolo is defined in the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act48 as follows:
the property in cash or in kind, whether known as ilobolo, bogadi, bohali, xuma, lumalo, thaka, magadi,
emabheka or by any other name, which a prospective husband or the head of his family undertakes to give
the head of the prospective wife’s family in consideration of a customary marriage.
________________________
40 Himonga and Nhlapo (eds) (2014) 162–163.

41 Bekker (1989) 297. Also see Coertze (1988) 240–241.
43 Schapera (1955) 230; Himonga and Nhlapo (eds) (2014) 167.
44 Bhe v Magistrate, Khayelitsha 2005 (1) BCLR 1 (CC); Himonga and Nhlapo (eds) (2014) 179–182.
45 See ch 9.
46 Budlender “Women, marriage and land: findings from a three-site survey” in Claassens and Smythe (eds)
(2013) 32. Also see the discussion of “marriage” in ch 5.
47 Mofokeng (2009) 44–45; Himonga and Nhlapo (eds) (2014) 97–98.
From the definition, it appears that lobolo is given only in respect of customary marriages.
However, in practice, this is often also the position with regard to civil marriages. Traditionally,
lobolo is given to the woman’s family head, but, upon consummation of the marriage, it
becomes the property of the house to which she belonged before marriage. Thus, ownership of
lobolo is acquired by the house and is regarded as house property.49 Schapera mentions that a
woman may be given cattle by her father on marriage. This kind of gift is known as ketéétso or
serotwana. A woman may also be given a head of cattle from the bogadi of her daughter.50
These kinds of gifts are connected with marriage and are intended to be the personal property of
the woman to whom they have been given, as explained above.
The inkomo yobisi and ubulunga cattle are also associated with marriage. Among the Zulu, at
the time of the marriage ceremony, the wife’s father may give her a head of cattle known as
inkomo yobisi. This is intended to provide sustenance for her and her children.51 She may also be
given another head of cattle known as ubulunga by her father and other family members.52
Another gift associated with marriage is the ngquthu head of cattle. This is given to a woman
when her daughter gets married or is seduced. It is defined as:
A beast which is payable by the husband or seducer as the case may be, to a woman or to the house to
which she belongs, upon the entrance into a customary marriage or civil marriage or the seduction of her
53
daughter.
Traditionally, gifts associated with marriage consisted of livestock in the form of cattle, sheep,
horses or goats. At present, they may be of various kinds. They may be given in the form of
money, furniture, motor vehicles and even houses, depending on the wealth of the families
involved. Upon marriage, goods may also be donated to the husband by his family and family
friends.
The commencement of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act has also resulted in par-
ticular proprietary consequences connected to customary marriages, which are dealt with in
more detail in the chapter dealing with marriage law.54 While the customary marriage is in
existence, section 6 of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act provides that:
A wife in a customary marriage has, on the basis of equality with her husband and subject to the property
system governing the marriage, full status and capacity, including the capacity to acquire assets and to dis-
pose of them, to enter into contracts and to litigate, in addition to any rights and powers that she might have
at customary law.
Unfortunately, the impact of section 6 of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act was
somewhat negated by section 7(1) of the same Act, by providing that the proprietary conse-
quences of persons who entered into customary marriages before the commencement of the Act
in 2000 were still governed by customary law. Although women had certain rights in relation to
property in general and land in particular, the equal status in marriages in relation to property
was not realised in practice. The dominance of men and the role of patriarchy in this regard were
perpetuated in the formulation of section 7(1).55 This issue with respect to monogamous mar-
riages has since been addressed in the Gumede case, discussed in more detail in the chapter
dealing with marriage law.56 As it was found to be unconstitutional, section 7(1) of the Act was
________________________
49 See e.g. Bekker (1989) 72; Olivier et al (1995) 49.

50 Schapera (1955) 230.
52 Koyana (1980) 40–58.
53 Section 1 of the KwaZulu-Natal Codes (Act 16 of 1985 and Proc R151 of 1987). Also see Mofokeng (2009)
80–81.
54 See ch 5.
55 Gumede v The President of the Republic of South Africa 2009 (3) SA 152 (CC) para 17. Also see Himonga
and Nhlapo (eds) (2014) 128.
56 See ch 5.
repealed, thereby removing the divide regarding proprietary consequences of persons married
before and after the commencement of the Act.
Concluding a polygynous marriage has further proprietary consequences for both the existing
(first) wife and the woman with whom a further marriage is concluded. While section 7(6) of the
Recognition of Customary Marriages Act provides that a contract which sets out the future
proprietary regime has to be concluded before a polygynous marriage is entered into, the conse-
quences of non-compliance were unclear. After protracted litigation it was decided in Mayelane
v Ngwenyama57 that in this particular case, due to the Tsonga customary requirements, the
consent of the first wife had to have been secured before the second marriage could have been
concluded lawfully. Therefore the second marriage was found to be invalid. Himonga and
Pope58 explain that the judgment has serious implications for the competing rights of women
with regard to their access to different resources gained through marriage, including proprietary
resources. By requiring the first wife’s consent for the second marriage to be valid, her rights to
the material and other resources of the marriage were protected. However, the second wife was
clearly disadvantaged as her marriage was invalidated and her proprietary and other interests left
unprotected. This result is disconcerting as the second wife has no control over (a) the registra-
tion of the first customary marriage; and (b) the conclusion of the required contract. According-
ly, there is no reliable way a woman who considers entering into a customary law marriage can
inform herself about the existence or not of a customary marriage. This and other issues con-
nected herewith are explored further in the chapter dealing with marriages.59
Following the termination of a customary marriage proprietary consequences again emerge,
coupled with succession and the law of inheritance. See for more detail the chapters dealing with
marriage and law of succession respectively.
As marriages have the potential to provide access to property for parties involved, as
explained, it also means that less access is achieved when fewer marriages are concluded.
Recent research indicates that overall, fewer African women are concluding marriages than ever
before.60 Underlying this phenomenon are various considerations, including social changes,
changes in attitudes to marriage, financial constraints to conclude valid customary marriages (for
example, full bridewealth) and subsistence grants that remove the necessity to get married in
order to provide for dependants. Consequently, other ways to generally gain access to property
and land in particular have to be explored.61 See in this regard also the discussion at 6.4.4.5.
6.3.4 Other methods of acquiring property

Other methods of acquiring property are by appropriation (occupatio), manufacture (specificatio),
cultivation and breeding, which are original methods of acquisition of property.62 Another
method is by means of transfer (traditio), which is classified as derivative.63
Property, more particularly cattle and other forms of livestock, may also be acquired through a
custom known as sisa, mafisa or nqoma. The KwaZulu-Natal Codes define this custom as follows:
A custom whereby cattle or other livestock are deposited by their owner with some other person on the
understanding that such person shall enjoy the use of them, but that the ownership shall remain with and
increase accrue to the depositor.64
________________________
57 CCT 57/12 [2013] ZACC 14; 2013 (4) SA 415 (CC).

58 Himonga and Popo “Mayelane v Ngwenyama and Minister for Home Affairs: a reflection on wider implica-
tions” in Claassens and Smythe (eds) (2013) 318.
59 See ch 5.
60 See especially Posel and Rudwick “Changing patterns of marriage and co-habitation in South Africa” in
Claassens and Smythe (eds) (2013) 169.
(2013) 28.
62 See Van der Walt and Pienaar (2016) ch 8.
64 Section 1 of Act 16 of 1985 and Proc R151 of 1987.
The holder of this livestock is entitled to the use thereof. Ownership of such livestock is not in
any way transferred, and the livestock should be returned on expiration of the contract. Although
not common, where the owner is satisfied with the manner in which the cattle were kept
(herded), he may donate a head of cattle to the herdsman.65 Schapera66 explains this as follows:
Poor men may obtain cattle by acting as herdsmen for some wealthier fellow tribesman. In return for their
services they are paid a heifer (termed kgomo ya madisa from go disa, to herd), which with its offspring then
belongs to them. This method of obtaining cattle is practised on a fairly large scale under the mafias cus-
tom . . .
6.4 Land
6.4.1 Introduction
Land tenure encapsulates rights in relation to land, involving inter alia, the acquisition, exercise
and loss of property rights. To that end, land, as object of property rights and an integral compo-
nent in customary way of life, is dealt with here in particular. In this regard two contexts
emerge: traditional customary land tenure on the one hand and the vesting of rights in land
belonging to other persons (registered owners) by individuals or families who invariably live in
accordance with customary law, on the other. While the first context relates to traditional cus-
tomary land tenure, usually referred to as communal land tenure,67 the second context does not,
strictly speaking, relate to communal land, but usually impacts on land in commercial agricul-
tural areas. However, as the latter context invariably resonates with persons who live in accord-
ance with customary law, some discussion of this context is also warranted here. Both these
contexts have undergone reform and adjustment following the commencement of the Constitu-
tion and an all-encompassing land reform programme.
Before the various tenure reforms are explored in more detail below, a brief historical back-
ground to communal land in South Africa is provided. In this regard the various legislative
measures as well as the different forms of tenure and the complexities connected there with, are
alluded to. In light of the historical background, traditional customary tenure and its specific
characteristics and mechanics are furthermore discussed. Due to the commencement of the
Constitution in general and the land reform programme in particular, various tenure reforms
have also been embarked upon, while some other reforms are still in the pipeline. Recent devel-
opments within this arena are accordingly set out at 6.4.4.3. Interestingly, despite statutory land
measures being promulgated to effect tenure reform, important reform has occurred outside
these measures as well. Consequently, “spontaneous” reform, initiated under the Constitution
itself, is also alluded to. Furthermore, in light of the fact that persons living in accordance with
customary law invariably reside and work on land belonging to someone else, thereby vesting
rights in land, references to the Extension of Security of Tenure Act68 and the Land Reform
(Labour Tenants) Act69 are also included here.
6.4.2 Historical background

6.4.2.1 Constituting traditional areas
Much of the complexities and concerns linked to land in general and communal land in particu-
lar have historical roots, invariably connected to the racially-based approach to land and
________________________
65 Himonga and Nhlapo (eds) (2014) 194–195.

66 Schapera (1955) 217.
67 Though “communal” is also often equated to “traditional” customary tenure, Cousins points out that it is not
always accurate due to the many socio-economic and other colonial influences that had changed the inher-
ent traditional element thereof – see Cousins “Potential pitfalls of ‘communal’ land tenure reform experi-
ence in Africa and implications for South Africa” (2009) 1.
68 62 of 1997 (hereafter the ESTA).
69 3 of 1996.
concomitant allocation of land and rights in land. This process started a long time ago.70 Before
the founding of the Union of South Africa in 1910, each of the colonies and republics had
assigned an extent of land to African persons as “locations”. The Native Affairs Commission
(1903–1905) accepted territorial segregation and recommended that the land be delimited and
reserved by law for African occupation. This formed the basis of the Natives Land Act71 that
commenced on 19 June 1913. While the basic approach to land was also influenced by race before
1913, the commencement of the Natives Land Act formalised a systematic racially-based approach
to land on a national scale, for the first time. The land reserved by this Act for the exclusive occu-
pation and ownership of African persons is listed in a Schedule to the Act and became known as
scheduled areas.
The scheduled areas were, however, inadequate. After prolonged debate, the Native Trust and
Land Act72 was enacted, providing for land bordering on the scheduled areas to be made available
in addition to the scheduled areas. These newly added areas were referred to as “released areas”.
The scheduled and released areas were used to comprise the ultimate size of the African areas,
which, according to the two Acts, formed approximately 13,7% of the total land area of the
country. These areas eventually became “homelands” (or “national states”)73 and “self-
governing territories”.74 While ten areas overall were identified, they were not once-off, clear-
cut geographical areas, as land was continuously added and taken away. For example, in the
Eastern Cape, the Herchel and Glen Grey districts were taken from Ciskei and added to Trans-
kei. Bophuthatswana, on the other hand, consisted of various portions of land scattered over a
vast area. In many instances, land was purchased without ever being incorporated into any
homeland. Remnants of these former homelands and territories are found in present-day South
Africa in all of the provinces except in the Northern Cape, Western Cape and Gauteng. For
purposes of granting security of tenure, these “traditional areas” are generally defined as com-
munal land, elaborated on in more detail below.
6.4.2.2 Complexity: Different land control forms and legislative measures

Not only were the above portions of land scattered all over South Africa, but the areas were
furthermore occupied not in terms of a single land tenure system, but in terms of various land
control forms, regulated by diverse legislative measures.75 To that end the complexity factor
increased dramatically. Accordingly, after the commencement of the Constitution, the pressing
need to re-think and reform tenure of land in these areas not only embodied basic human rights –
fairness, equality and dignity, but also considerations of rationalisation and simplification.
Inevitably, a simpler, less complex land control system had to emerge as well.
Overall, similar measures applied in the areas acquired by the South African Development
Trust and the self-governing territories, with a distinction between legislative measures pertain-
ing to townships and rural areas.76 Communal tenure,77 individual tenure and tenure of
trust settlements were the main tenure systems. In some areas in the Eastern Cape interesting
permutations of freehold title, held and exercised within a family context, furthermore
________________________
70 See generally Pienaar (2014) ch 3; Himonga and Nhlapo (eds) (2014) 8–20.
71 27 of 1913. Later renamed the Black Land Act.
72 18 of 1936. Later renamed the Development Trust and Land Act.
73 These areas gained independence with own anthems and national symbols and comprised of Transkei,
Bophuthatswana, Venda and Ciskei – for more detail see Pienaar (2014) 113–124.
74 These areas were not independent, national states, but had some measure of self-reliance and legislative and
other authority and comprised of KwaZulu, KwaNdebele, Gazankulu, QwaQwa, Lebowa and KaNgwane.
The underlying idea was that these areas would eventually also gain their independence.
75 See Pienaar (2014) 142–154 for an exposition of land control forms and corresponding legislative
measures.
76 Pienaar (2014) 142–148.
77 Discussed in more detail at 6.4.3.
prevailed.78 Within these broad tenure systems, the following land control forms may be distin-
guished for purposes of our discussion:79
(a) Permission to occupy: This is the statutory form of what was perceived to be communal
tenure.80 Permission to occupy refers to the right to use (unsurveyed) land against payment
of an annual rent subject to certain conditions. This entitled the holder to occupy a residen-
tial and/or arable site. It was issued by the functionary concerned or the magistrate of the
area who had wide discretionary powers. Consultation with tribal authorities was advisable,
but not compulsory. The right to occupy could be transferred, leased or subdivided with the
permission of the functionary concerned.
(b) Quitrent: A quitrent right is a real right that was registrable if the land, in relation to which
it was granted, was surveyed.81 This right empowered the quitrenter to occupy the land
against payment of a fixed rent. The state/grantor still remained the owner of the land.
Transfer could occur only with the permission of the relevant official or by way of
inheritance according to a prescribed table of succession until the latter was repealed.
The land could be utilised as security for a loan, and the right was subject to suspension and
cancellation.
(c) Deeds of grant with regard to “ownership units”: These deeds related to towns within
the self-governing territories and South African Development Trust Land. The deeds were
issued by the relevant township authorities. As the rights related to surveyed land were reg-
istered, deeds of grant constituted strong limited real rights. They were alienable, inherita-
ble and could be burdened with limited real rights. On South African Development Trust
Land they could also be converted into ownership by opening and formalising a township
register.
(d) Variety of permits: A variety of permits relating mainly to towns within the self-
governing territories and land held in trust by the South African Development Trust pre-
vailed.82 Permits included the following: lodgers’, building and trading permits.
The diverse set of tenure and land control forms did not originate from one single legisla-
tive measure. Instead, the grid of measures resulted from various statutes and sub-ordinate
legislation, the most important being:
(e) Black Administration Act:83 This Act consolidated pre-Union and several Union laws on
the separate administration of African persons. Although section 25 of the Act was repealed
in 1991,84 secondary provisions enacted under section 25 remained intact. In relation to
land, these secondary provisions include, amongst others, Proclamation R188 of 196985 and
Proclamation R293 of 1962.86 Since 1991 and the homeland era, the Act has been repealed
piece by piece so that only bits and pieces would have remained intact until the end of
________________________
78 Freehold was granted to particular families in the mid-nineteenth century in relation to certain pockets of
land in the Eastern Cape. Since then the property-holding structure has been held together by kinship ties
and is safeguarded by a family custodian, a representative selected to manage, maintain and defend family
property on behalf of family members. While the land control form is in theory thus “individual tenure”, it
is in reality and in practice exercised in a family-context – see for a detailed discussion Kingwill “An
inconvenient truth: land title in social context – A South African perspective” in Mostert, Verstappen and
Zevenbergen (eds) (2017) Land law and governance: African perspectives on land tenure and title 65–112.
79 For more information, see Van der Merwe and Pienaar “Land reform in South Africa” in Jackson and Wilde
(eds) (1997) 342–349.
80 Regulated by Proc R188 of 1969.
83 38 of 1927.
84 By way of the Abolition of Racially Based Land Measures Act 108 of 1991.
85 Dealing with permission to occupy.
86 Relating to townships.
December 2012.87 In the Schedule of the Communal Draft Tenure Bill, published in July
2017, set out in more detail below, it is indicated that the remaining sections (6, 7 and 8)
of the Black Administration Act are to be repealed when the Communal Tenure Act
commences.
(f) Proclamations: In terms of section 25 of the Black Administration Act, the erstwhile
president had virtually unlimited powers to legislate in respect of African persons and so-
called “black areas” by proclamation. Regulations could, likewise, be made in terms of sec-
tion 48 of the Development Trust and Land Act.88 The Abolition of Racially Based Land
Measures Act89 provided that those regulations remain in force until repealed under sec-
tion 87 of that Act or by a competent authority. In terms of section 87(4), the president
could repeal or amend these proclamations and government notices until 31 December
1994. The president has exercised this power in a few cases only. Therefore, the proclama-
tions for the most part remain in force, although evidence suggests that many are no longer
applied.
(g) Former homeland laws: Some former homeland laws still apply. Some such laws substi-
tuted national legislation that was in force at the time of their enactment, and some repealed
or amended the proclamations and regulations referred to above. Apart from determining
their current legal status, it is difficult to find the laws. They were originally supposed to
have been lodged with the high court having jurisdiction in the area. Research has revealed
that the high courts’ collections are not complete. They will, in due course, be repealed.
(h) Assigned or delegated laws: All of the above-mentioned legislative measures functioned
within a substantial legal framework relating to spatial planning, survey, deeds registries
and land use management. When the new political dispensation commenced in 1994, some,
probably most, of these laws were assigned or delegated to the then newly established prov-
inces. Laws that were delegated pose no problems, as the delegations can, where necessary,
be withdrawn. Laws assigned to the provinces fall within the sphere of their competence,
and provisions in respect of which provinces have legislative competence can be repealed
by those provinces only. Although provinces do not have legislative competence in respect
of land matters since these are a national legislative item, these laws do not deal with land
matters only. Therefore, the rather un-coordinated approach to land matters continued for
some time, following the 1994 political dispensation. With regard to land use, spatial planning
and development for example, the Spatial Planning and Land Use Management Act90
(SPLUMA) aims to bring all land-related planning and management issues under one over-
arching measure. While this Act has a clear transformative thrust that would also impact on
access to land and tenure security, transitional provisions91 mean that the full effect of
SPLUMA will not be experienced immediately. To that end some degree of diversity may
still continue for some time, also having an impact on traditional areas.
Accordingly, the conclusion may be reached that a diverse system of land control measures,
differing from area to area and disparate in relation to content, scope and impact, was operative
when a constitutional dispensation dawned in April 1994. While important developments have
occurred following the implementation of the land reform programme specifically, as explored
in more detail below, a degree of diversity and complexity has remained and will in all probabil-
ity continue for some time yet.
________________________
87 The initial date was set as 31 December 2010. This was amended in the Repeal of the Black Administration
Act and Amendment of Certain Laws Amendment Act 20 of 2012.
88 18 of 1936.
89 108 of 1991.
90 16 of 2013.
91 Section 60.
6.4.3 Traditional customary law tenure

6.4.3.1 Introduction
Traditional customary law tenure is very difficult to classify and typify when approached from a
Western or common law tradition.92 That is the case because the contexts differ vastly and the
basic approach to land and rights in land are generally contrasting. Having regard to these basic
points of departure, the Western terminology is still often used to describe or categorise these
rights and interests, yet they will never reproduce or convey the exact content of customary law
rights and interests perfectly. To that end, the following passages from Alexkor Ltd v Rich-
tersveld Community93 remain pertinent:
[50] The nature and content of the rights that the Richtersveld community held in the subject land prior to
its annexation must be determined by reference to indigenous law. That is the law which governed its land
rights. Those rights cannot be determined by reference to common law . . .
[51] While in the past indigenous law was seen through the common law lens, it must now be seen to be an
integral part of our law. Like all law it depends for its ultimate force and validity on the Constitution. Its
validity must now be determined by references not to the common law, but to the Constitution.
Illustrating the contrasting points of departure is the fact that within the traditional customary
property law context rights are generally nested and overlapping and invariably exercised by
different persons at different levels and points in time.94 While the general approach to land and
land rights is often typified as being communal as opposed to individual (for example, in West-
ern communities), it is also true that an individual dimension does exist in customary property
law. Yet, given that two dimensions emerge overall – communal and individual – traditional
customary property law is usually linked with communal land tenure. The latter is defined in
terms of its inclusive nature and ideally exhibits the following features:95
(a) Land rights are embedded in a range of social relationships, including household and kin-
ship networks and various forms of community membership;
(b) land rights are inclusive rather than exclusive in nature;
(c) access to land is guaranteed by norms and values embodied in the community’s land
ethic;
(d) the relevant rights are derived from accepted membership of a social unit, usually acquired
by birth, affiliation, allegiance and transactions;
(e) social, political and resource-use boundaries are clear but flexible and adaptable;
(f) the balance of power between gender, competing communities, rights-holders, land admin-
istration authorities and traditional communities are flexible; and
(g) the inherent flexibility and negotiability of land tenure rights embodies potential of ever-
changing and adapting to new needs and demands.
Under the 2017 Communal Land Tenure Bill96 “communal land” means land contemplated
in clause 4, (discussed in more detail below),97 owned, occupied or used by members of a
community subject to shared rules or norms and customs of that community and includes land
owned by the State but used by communities as communal land. As land rights are linked with
________________________
92 Mostert and Pope (eds) (2010) 107–108.

93 2004 (5) SA 460 (CC) paras 50–51. Emphasis added.
94 Claassens “Women, customary law and discrimination: the impact of the Communal Land Rights Act” in
Murray and O’Sullivan (eds) (2005) 43; Pienaar “Customary Law and communal property in South Africa:
challenges and opportunities” in Xu (ed) (forthcoming 2018).
95 See Cousins (2005) Stell LR 500–501.
96 Communal Land Tenure Bill of 2017, published in GG 40965 of 7 July 2017. As of 8 October 2018, the
Bill had not been transformed into a statute.
97 See 6.4.4.3.3 below.
community and belonging, “community” is an essential component in landholding. While being

difficult to define due to, inter alia, fluctuation of members and culturally-specific characteris-
tics, the legislature has defined it to mean the following for purposes of the Communal Land
Tenure Bill of 2017, namely a group of persons whose rights to land were derived from shared
rules determining access to land held in common by such group regardless of its ethnic, tribal,
religious or racial identity and includes a traditional community.98 Section 2 of the Traditional
Leadership and Governance Framework Act99 provides for the recognition of traditional com-
munities when that community is subject to a system of traditional leadership of that particular
community’s customs100 and if the community observes a system of customary law. In this light,
a community could also include a family or household.
Communal land intrinsically has two dimensions, alluded to above: the communal dimension
in relation to the community as a whole and the individual dimension in relation to individuals
(or families) within the community. Some rights are thus linked to the community as a whole,
whereas other rights are devolved to individuals or families and households. The communal
territory consists of:
(a) portions for residential purposes;
(b) portions for cultivation; and
(c) the remaining area, reserved for grazing and for extending the agricultural and residential
portions.
Accordingly, integral to traditional customary land rights are (a) the basic features listed above,
of which embeddedness is arguably the most prominent feature; (b) the element of community;
and (c) the two dimensions encapsulating an individual and communal dimension. Accordingly,
customary property law generally and communal tenure specifically, is a complex, multi-
dimensional system.101 The actual mechanics of customary land tenure and what it entails, as
well as how it functions, will be discussed below.
6.4.3.2 Communal land tenure in practice

In principle, residential and arable land must be allotted to every household. Land is allocated
by the traditional authority to family heads, who, in turn, allocate it to the constituent family
houses. The Communal Land Rights Act,102 discussed in more detail at 6.4.4.2, would have
affected the allotment of land considerably had it not been found to be unconstitutional and
therefore never enacted. The Communal Land Tenure Bill of 2017 set out in more detail below,
likewise aims to adjust allotment processes and landholding structures.
However, in practice under traditional customary law, because most land had already been
allotted, the ruler was invariably required to do no more than approve or oversee a transfer
between existing land holders.103 The land thus allotted became the property of such households,
which households had exclusive rights.104 This meant that these rights could be abandoned or
lost, depending on the circumstances. These rights could also be transferred, either by way of
________________________
98 A similar definition, excluding the phrase “regardless of its ethnic, tribal, religious or racial identity and
includes a traditional community” is employed in s 1 of the Restitution of Land Rights Act 22 of 1994
which explains what a community entails for purposes of the restitution programme.
99 41 of 2003.
100 Not all traditional communities have identical customs regarding leadership roles. Some communities have
kings and queens and others have paramount chiefs only.
101 Siegel (2015) SAJHR 357–378; Wicomb “Securing Women’s Customary Rights in Land: The Fallacy of
Institutional Recognition” in Claassens and Smythe (eds) (2013) 49–72; Pienaar “Customary Law and
communal property in South Africa: challenges and opportunities” in Xu (ed) (forthcoming 2018).
102 11 of 2004 (hereafter the CLARA).
103 Bennett and Murray “Traditional leaders” in Woolman et al (eds) (2009) 26-57–26-58.
104 Bennett (2004) 390–399.
sale or by bequest.105 As mentioned, land for residential purposes as well as arable land for
cultivation or garden plots, was usually allotted.
As constitutional head of the community, the traditional leader is responsible for the control
of the land. For example, he oversees the allocation of land, settles conflicts between subordi-
nate communities and admits or excludes strangers.106 Ordinarily, his control means that he
allocates a certain area – usually not sharply defined – as communal land for legal communities
next in status, for example the wards among the Tswana.107 The head of the subordinate legal
community has control over the communal land allocated to the legal community concerned.108
The traditional leader can deprive a member of the community of land allocated to the latter as
residential or arable land if it is to the advantage of the community or if he himself, as an organ
of the community, needs it.109 The exact scope of a traditional leader’s role will possibly differ
in detail from community to community. As alluded to above, in an attempt to understand and
explain customary communal land as a legal phenomenon, academics and authors have opted for
Western-style or civil-law terminology. The exact role of the traditional leader has especially
been difficult to pinpoint within this context. Accordingly, terms such as “ownership”, “vest”
and “trust” have been employed in this regard. In some sources, it is stated that the traditional
leader is the owner of the land and can do with it as he pleases.110 Similar to this point of view is
the statement that “the land is vested in the chief, in trust for his people”. Unfortunately, these
terms do not really convey the true meaning of the elements or complexities involved. Bennett
suggests that concepts such as “interest”, “power” and “right” are more useful for understanding
customary tenure.111 He furthermore underlines that rights-holders and authorities are bound by
powerful obligations and responsibilities within this system of complementary interests held
simultaneously.112
The communal land occupied by or allotted to a particular community is demarcated by vari-
ous natural objects, and not by boundary beacons. Natural things such as rivers, dongas, stones,
trees and anthills serve as suitable objects to indicate the limits of the communal land. While
flexible boundaries are also a strength of communal tenure and one of its outstanding features, it
can give rise to disputes and pose particular challenges for official deeds and recording systems.
The traditional allotment of land to male family heads has brought the debate concerning
women’s rights in property, in general and in relation to land in particular, to the fore. However,
among the African people of South Africa, married women have always been allotted land, as
part of house property, to cultivate and for residential purposes. The general principle is whatev-
er land has been allotted to her husband belongs to her house and has to be used exclusively for
the benefit of such house. Schapera113 described this position as follows:
No matter how many fields a man has, he must set aside at least one for the special use of his wife. This
field will be inherited after her death by her own children. Her husband, if he then marries again, must find
another field for his new wife, although she may at first be allowed to cultivate that of her predecessor. So,
too, in a polygamous household every wife is entitled to her own field. A field set aside for the use of a wife
is known among the Kgatla as tshimo yha lapa (‘house’ field) and among the Ngwato as tshimo ya mosadi
________________________
105 Bennett (2004) 399–409.

106 Myburgh and Prinsloo (1985) 38–39.
107 Schapera (1955) 154.
108 See generally Bennett and Murray “Traditional leaders” in Woolman et al (eds) (2009) 26–56–58.
109 Myburgh and Prinsloo (1985) 41–42. See, however, 6.4.4.4 where the impact of the Interim Protection of
Informal Land Rights Act 31 of 1996 is set out briefly.
110 See Kerr’s discussion of this interpretation in Kerr (1990) 36–37.
111 Bennett “ ‘Official’ vs ‘living’ customary law: Dilemmas of description and recognition” in Claassens and
Cousins (eds) (2008) 146–147.
112 Bennett “ ‘Official’ vs ‘living’ customary law: Dilemmas of description and recognition” in Claassens and
Cousins (eds) (2008) 150.
113 Schapera A handbook of Tswana law and custom (1955) 202.
(the wife’s field). Its crops belong to the woman to whom it is allocated; and neither they nor the field itself
may be used by anyone else without her permission. Many men of rank and wealth also have one or more
masimo a kgotla (Kgatla) or masimo a monna (Ngwato), common household fields, as distinguished from
the fields set aside for a wife’s private use.
Nowadays, for a variety of reasons, land is increasingly allocated to unmarried and divorced
women as well.114 Although these allocations are usually in relation to women as heads of house-
holds, the extent of these new developments appears to differ from community to community.115
Although women have always had access to land, they now also have complete control of the
land allotted in the same way as men. It can thus be argued that at least formally, especially after
the commencement of the Constitution, the discrimination that existed in this respect has been
terminated. However, in reality, women still face many problems relating to property, especially
in rural areas.116
As regards unmarried major women, section 9 of the Recognition of Customary Marriages
Act becomes relevant. As it states beyond doubt that “[d]espite the rules of customary law, the
age of majority of any person is determined in accordance with the Age of Majority Act, 1972
(Act No 57 of 1972)”, it may be argued that unmarried women have the same rights in relation
to communal land.
While some developments had occurred within the arenas of marriage and succession, thereby
impacting on property and land generally, specific tenure reform endeavours have also been em-
barked upon post-Constitution. These developments, aimed at customary land rights in particu-
lar, are explored in more detail below.
6.4.4 Land reform

The overall land reform programme consists broadly of three inter-connected sub-land reform
programmes, namely (a) redistribution and broadening access to land;117 (b) tenure reform and
improving security of tenure;118 and (c) restitution,119 aimed at restoring the loss of land and
rights in land.120 While the restitution programme may also impact on communal land in that lost
land may be restored,121 it is especially the tenure reform programme that impacts on communal
land and customary land rights in particular. The main aim of the tenure reform programme, as
provided for under section 25(6) of the Constitution read with section 25(9), is to ensure that
legally insecure rights are made more secure and to provide redress in cases where this aim
cannot be achieved.
________________________
114 Claassens and Ngubane “Communal Land Rights Act” in Claassens and Cousins (eds) Land, power and
custom: Controversies generated by South Africa’s Communal Land Rights Act (2008) at 154. Also see
generally Budlender “Women, marriage and land: findings of a three-site survey in Claassens and Smythe
(eds) (2013) 28–48.
115 Cousins “Characterising ‘communal’ tenure: Nested systems and flexible boundaries” in Claassens and
Cousins (eds) Land, power and custom: Controversies generated by South Africa’s Communal Land Rights
Act (2008) 120.
116 Claassens and Ngubane “Communal Land Rights Act” in Claassens and Cousins (eds) Land, power and
custom: Controversies generated by South Africa’s Communal Land Rights Act (2008) 156–157.
117 Section 25(5) of the Constitution.
118 Section 25(6).
119 Section 25(7).
120 See Pienaar (2014) – ch 7: redistribution, ch 8: tenure reform and ch 9: restitution.
121 Section 2 of the Restitution of Land Rights Act 22 of 1994 provides that communities or parts of communi-
ties may also lodge land claims where land or rights in land were lost as a result of racially discriminatory
laws or practice. Where such land claims have been successful, land is usually restored on condition that a
communal property association, a juristic person, is formed. Essentially that means that the legal basis of land
holding had been adjusted once the claim was successful and that “traditional” customary tenure is not rele-
vant any more. See, for an example of a successful community land claim, Pienaar (2017) PER/PELJ 1–31.
Moving away from a permits-based approach towards a rights-based approach was already
envisaged in the White Paper on South African Land Policy.122 Also incorporated in the White
Paper were the points of departure that tenure security had to be linked with choice and prefer-
ences of rights-holders and that de facto rights had to be recognised.123 The land tenure rights
available to the people living in communal land areas are largely based on customary law or on
insecure permits granted under laws that were applied exclusively to Africans. Apart from the
fact that numerous legislative measures gave rise to these diverse kinds of rights, as set out in
6.4.2.2 above, the kind of rights that emerged did not encompass real or limited real rights with
concomitant force. The holders of such rights could generally not use them to enter the financial
market, for example, as security for loans in order to farm or develop the land. In addition to the
consideration of accessing financial resources, tenure security would also promote protection
against eviction, recognise de facto rights and incorporate and promote gender equality. Essen-
tially, the tenure reform programme seeks to reverse the historical legacy of colonialism and
apartheid by strengthening the land tenure rights of the people living in, amongst other, commu-
nal land areas, giving these land tenure rights the full protection of the law. In cases where the
securitisation of rights was not possible, equitable redress was provided for.124
In this light, various developments occurred post-1994.125 Altering the basis of land owner-
ship in line with constitutional imperatives of equality and dignity, while still encapsulating the
communal spirit, communal property associations were introduced as new juristic constructs
under the Communal Property Associations Act.126 This mechanism enabled communities to
hold land on a new legal basis. In Bakgatla-Ba-Kgafela Communal Property Association v
Bakgatla-Ba-Kgafela Tribal Authority127 the Constitutional Court found this Act to be:128
a visionary piece of legislation passed to restore the dignity of traditional communities. It also serves the
purpose of transforming customary law practices. For example, in some traditional communities where com-
munal land is held and controlled by a traditional leader, women are excluded from the allocation of land for
individual occupation and use. This practice is inconsistent with the equality clause in the Bill of Rights
which prohibits discrimination based on, among other grounds, gender and marital status. This inconsistency
necessitates the development of customary law as mandated by section 39(2) of the Constitution. . . . Cus-
tomary law remains in force to the extent that it is in line with the Constitution and Acts of parliament deal-
ing with matters to which customary law applies. Under the Act unmarried women who are members of
traditional communities enjoy rights equal to those held by men when it comes to access to communal prop-
erty, and management of the affairs of an association.
The CLARA was drafted specifically to embody the aims of tenure reform focused in relation to
communal land. Most of this land is registered in the name of the state or is held in trust, either
by the Minister of Rural Development and Land Reform or the Ingonyama Trust in KwaZulu-
Natal.129 This Act was found to be unconstitutional, as elaborated on in more detail below.
In 2009 the Department of Land Affairs was restructured and has since functioned as the
Department of Rural Development and Land Reform. In this regard, greater synergy between
________________________
122 April 1997.

123 White Paper vi.
124 Section 12 of the Communal Land Rights Act 11 of 2004.
125 However, some developments already occurred before the commencement of the Constitution, e.g. the
commencement of the Abolition of Racially Based Land Measures Act 108 of 1991 and the Upgrading of
Land Tenure Rights Act 112 of 1991. The latter already provided for some measure of tenure reform before
the land reform programme was embarked upon fully.
126 28 of 1996.
127 2015 (6) SA 32 (CC).
128 Paragraph 31.
129 In KwaZulu-Natal communal land amounting to about 2,7 million hectares vests in the Ingonyama Trust
and is administered by it under the KwaZulu-Natal Ingonyama Trust Act 3 KZ of 1994. The Ingonyama
Trust is to remain in place pending the transfer of all land contemplated in s 3 of the Act to the respective
communities by the Trust Board. The scope of the Act is set out in s 2.
rural development and land reform, both impacting in particular on traditional areas and com-
munal land, was envisaged. Since the unconstitutionality finding of the CLARA in 2010, the
Green Paper on Land Reform was published in September 2011. Conditions in the former
homelands and self-governing territories have also featured rather prominently in the National
Development Plan of 2012, leading to the publication of the Communal Land Tenure Policy in
2014. In this context, greater focus on rural areas comprising traditional areas and communal
land, including legislative measures and overarching policy, was envisaged. The latest develop-
ment in this arena is the publication of the Communal Land Tenure Bill on 7 July 2017.
6.4.4.2 Communal Land Rights Act

6.4.4.2.1 Purpose
Since the CLARA was found to be unconstitutional in 2010, a draft Communal Land Tenure
Bill was published, as explained above. Given that the latter Bill had not been finalised and as
the finding against CLARA was linked to procedural and not substantive findings, some discus-
sion of CLARA remains warranted. However, while relevant, the discussions of both the
CLARA and the 2017 Bill remain brief for purposes of this chapter.
As mentioned, promoting security of tenure was the main aim of the CLARA. The idea was
that security of tenure could be achieved in two ways: (a) by embarking on a process in which
insecure “old order rights” were replaced, transformed or substituted by “new order rights”; and
(b) registration of these rights. An “old order” right was defined as any of the formal or infor-
mal, registered or unregistered rights referred to in the above expositions resulting from pre-
constitutional legislative measures and recognised by law, including customary law, practice or
usage.130 Although the Act provided that such an insecure right “[was] legally secured in terms
of section 4”, the securitisation process did not take place automatically. Instead, “new order
rights” would come into play only once the procedure set out in the Act had been completed. A
“new order right” was a tenure right or other right in communal land or other land which had
been confirmed, converted, conferred or validated by the Minister of Rural Development and
Land Reform.131
6.4.4.2.2 Measures to achieve objectives
The CLARA contained elaborate provisions to achieve its objectives, mainly in regard to:
• the transfer and registration of communal land (Chapter 3);
• the provision of comparable redress where tenure cannot be legally secured (Chapter 4);
• the conduct of land rights enquiries (Chapter 5);
• the content, making and registration of community rules (Chapter 6);
• land administration committees (Chapter 7);
• Land rights board (Chapter 8); and
• Ingonyama Trust Land in KwaZulu-Natal (Chapter 9).
6.4.4.2.3 Constitutional challenge
Various authors have been critical about certain aspects of the CLARA, even before it had
officially passed through Parliament.132 In summary, the main representations deal with the
________________________
130 Section 1 of the Communal Land Rights Act 11 of 2004.

131 Section 1.
132 Mostert and Pienaar “Formalisation of South African communal land title and its impact on development”
in Cooke (ed) (2005) 320–321; Cousins “Characterising ‘communal’ tenure: nested systems and flexible
boundaries” in Claassens and Cousins (eds) (2008) 15–28; Smith “An overview of the Communal Land
Rights Act 11 of 2004” in Claassens and Cousins (eds) (2008) 67–69; Pienaar (2004) THRHR 244–263.
questionability of supporting and propagating a land titling scheme linked with registration, as
set out in the Act, complaints that the term “community” is vague, that the Act does not
acknowledge and reflect the “nested” system of land rights inherent in traditional customary
communities, that employing traditional councils to act as land administration committees will
entrench patriarchy and existing power relations, that the nature and content of “new order
rights” are not clearly defined, and that the Minister has wide-ranging powers in determining the
outcome of “old order rights” without criteria guiding the Minister in the exercise of these
discretions and powers.
In light of these objections and criticisms, a formal constitutional challenge was lodged by
four communities in October 2008 in the Northern Gauteng High Court, resulting in an unconsti-
tutionality finding.133 As required, the case was referred to the Constitutional Court. At the
hearing, the Minister of Rural Development and Land Reform indicated that the CLARA stood
to be repealed in its entirety and that an in-depth investigation into the constitutionality thereof
was unnecessary. However, on 11 May 2010, the Constitutional Court handed down a judgment
in Tongoane v The National Minister of Agriculture and Land Affairs134 per Ngcobo CJ in which
the order of the High Court was confirmed.135 As the Act was found to be unconstitutional due
to its incorrect tagging (referring to the legislative process)136 and in light of the Minister’s
statement that the Act was to be repealed in any event, the Constitutional Court refrained from
an analysis of substantial issues, some of which were raised in the High Court proceedings.
Concerns that the approach followed in the Act and the institutions and bodies employed in
securing title were problematic and in direct conflict with the constitutional ideals of equality
and tenure security were thus not dealt with.
Being an Act that also impacted on provincial matters, more particularly on customary-law
issues, the CLARA ought to have followed the procedure set out in section 76 of the Constitu-
tion. Instead, it was tagged as a section 75 Act and, therefore, its passage through Parliament was
incorrect. On this basis alone, the Act was found to be unconstitutional.137
6.4.4.3 Reformative measures

6.4.4.3.1 Green Paper on Land Reform
When the CLARA was declared unconstitutional, the Minister of Rural Development and Land
Reform announced that an overarching policy dealing with communal land in particular would
be drafted speedily. Preceding the Communal Land Tenure Policy in 2014 was the Green Paper
on Land Reform in September 2011. The Green Paper announced that land was a national asset
and that the current land tenure system had to be “fundamentally reviewed”.138
The vision for land reform was fourfold, namely, (a) to re-configure a single, coherent four-
tier system of land tenure to ensure that everyone, but especially rural blacks, have reasonable
access to land with secure rights; (b) clearly defined property rights, sustained by a fair and
accountable land governance system; (c) secure forms of long-term land tenure for resident
“non-citizens” engaged in appropriate investments which enhance food sovereignty and liveli-
hood security; and (d) effective land use planning and regulatory systems.
________________________
133 Tongoane v The National Minister of Agriculture and Land Affairs [2010] JOL 25446 (GNP).
134 [2010] JOL 25446 (GNP).
135 Tongoane v the Minister of Agriculture and Land Affairs 2010 JDR 0539 (CC). (In the meantime, the
Department of Land Affairs and Agriculture has been restructured and is now referred to as the Department
of Rural Development and Land Reform.)
136 See paras 45–97.
137 See paras 111–112.
138 Green Paper on Land Reform (2011) 1.
Underlying land reform were the following principles: (a) de-racialising the rural economy;
(b) democratic and equitable land allocation and use across race, gender and class; and (c) a
sustained production discipline for food security. In line with the Comprehensive Rural Devel-
opment Programme, the emphasis was clearly on rural areas, in particular where agriculture
occurs. The “single four-tier land tenure system” was set out as follows:139
• state and public land: leasehold;
• privately owned land: freehold, with limited extent;
• land owned by foreigners: freehold, but precarious tenure, with obligations and conditions to
comply with; and
• communally owned land: communal tenure, with institutionalised use rights.
While identifying communal land as a category forming part of the four-tier system, the Green
Paper did not discuss communal land further. In fact, communal land was specifically excluded
from the ambit of the Paper. The reason for excluding communal land was that it was too
important and too complex, thereby necessitating a separate policy focused on communal land
only. To that end, the Communal Land Tenure Policy was finally published in 2014.
6.4.4.3.2 Communal Land Tenure Policy
The underlying aim of the Communal Land Tenure Policy of 2014 is to “both secure land rights
for those living in communal areas as well as engender the transformation of land governance
institutions to embrace the principles of democracy and equity.”140 The transfer of ownership of
land from the Minister of Rural Development and Land Reform to traditional councils, is linked
to the above. Overall, distinctions are drawn between land located inside and outside of former
Bantustan areas (national states and self-governing territories). For purposes of the Policy, land
located outside former Bantustan areas are “communal land” because the land was transferred to
a community under the redistribution or restitution programmes, usually by way of a communal
property association.
Interestingly, despite the principled idea to transfer land in ownership from the Minister, in
whose name it is still registered, to councils, the Policy continued to endorse the state’s “ulti-
mate power to make decisions about land rights and land use in communal areas”. This theme
resonates throughout the Policy.
The Policy employs two “wagon-wheel figures” to depict the vesting of title and the concomi-
tant rights and duties for relevant role players within communal areas. The two figures are
distinctive in that one figure relates to “conventional traditional communal areas that observe
customary laws” relating to land located within the boundaries of former Bantustan areas,
whereas the other figure is designed for “non-traditional communal areas”, essentially dealing
with land located outside former Bantustan areas. In each instance, the outer boundary of the
relevant communal area will be demarcated, and corresponding title will be vested in a particular
governance structure. With respect to former Bantustan areas, traditional councils will be the
governance structure, whereas communal property associations or trusts will fulfil this role in
areas outside former Bantustans.141 In former Bantustan areas, traditional councils or traditional
authorities are supposed to be vested with the responsibility of administering the land and land-
related resources on behalf of households.142
________________________
139 Green Paper on Land Reform (2011) 6.

140 Communal Land Tenure Policy (2014) 27.
141 These areas include land that was awarded to communities after 1994 by way of either the redistribution or
restitution land reform programmes.
142 Communal Land Tenure Policy (2014) 20.
6.4.4.3.3 Communal Land Tenure Bill of 2017

In light of CLARA being found to be unconstitutional, and the successive policy developments
in 2011 and 2014 respectively, a new legislative measure dealing with communal land was
imminent. In July 2017, the Communal Land Tenure Bill was finally published for comment. As
explained, the Bill has not been finalised at the time of writing and therefore only a brief discus-
sion of the main tenets and the most important aspects of the Bill follows.
Objectives of the Bill
The objectives are set out in clause 2 of the Bill, namely to provide for:
(a) legally secure tenure in relation to communal land by:
(i) converting legally insecure land tenure rights held by a community member or a community that
occupies communal land, into ownership;
(ii) transferring ownership of land acquired by the state to communities to enable access to land, on
an equitable basis;
(iii) granting to community members the right to use, as individual members or as a community,
land owned by the State;
(iv) regulating the administration of communal land; and
(v) promoting and fulfilling social, economic, environmental and sustainable development on
communal land;
(b) awarding of comparable redress in instances where legally secure land tenure cannot be provided;
(c) acquisition of more land to be used as communal land;
(d) choice on the administration of communal land by communities;
(e) protection of communal land against unfair acts of disposal;
(f) performance of municipal functions on communal land; and
(g) mechanisms for resolving disputes emanating from the administration of this Act.
Main tenets of the Bill

The Bill sets out the pertinent principles of communal land regulation, has application in certain
areas of the country only, provides for a specific process by which tenure rights are secured, and
provides for various bodies and institutions that are instrumental in the process of securitisation.
Each of these will be dealt with briefly.
The principles in terms of which communal land is regulated entail the following:143
(a) recognising and respecting;
(i) all legitimate land rights and persons who hold such rights;
(ii) the right of communities to choose institutions or entities that administer land on their behalf;
and
(iii) the right of communities to democratically control their commonly owned land and the respon-
sibility to account for such control;
(b) balancing the interests of the state, communities and members of communities;
(c) providing access to justice and redress where land rights are in dispute;
(d) promoting the rule of law, good governance, accountability and equality between men and women;
and
(e) promoting economic growth, poverty eradication, investment and development in communal land
areas.
________________________
143 Clause 3 of the Communal Land Tenure Bill of 2017.

Being aimed at communal land and communal tenure,144 the Bill applies to essentially three
categories of land, namely “traditional” communal areas comprising communal land which is
vested in the state, or which at any time vested in any of the former self-governing territories or
national states,145 or in the South African Development Trust; land awarded by way of the land
reform programme, namely restored land under section 25(7) of the Constitution or redistributed
land under section 25(5) of the Constitution; and land in respect of which the Minister has, by
notice in the Gazette, determined that this Act applies.
The Bill is thus more encompassing in that it is not only focused on “traditional” communal
areas under traditional leadership constructs, but also applies to land resulting from the all-
encompassing land reform programme, as well as (additional) land identified by the Minister.
The main mechanisms of securing rights involve the transfer of ownership and the granting of
use rights to relevant communities, households and individuals. In many instances, communities
already live on the relevant land and utilise it, but the land itself is held in trust by the Minister.
To that end, the land has to be transferred to the community146 and before that can occur, a
general plan has to be prepared and approved.147 This also entails surveying all land to which the
Bill will eventually apply. Before the actual transfer of rights can occur, various land administra-
tion and land use planning pre-requisites thus have to be complied with. This can be a very time-
consuming process. Once ownership is transferred to the community, the community members
have to decide on the nature of rights to be conferred on community members in respect of
subdivided portions of communal land.148 Such subdivided portions are to be used for residen-
tial, business and other relevant purposes. In this regard, the community has a choice regarding
ownership, lease, rights of use or any other right recognised in law. Whereas the land is regis-
tered in the name of the relevant community, individual portions are registered in the names of
the relevant community members.149 Ownership can also be granted conditionally to individual
members of the community. Although disposal of land is possible, some precautions are set out
in the Bill in that disposal can only occur where the majority of community members (60%)
agreed to the act of disposal.150 Land can also be reserved to the state for its use.151
The Bill provides for various constructs, institutions and bodies involved in the regulation and
administration of communal land. The community, as owner of the land, is a juristic person and
therefore must have rules that govern its activities and decisions.152 This means that communi-
ties have to develop and register rules that are clear, certain and understood by the community.
Communities have the right to choose the relevant entity that assists in administering the land.153
These entities can be a traditional council, a communal property association or any other entity
approved by the Minister. Once the community has decided on the particular administrative
entity, the functions of the entity apply as provided for in clause 29 of the Bill. The Bill further-
more provides for a households’ forum154 and the possibility of a board or boards155 to
be established by the Minister. It seems as if the hierarchy is the following: community members
all form part of the relevant community who determine the specific entity to administer the
land on their behalf. Apart from this administration entity, household forums are also constructed
________________________

145 So-called “Bantustan areas” – see the exposition at 6.4.2.2 above.
147 Clause 9.
148 Clause 11.
149 Clause 12.
150 Clause 13.
151 Clause 6.
152 Clauses 25–27.
154 Clauses 32–35.
155 Clauses 36–40.
that act as a middle person between the community and the entity chosen to administer the land.
The underlying reason is to provide for immediate accountability on a regular basis as the entire
community cannot convene on a permanent basis. The various boards appointed by the Minister
are there to advise the Minister on the administration and implementation of the Bill. The
Department, on the other hand, is there to provide administrative and financial support. Dispute
resolution measures are also provided for.
The Bill is to follow the section 76 procedure, so as not to be found unconstitutional again. At
this stage, it is difficult to predict whether the Bill will be successful in achieving its objectives.
It is a complex process that involves various entities, at various levels. Important prerequisites
furthermore have to be in place for the Bill to function successfully. It is thus a time-consuming
and expensive process that requires massive human and financial recourses. Apart from these
concerns, it is imperative that the Bill is aligned with other land reform-related measures, for
example, the 2017 amendment of the Communal Property Associations Act, and that the
Bill complies with all constitutional imperatives. With respect to the latter, substantive issues
linked to equality, dignity and administrative justice are especially pertinent. It is furthermore
imperative that traditional leadership constructs endorse and support the envisaged mechanisms
provided for in the Bill so as to promote effective and constitutionally sound administration and
regulation in communal areas.
6.4.4.4 Holding measure: Interim Protection of Informal Land Rights Act156

Following the CLARA being found to be unconstitutional, and in light of the pending new
Communal Land Tenure Act, of which the finalisation can still take some time, the lacuna in the
regulation and administration of communal land need to be addressed. It is in this light that the
Interim Protection of Informal Land Rights Act enters into the picture. This holding measure,
initially promulgated to protect informal land rights for the duration of the tenure reform pro-
gramme only, is now and has been for some time the overarching legislative measure dealing
with land rights in communal areas. Protection entails that no person may be deprived of these
rights without his or her consent.157 Land rights held communally may be deprived in accord-
ance with the customs of the particular community only.158 The Act defines an “informal
right”159 to include the use of, occupation of or access to land in terms of five categories of
sources, namely:
(a) any tribal, customary or indigenous law or practice of a tribe;
(b) the custom, usage or administrative practice in a particular area or community;
(c) the rights or interests in land of a beneficiary under a trust arrangement in terms of which
the trustee is a body or functionary established under an Act of Parliament;
(d) beneficial occupation160 of land for a continuous period of not less than five years prior to
31 December 1997; and
(e) the use or occupation of any erf as if the person is the holder of Schedule 1161 or 2162 rights
under the Upgrading of Land Tenure Rights Act,163 although that person is not formally
recorded as such in a land rights register.
________________________
156 31 of 1996.
157 Section 2(1) of the Interim Protection of Informal Land Rights Act.
158 Section 2(3).
159 Section 1(1)(iii).
160 “Beneficial occupation” entails the occupation of land by a person openly, as if that person is the owner,
without force and without permission of the registered land owners – s 1(c).
161 Constituting leasehold, quitrent and deeds of grant.
162 Schedule 2 rights include permission for the occupation of any irrigation or residential allotment; permis-
sion to occupy and rights of occupation.
163 112 of 1991.
Therefore, the Interim Protection of Informal Land Rights Act164 is not only the overarching
measure dealing with customary rights and interests, but it has also amended customary powers
of traditional leaders, especially those relating to expropriation and confiscation. That is the case
because these rights and interests may now only be lost or taken away after consent or a resolu-
tion had been acquired.
6.4.4.5 “Spontaneous” tenure reform under auspices of the Constitution

Some developments in relation to access to land by women have been alluded to above. Interest-
ingly, research published by Budlender165 with regard to three particular areas in KwaZulu-
Natal, the Eastern Cape and the North-West166 has shown convincingly that land rights reform,
including traditional and communal areas, has occurred outside any statutory measures. In this
context women have gained greater access to land and more secure tenure by purely relying on
the Constitution itself and not on any of the land reform measures promulgated under section 25
specifically. These “spontaneous” legal reforms, initiated by the Constitution and its basic ethos,
have impacted on specific communities, thereby also exhibiting potential to change communities
at large and general approaches to and concepts of property and land.
6.4.4.6 Conclusion
Despite having a constitutionally embedded land reform programme that is aimed at the promo-
tion of greater access to land and tenure security, legislative measures promulgated to achieve
these specific objectives have not been very successful to date. Instead, the CLARA was
declared unconstitutional and relevant policy and legislative measures dealing with communal
land in particular took years to be drafted and published. Where measures were published,
critical disconnects between policy documents, legislative measures and case law emerged.
Accordingly, land held in communal tenure is still under diverse land control forms, depending
on the location of the land and the particular relevant legislative measures. In this regard the
tenure can be traditional communal, amended communal (by way of legislative interventions),
individual or trust tenure.
Where communal land is concerned, it is extremely challenging to meet constitutional impera-
tives to secure tenure on the one hand, while simultaneously preserving the distinguishing
characteristics of customary property law, on the other. This challenge is compounded because
matters located in section 25 of the Constitution, the property clause, are also inextricably linked
to other fundamental rights in the Bill of Rights, including the right to dignity, the right to family
life and the right to housing.
6.4.5 Other statutory land rights

As explained, the second context involves rights in relation to land belonging to other persons
(registered owners), but vested in, or exercised by persons who invariably live in accordance
with customary law. The land in question here is usually commercial farm land and the persons
involved are occupiers, usually farm workers and labour tenants.
________________________
164 31 of 1996.
(2013) 28–48.
166 Msinga in KwaZulu-Natal with regard to a Zulu community; Keiskamahoek in the Eastern Cape with
regard to a Xhosa community, and Ramatlabana in the North-West with regard to a Tswana community.
6.4.5.2 Extension of Security of Tenure Act (ESTA)

The aim of this Act is twofold: to ensure interim and long-term tenure security for persons who
qualify as “occupiers” for purposes of the ESTA.167 An occupier is a person who has consent or
another right in law to occupy land belonging to the registered owner.168 Consent may be actual
or tacit consent and in some instances presumptions also assist in establishing consent.169 Interim
tenure security is provided in that occupiers may not be evicted, except under provisions of the
Act170 and only after strict compliance has been shown.171 Eviction orders are furthermore only
granted when they are just and equitable in the relevant circumstances, as considered by the
court. Long-term tenure security is possible under section 4 of the Act that provides for “on-the-
farm” and “off-the-farm” developments. It is known that occupiers are very often farmworkers,
which mean that the two options entail respectively, a development on the relevant farm or a
coordinated effort between land owners and the local authority for the establishment of an agri-
village. Despite having measures in place to effect both interim and long-term security of tenure,
the Act has not been very successful in achieving these objectives. To that end, hardly any agri-
villages have been established and illegal evictions, thereby avoiding the whole of the ESTA,
have continued unabated.172
Apart from providing land rights as explained above, the Act is also instrumental in the acqui-
sition and exercise of other rights linked to tenure. Depending on the circumstances, occupiers
may also bury their deceased on the land in question if it is in line with their cultural beliefs and
religion173 and if an established practice to that effect exists.174 Occupiers are furthermore also
entitled to the right to family life in accordance with their cultural background,175 balanced with
the rights and interests of the land owner.176
6.4.5.3 Land Reform (Labour Tenants) Act

In certain areas of South Africa, most notably in KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga, tenants have
been in occupation of parcels of land for two generations at least and have been using the land
for cropping, grazing and housing.177 In exchange for these occupational and use rights, the
family or individual has been providing services to the land owner. The result of such an agree-
ment qualifies a person for the protections and benefits incorporated in the Land Reform
(Labour Tenants) Act.
Tenure security is provided for in that labour tenants who meet the requirements may only be
evicted in accordance with the Act.178 Apart from these protective measures, labour tenants are
also empowered to apply for rights in land under Chapter 3 of the Act. To that end, the labour
tenant may lodge a claim for the parcel of land he or she (and respective families) have been
utilising for at least two generations, or any other parcel of land also belonging to the land
owner.179 Other relevant rights that would enable the effective utilisation of the land, for exam-
ple corresponding servitudes are also connected to the right in land. Once the process has been
________________________
167 See in general Pienaar (2014) 301–302.

168 Section 1 of the ESTA.
169 Pienaar (2014) 301.
170 Section 10 or 11 of the ESTA, depending on when the occupier started his or her occupation.
171 Section 9 sets out the procedural requirements. To that end all eviction orders are suspended while the
orders are reviewed automatically by the Land Claims Court under s 19(3) of the Act.
172 See in general Pienaar (2014) 361.
173 Section 6(2) of the ESTA.
174 Section 6(2)(dA). Nhlabathi v Fick 2003 (2) All SA 323 (LCC). Also see Pienaar (2014) 418–423.
175 Section 6(2)(d).
176 Hattingh v Juta 2013 (3) SA 275 (CC).
177 Section 1 of the Land Reform (Labour Tenants) Act.
178 Pienaar (2014) 308–320.
179 Sections 16 and 17 of the Land Reform (Labour Tenants) Act.
completed, the former labour tenant becomes a land owner in his or her own capacity. To that
end, both tenure security and redistribution have occurred.
On 28 February 2017, the Economic Freedom Fighters (EFF) leader, Julius Malema, called for the amend-
ment of section 25 of the Constitution to allow land expropriation without compensation. The Constitutional
Review Committee received the mandate to review section 25. The committee invited public submissions
and received almost 150 000 written submissions. Only about 60 000 of the submissions were in favour of
an amendment of the Constitution. The rest of the submissions indicated that there is no need for an amend-
ment because section 25 is broad enough to allow for expropriation of land without compensation. During
September 2018, public submissions were allowed. On 6 December 2018, parliament voted in favour of
amending section 25 of the Constitution to allow for land expropriation without compensation by March
2019, before the mandate of the current parliament expires.
7
Law of Contract
Page
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 147
7.2 Parties to a contract .................................................................................................... 148
7.2.1 The family ....................................................................................................... 148
7.2.2 Representation ................................................................................................. 148
7.2.3 Other forms of substitution of parties ............................................................. 149
7.3 Specific contracts ....................................................................................................... 149
7.3.1 Gifts ................................................................................................................. 150
7.3.2 Loans for use and loans for consumption ....................................................... 150
7.3.3 Exchange ......................................................................................................... 151
7.3.4 Farming out ..................................................................................................... 153
7.3.5 Service ............................................................................................................. 155
7.4 Quasi-contracts ........................................................................................................... 156
7.4.1 Ukwenzelela .................................................................................................... 156
7.4.2 Isondlo ............................................................................................................. 156
7.4.3 Other obligations ............................................................................................. 157
7.5 Dispute settlement ...................................................................................................... 157
145
Chapter 7: Law of Contract 147
7.1 Introduction
The earlier sources of customary law were predominantly non-legal, such as the writings of
early travellers, and anthropological and ethnological scholars. The extraction of legal norms
from these sources by lawyers and judges was difficult and led to many misconceptions about
their content. The customary law of contract is no exception.1 Van Niekerk2 points out that –
[t]he prevailing perception is that by analogy with the Roman concept, customary law knows only real con-
tracts, and strict liability accordingly ensues only where one party has in fact partially or completely fulfilled
his obligation.
Van Niekerk’s research reveals that this perception is probably incorrect.3 She points out that
Roman and customary law share the characteristic of orality; hence the objective characteristic
of contracts in both legal systems.4 However, in both legal systems, the words had to be concre-
tised to create contractual liability. In the case of Roman contracts, the words uttered had to be
in a specific form aimed at securing proof that the contract had been concluded.5 Unlike Roman
law, customary law contracts did not have to be moulded into a specific form, but the words also
had to be concretised. This could happen in various ways, such as performance or part of per-
formance in terms of the contract or, importantly, any other way, such as the making of a gift.6
Thus, the perception that only real contracts were known in customary law seems to be false. For
example, the trading of cattle between the Khoi (“Hottentots”) and the Dutch settlers was re-
garded as binding by the Khoi only if an exchange of gifts took place. Another example is the
marriage contract, which could be regarded as validly concluded only upon payment of bride-
wealth. Today, the payment of lobolo by the husband’s family to the wife’s family signifies the
ratification of the verbal agreement of marriage between two parties.7 As explained by Van
Niekerk:8
Although there were no formalities as regards the actual communication of the intentions of the parties and
although no form or ceremony was required for a contract to be regarded as valid, contracts in African law
were nonetheless not completely without form. There were certain ritualistic behavioural and linguistic
requirements that had to be observed … The physical activity that accompanied the verbal agreement was
the manifestation that agreement had subjectively been reached. In Tswana law, this process is described as
‘go tshitsinya’, which literally means ‘to introduce’. Contracting parties had to be present when consensus
was reached. . . .[T]he object of the contract had to be physically pointed out and described. Because the
whole process of reaching consensus and concluding a contract was concretised, it was much easier to
determine the real will of the parties.
Thus, in traditional communities, the emphasis is on “specific behavioural conventions” to
concretise a verbal contract.9 These conventions provided form, created legal certainty, gave rise
to contractual liability, and were regarded as manifestations of the intention of the parties.10
________________________
1 Van Niekerk (2011) De Jure 364–365.

2 (2011) De Jure 367.
3 (2011) De Jure 364–380. Also see the discussion of the various viewpoints by Van Schalkwyk (2006) 59–61.
4 Van Niekerk (2011) De Jure 368 refers to Table IV of the Twelve Tables (the earliest attempt by the
Romans to create a code of laws) which states: “When a person makes bond and conveyance, according as
he specified with his tongue, so shall be the law.”
5 Van Niekerk (2011) De Jure 368–369. The Roman contract was thus enforceable in accordance with its
wording even if it did not reflect the intention of the parties or did not reflect social realities. Also see
note 44 (at 373) for examples.
6 See Van Niekerk (2011) De Jure 370–371, and also the examples she provides.
7 Van Niekerk (2011) De Jure 371–372. Also see ch 5.
8 Van Niekerk (2011) De Jure 375.
There is no consensus between scholars if contractual consequences can arise out of a mere
promise and concepts such as expectations and hopes are unknown in customary law.11
From the contract arises the liability to perform in accordance with the agreement. There are
recognised legal means of taking action for non-fulfilment of the contract. These general princi-
ples will not be dealt with here.12 It is more important to focus on the parties to a contract,
specific contracts and quasi-contracts.13
7.2 Parties to a contract

7.2.1 The family
The family head usually concludes contracts on behalf of, and in the interests of, his family. He
is expected to consult with the adult members of his family. He is liable for the fulfilment of the
obligations under contracts entered into by him, or by a member of his family with his consent.14
Although individual family members are allowed to initiate agreements among the Swazi, they
have to first consult certain categories of relatives such as paternal aunts and, of course, the head
of a household or homestead. The extent of and consultation with other family members depends
on the nature of the contract in question. For example, contracts involving the exchange of small
stock or grain may not require the same level of consultation as for the exchange of cattle.15
7.2.2 Representation
The available sources are not unanimous as to whether representation is known in customary
law. De Clercq et al16 maintain that the Mathenjiva (Zulu) do not recognise representation, while
Coetzee et al17 are of the opinion that representation often occurs among the Tswana. The latter
group of authors refers to the conclusion of a marriage as a well-known example of representa-
tion. Whelpton18 is of the opinion that representation as known in Western legal systems is not
known to the Bakwena ba Mogopa (the Tswana people).
One would probably be able to make out a case that the keeper and intermediary19 are exam-
ples of representation. Where a family head is temporarily absent from the household and
nominates a non-relative as keeper, the family head would be bound as principal by the contracts
of his keeper, even if he was not present at the conclusion of the contracts. If a relative (usually
the successor) acts as keeper, it would not amount to representation. A relative who acts as
keeper is in fact a member of the agnatic group,20 and, like the family head, acts only as its
mouthpiece. A relative acting as intermediary during marriage negotiations would probably also
not constitute representation for the same reason. Where a non-relative acts as an intermediary,
for example in lobolo negotiations, claims for additional lobolo and claims arising from
________________________
11 Whelpton (2006) Anthropology Southern Africa 144, 147 argues that a mere promise cannot lead to
liability but Schapera (1965) 142 maintains that a mere promise is indeed enforceable in indigenous law. He
refers to a case where a husband promised his wife not to engage in polygyny. When he broke his promise,
she could claim damages for breach of promise. Also see, Van Schalkwyk (2006) 57.
12 For a general discussion, see Whelpton (2006) Anthropology Southern Africa 143; Van Schalkwyk (2006) 57–58.
13 Also see the discussion of Bekker “Law of contract” in Joubert, Faris and Church (eds) LAWSA vol 32
(2009) paras 230–261.
14 Prinsloo and Vorster “Parties” in Centre for Indigenous Law (ed) (1990) 21.
15 Whelpton (2001) 14.
16 De Clercq et al (1985) 96.
17 Coetzee et al (1985) 145.
18 Whelpton (1991) 121.
19 Olivier et al (1989) 552–554.
20 Meaning descent by the male line of ancestors.
seduction, the agreement is binding on the principal, even if he was not present.21 However, the
question is whether this phenomenon refers to mandate rather than to representation.
7.2.3 Other forms of substitution of parties

Traditionally, agreements were entered into between agnatic groups rather than individuals.22
This implies that the need to substitute an individual in a contractual relationship did not arise.
More-over, the fact that contractual liability stems from agreement followed by performance on
the part of one party, makes the substitution of a party difficult without first terminating the
existing contract.23 Delegation, where the obligations of one of the parties in a contractual
relationship are transferred to a third party, is not known in customary law.24 Cession, in terms
of which the obligatory rights of one of the parties to a contract are transferred to a third party, is
also not known in customary law.25
Whether pledge is known is doubtful since a debt does not become prescribed in customary law.
There is thus no need to give security for a debt. Pledge, in terms of which property is handed
over to another as security for the fulfilment of a contractual obligation, is generally not known
among the African peoples.26 However, it is reported that some groups do know pledge.27 Whelp-
ton28 suggests that further research is necessary and that the placement of the property in the
possession of another may serve as proof of the existence of a debt between the parties rather
than as security for the debt.
Suretyship refers to a contract between the surety and debtor in terms of which the surety
agrees to accept liability for the proper performance of the debtor’s duties in terms of a contract
between the latter and his creditor. Since a debt does not become prescribed in customary law,
it is doubtful whether there is a need for suretyship. It is reported not to be known,29
although some writers indicate that it is known without giving sufficient detail to support their
viewpoints.30
7.3 Specific contracts

The question has been asked whether it is practical or even necessary to classify customary law
contracts into specific categories, given the fact that they (a) do not represent a closed number
and (b) do not depend on form but on the concretisation of the verbal agreement.31 The categori-
sation of customary law contracts into different types or groups is a result of Western legal
culture’s approach to the law. Western legal culture is unified in the systemic reliance on legal
constructs, whilst traditional cultures do not necessarily follow the same approach. However,
________________________
21 In this regard, the Swazi say sitfunywa asibulawa (a representative cannot be punished), implying that a
representative does not become involved in any right or obligation under the contract (Whelpton (2001) 12).
22 Myburgh (1985) 91.
23 Whelpton (1991) 126–128.
24 Whelpton (1991) 128–129; Prinsloo and Vorster “Parties” in Centre for Indigenous Law (ed) (1990) 24.
25 Prinsloo and Vorster “Parties” in Centre for Indigenous Law (ed) (1990) 23; Whelpton (1991) 129–131;
also see Olivier et al (1989) 576–577.
26 Prinsloo and Vorster “Parties” in Centre for Indigenous Law (ed) (1990) 25; Whelpton (1991) 131–135.
27 See Coetzee et al (1985) 150; Olivier et al (1989) 551; Pauw (1985) 130.
28 Whelpton (1991) 133–134.
29 Whelpton (1991) 135–137; Prinsloo and Vorster “Parties” in Centre for Indigenous Law (ed) (1990) 24–25;
according to Whelpton (2001) 13, in this regard, the Swazi say utigwaze ngesakhe sikhaili (you stabbed
yourself with your own spear).
30 See Olivier et al (1989) 552; Whitfield (1948) 489–490; for East Africa, see Lyall (1986) Journal of African
Law 118.
31 Van Schalkwyk (2006) 64.
classification is a method that might help us to understand the intricacies of a legal system
unknown to many lawyers.
It is also important to remember that a customary law contract is a social construct. It has to
be examined in the context of traditional social life.32 The categorisation of the various types of
customary contracts below is performed in terms of our western understanding of contracts,
whilst they should more properly be viewed in the context of the traditional values of the various
communities. Also, the categories represent only a few examples of typical customary law
obligations, and many more exist in living customary law.
7.3.1 Gifts
A gift, as a contract, is a unilateral contract, but a multilateral legal act. A contract is unilateral
when only one party undertakes the duty to perform. In customary law, the giving and receiving
of gifts can stem from various motives, for example to perpetuate kinship or friendship ties, to
pay respect or to show gratitude. Subject to the general principles of the customary law of suc-
cession and the patrimonial ties within the household and between the constituent houses, a
family head is free to transfer property from the general estate to any individual by means of a
gift. Such donations between members of the same household are not based on contract in terms
of the customary notion of a family sharing rights and duties, and of a family being represented
by its head. Nowadays, a person having full contractual capacity can donate his or her personal
property to a non-relative.33
Some people distinguish between conditional and unconditional gifts. A conditional gift is one
that is made subject to one or other stipulation. Tswana people, for example, distinguish between
an unconditional gift (mpho), where ownership of the gift is immediately transferred to the
recipient, and a conditional gift (tshwaisô or setshwaêlô), where ownership of the gift is trans-
ferred to the recipient only at a later stage, for example after the death of the donor.34
The giving and receiving of gifts clearly illustrate the nature of real contracts typical of custo-
mary law. The mere agreement to give something to another establishes a debt, but no contrac-
tual liability. Consequently, the donee cannot institute an action against the donor for delivery.
Delivery of the gift makes the agreement a contract and at the same time satisfies the obligation
to perform in terms of the agreement. Moreover, the donor cannot reclaim the gift, since what is
delivered is what was owed. In this regard, the Tswana say seyakgosing ga se boe (what has
been given out cannot be returned); in other words, a gift remains a gift.35
Although a gift entails no agreement to reciprocate, it is customary among many peoples to
give a return gift. A gift is often given as a greeting or as a sign of goodwill, and failure to give
something in return may be regarded as a form of disrespect.36
Although Schapera37 states that any form of property may be given freely, this is not the posi-
tion with regard to property of a religious nature among many peoples. Such property is often
subject to various taboos of a ritual nature. Immovable property can also not be freely donated.38
7.3.2 Loans for use and loans for consumption

A distinction can be made between loans for use and loans for consumption. In the case of a loan
for use, ownership of the property involved remains with the owner and the borrower acquires
________________________

33 Van Niekerk “Gift” in Centre for Indigenous Law (ed) (1990) 38.
34 Van Niekerk “Gift” in Centre for Indigenous Law (ed) (1990) 37; Schapera (1955) 239–240.
38 Van Niekerk “Gift” in Centre for Indigenous Law (ed) (1990) 38–39.
the right to use the property. In the case of a loan for consumption, ownership of the property is
transferred on delivery to the borrower to consume the property and ownership of the specific
property cannot be returned.
A loan39 for use entails a contract in terms of which one party hands over something to another
gratuitously for the latter to use, after which the specific thing is returned to the lender. A loan
for use is gratuitous since the lender receives nothing in return for lending out his or her property
to another. If the lender is to receive any remuneration from the borrower, the contract would no
longer be one of loan, but rather one of lease.40
Where there is no explicit agreement regarding when the thing should be returned to the lender,
the borrower may use it for the purpose for which it was lent for as long as it is necessary. This
implies, for example, that the lender cannot demand the return of a field once the borrower has
started ploughing. In such a case, the field can be returned only after the borrower has harvested
the crop.41 Where a borrower is unable to return a borrowed article without having a valid
excuse, he/she may be required to return another item of equivalent value.42
Where a thing borrowed is known to be defective, for example where a sick animal is bor-
rowed, the borrower has no action against the lender should the animal die while in his posses-
sion. The lender likewise has no action against the borrower, although the borrower is expected
to report the destruction or damage to the lender as soon as possible.43
The borrower must generally exercise the care of an owner over the thing lent to him. Where
it is agreed that damage to, or destruction of, the thing will be for the borrower’s account, the
latter will be liable in terms of the agreement. The borrower will also be liable if he was negli-
gent in his care of the property. However, if the damage or destruction was caused by some or
other accident, the two parties will negotiate the matter. If the owner is not satisfied with the
explanation of the borrower, he will, for example, not take the meat and skin of the animal he
has lent to the borrower to show his anger.44
Items such as household utensils and cattle are the objects of a great deal of borrowing and
lending. Things of a religious nature, for example, the medicine bag or the bones of a diviner, or
a man’s weapons cannot be lent.
A loan for consumption entails the delivery of some fungible45 thing by one party to another
who must return to the lender a thing of the same kind, quantity and of similar quality. To con-
stitute a contract of loan, the borrower must return an equivalent thing to what he has received.
If it is agreed that it is not to be repaid, the transaction is not a loan.46
7.3.3 Exchange
A contract of exchange47 comprises an agreement in terms of which the parties undertake to
deliver to each other a thing or things with the purpose of transferring ownership of the property
________________________
39 The Swazi call this type of contract kweboleka. In general, the Siswati term for loan is kusitana, which is
also used to indicate the bilateral nature of the contract. The Tswana term for loan is kadimo (noun) and go
adima (verb).
40 Van Blerk “Loan” in Centre for Indigenous Law (ed) (1990) 69.
41 Van Blerk “Loan” in Centre for Indigenous Law (ed) (1990) 69–70.
45 A “fungible” is something that can be measured, counted or weighed.
47 The Siswati term for exchange is kuntjintjiselana; the reciprocal verb indicates a reciprocal obligation to
deliver goods. The Tswana refer to exchange as kananyô (noun) or ananya (verb).
so exchanged. An example of a contract of exchange is where X gives a heifer48 to Z in

exchange for five of Z’s sheep.49 The features of this type of contract include an agreement as
well as performance and counter-performance. Both performances comprise the delivery of a
thing or things with the intention to transfer ownership. Where any one of these elements is
lacking, there is no contract of exchange.50
For an exchange agreement to be valid, the parties must agree on the things to be exchanged.
The property to be exchanged must be adequately specified, albeit in general terms, in the
agreement. Where livestock is involved, the parties must at least agree on the type, sex and
gender of the animals. If there is a mistake about a material element, for example that goats
instead of sheep should be delivered, there is no agreement. Where agreement was influenced by
misrepresentation or a threat of some sort, the contract is then voidable at the choice of the
prejudiced or threatened party. The agreement must be lawful. Parties are therefore not allowed
to exchange a field or residential site for livestock, since land is controlled by the local authori-
ties and the parties are not free to exchange it at will.51
The exchange of money for goods (the sales agreement) was not initially known in customary
law but since traditional communities have begun to interact with western culture it has become
a well-known practice to pay for goods.52
In a contract of exchange, the transfer of ownership of the property involved is implied. Par-
ties must therefore be the owners of the property to be exchanged. Ownership of property passes
on delivery.53 Simultaneous delivery of property to be exchanged is implied, unless the parties
have agreed otherwise.54 Proper delivery requires either physical delivery or pointing out of the
property with the intention to transfer ownership. Mere description of the property is not suffi-
cient to constitute proper delivery. Before actual delivery, but after pointing out of the property,
the risk remains with the owner, whereafter the property is in the same position as sisa cattle.55
Should the animal die before actual delivery, the owner must replace it, and where the property
is otherwise damaged, the owner has to substitute it. Any increase before actual delivery accrue
to the debtor that is the party who has to deliver. After actual delivery, any risk is borne by the
new owner. Property is exchanged voetstoots, which is without any guarantee against latent
defects.56
When a party fails or refuses to perform in terms of the agreement when he or she is liable to
do so, that is after the other party has performed, the creditor has the option to insist on specific
performance or to rescind the contract. On rescission, the debtor has to return the property he or
she has received in terms of the agreement while the creditor is not entitled to any damages
against the debtor for breach of contract.57 Where the debtor delivers the property but the credi-
tor refuses to accept it because it is unsuitable, for example due to inferior quality, the creditor is
often required to accept what is offered. In this regard, the Tswana say molato o lefya ka ntlha
ya lomao (a debt is paid on the point of a needle) and again: lemme le gaisa lefifi (an ugly thing
is better than darkness).58
________________________
48 A young cow which has not yet given birth to a calf.

49 Prinsloo (1988) CILSA 212.
50 Prinsloo “Exchange” in Centre for Indigenous Law (ed) (1990) 30–31.
53 Prinsloo “Exchange” in Centre for Indigenous Law (ed) (1990) 32; in this regard, the Tswana say sa
kananyo se amoganwa diatleng (property exchanged must change hands).
54 Prinsloo “Exchange” in Centre for Indigenous Law (ed) (1990) 32.
55 See 5.4.4.
58 Schapera (1955) 243.
7.3.4 Farming out 59

Farming out involves a contract in terms of which an owner places some of his/her animals,
usually cattle, in the care and control of another for an indefinite period. The understanding is
that the keeper will enjoy the use of the animals, but the ownership will remain with, and
increase will accrue to, the owner. This contract is restricted to animals, and where other property
is involved, it would constitute a loan rather than sisa.60 Any number of livestock can be farmed
out in this way.
In section 1(1) of the Codes of Zulu Law,61 sisa is defined as “a custom whereby cattle or
other livestock are deposited by their owner with some other person on the understanding that
such person shall enjoy the use of them, but that the ownership shall remain with and increase
accrue to the depositor”.
The objectives of the sisa contract include assistance to needy relatives and other members of
the local community who have no animals and in this way acquire the use of the livestock;
access to pasturage not otherwise accessible to the owner; insurance against total loss of live-
stock from disease or other disasters which may be encountered by an owner, should he keep all
his animals in one cattle kraal; facilitation of the task of caring for the animals by the owner; and
disguise of the full extent of the owner’s herd from envious people who, because of their envy,
may turn to witchcraft to harm the owner.62
The owner remains the owner of the livestock and its increase. The keeper is entitled to the
use of the animals and their products apart from their increase. Wool is not, however, regarded
as a product to which the keeper is entitled. The idea that an owner retains ownership is firmly
rooted in the value system of the people so that if the keeper has incurred debts, the sisa cattle
cannot be attached to satisfy those debts. Sisa animals can be seized from the keeper to satisfy
the debts of their owner and the keeper has no claim that the animals be replaced. The Tswana
say: modisa wa di kgomo tsa mafisa o gama olebile kgorong (the keeper of the mafisa cattle
milks while looking at the gate).63
The sisa contract is usually not for a specified time. It must, however, last long enough for the
keeper to have the use of the animals. The usual form is that no specific agreement is made
about the duration of the contract and it is then implied that it will last for a reasonable time. The
possibility of an express and specific agreement as to the period is not excluded, since there is no
rule to exclude such an agreement.64
In terms of the sisa contract, the duties of the owner65 include visiting the sisa livestock from
time to time to show his interest to outsiders, to earmark the progeny and to take possession of
natural products such as wool. Neglecting to do this does not deprive him of his ownership, but
might make it difficult to prove his right to the animals, should this be disputed. He must com-
pensate the keeper for expenses incurred for dipping and grazing, but he is not compelled to
compensate the keeper for the herding of the animals. After return of the animals, he is expected
to compensate the keeper only if compensation has been agreed upon or promised. It is cus-
tomary, though not compulsory, for the owner to compensate the keeper. The compensation is
usually based on the increase, and is, in many instances, a heifer.66
________________________
59 This contract is variously known among the different African groups. The terms sisa (Zulu) and mafisa
(Tswana and Northern Sotho) are mostly used. Other terms include ngoma (Xhosa) and fuyisa (Tsonga).
60 See, in general, Olivier et al (1989) 567–576; also see Nathan “Farming out (mafisa)” in Centre for Indigenous
Law (ed) (1990) 61–68.
61 Natal Code of Zulu Law; KwaZulu Act on the Code of Zulu Law.
62 See Olivier et al (1989) 568; Schapera (1955) 246.
63 Nathan “Farming out (mafisa)” in Centre for Indigenous Law (ed) (1990) 64.
64 Schapera (1955) 246.
65 See Olivier et al (1989) 574–576.
66 See Nathan “Farming out (mafisa)” in Centre for Indigenous Law (ed) (1990) 67; Olivier et al (1989) 574;
Schapera (1955) 247.
In terms of the sisa contract, the powers of the keeper67 are, among other things, that he can
uphold his possession against the owner and all others, that he is entitled to the products of the
animals, except the increase and the wool (that is, that he has full use and benefit of the stock,
that he can use their milk, plough with them and use them for transport purposes), and that he is
entitled to compensation for expenses incurred for dipping and grazing, but not for the wages of
the herders.
The duties of the keeper68 entail the use of the animals with the same care as if they were his
own. Should some of the animals be lost or die owing to his negligence, he must replace them.
He is liable for ordinary negligence only. He is expected to use the animals only for the purpose
for which they were handed over to him. He may not, for example, slaughter or sell the ani-
mals.69 He is responsible to the owner for the well-being of the animals. He must allow the
owner to inspect and earmark the animals. He must report any losses to the owner immediately.
If he neglects to do this, he must replace the losses, unless witnesses can prove natural death or
theft. Should an animal die, he is expected to send the hide to the owner to enable him to iden-
tify the dead animal as his own.70 He must give an account of the animals and their increase. On
termination of the contract, he has to return the animals with their increase to their owner within
a reasonable period after they have been demanded or the contract has been terminated.
The keeper can terminate the contract at any time, but he should give the owner proper notice
of his intentions. As a matter of courtesy, it is common practice for the keeper to give the owner
reasonable notice. The owner may, however, at will terminate the contract prematurely without
incurring any liability, especially if he has good reason for such action, that is where the keeper
is not taking proper care of the cattle.71
Originally, the parties to the contract were agnatic groups, but today the parties may also be
individuals. A modern form of the sisa contract occurs where a person is employed in an urban
area and buys cattle with his income. These cattle are then farmed out to a kinsman or other
person in the rural areas.
From the literature and case law, it appears that farming out can be done between houses
belonging to the same household.72 However, if we consider the objectives of the sisa contract, it
is clear that a contract between houses cannot fulfil these objectives. In addition, these houses
have the same head representing them, with the result that the head of the household is in actual
fact contracting with himself.
The sisa contract is a special contract in customary law.73 It is not a contract of loan, for it is
to the advantage of the owner (the one farming out). A loan is to the advantage of the borrower
only, while the lender does not benefit from it. The sisa contract is also not a form of bailment,
since the keeper does not undertake the safe-keeping for no return. It is also not a contract of
letting and hiring, except perhaps where payment is agreed upon. The keeper cannot claim his
expenses for herding the animals from the owner, nor does he pay the owner for the enjoyment
of the animals.
________________________
67 See Nathan “Farming out (mafisa)” in Centre for Indigenous Law (ed) (1990) 63; Olivier et al (1989) 573.
68 See Nathan “Farming out (mafisa)” in Centre for Indigenous Law (ed) (1990) 64–66; Olivier et al (1989)
570–574.
69 Nathan “Farming out (mafisa)” in Centre for Indigenous Law (ed) (1990) 63.
70 Nathan “Farming out (mafisa)” in Centre for Indigenous Law (ed) (1990) at 64–65; also see Olivier et al
(1989) 550–571.
71 Nathan “Farming out (mafisa)” in Centre for Indigenous Law (ed) (1990) 67–68.
72 See Olivier et al (1989) 569–570.
73 See Nathan “Farming out (mafisa)” in Centre for Indigenous Law (ed) (1990) 62.
7.3.5 Service
Various forms of service can be distinguished, ranging from employment to independent service.74
Employment entails the rendering of services under the supervision of another, whereas in the case
of independent service, no supervision is required.
Employment can involve ordinary domestic work, the herding of animals, assisting in building
and agricultural activities such as mixing the building clay, planting, weeding, bird-scaring and
harvesting. The parties have to agree as to the nature and extent of the labour required as well as
the remuneration. The agreement regarding the work can be specific or in general terms, while
the payment usually entails the customary rates unless otherwise stipulated. The work is done
under the general supervision of the employer. The employee is expected to take reasonable care
about the way the work is done. However, no damages can be claimed should the employee per-
form the work in a negligent way.75
The employer has to pay the employee for the work. Payment was formerly in kind, while
money is nowadays also used to pay for work. Payment is due on proper completion of the
work. Most work was paid for at a customary rate, for example a heifer for clearing a field.
Should the employee fail to complete the work, or to do it satisfactorily, no payment is due.76
A contract of employment is terminated on proper completion of the work and proper pay-
ment for the work in terms of the agreement. Once the work has commenced, the parties
may also mutually agree to terminate the contract and agree on the consequences of such termi-
nation. Should an employee fail to complete the work or to do it properly, he has no claim to be
rewarded for the work done.77
Independent service is well known and may take the form of, amongst others, the digging of
a well, the building or roofing of a traditional house and the services of traditional healers.
The latter services can be regarded as professional services. A feature of independent service is
that it is done without the supervision of the employer. Independent service is usually not of a
continuous nature.78
For a contract of independent service to be valid, the parties must agree as to the nature and
extent of the work and whether the customary payment applies. The performance of the worker
usually consists of the independent rendering of the agreed-upon service in a proper manner.
The work should meet the ordinary requirements for satisfactory completion. The performance
of the employer entails proper payment once the service has been properly rendered. Among
some groups, customary rates apply, although the parties are free to enter into a specific agree-
ment regarding the payment. Payment is usually due on completion of the work, unless the par-
ties have expressly agreed otherwise. Where completion of the work becomes impossible, the
question of fault has a bearing on the consequences. Where the worker is at fault, payment for
the work is usually forfeited. If the employer is at fault, he is expected to pay for the work in
full, although the work has not been completed. Where neither party is at fault, a pro rata
payment for the work done is usually expected.79
A special form of independent service concerns the services of traditional healers, comprising
herbalists, diviners, prophets and ritual specialists. Their services may include the treatment of
________________________
74 See generally Olivier et al (1989) 549–551; Schapera (1955) 250–256; Vorster “Employment” in Centre for
Indigenous Law (ed) (1990) 40–44; Vorster (1990) SA Journal of Ethnology 149–158; Vorster “Independ-
ent service” in Centre for Indigenous Law (ed) (1990) 45–60; Whelpton (1991) 181–194.
75 Vorster “Employment” in Centre for Indigenous Law (ed) (1990) 42; Vorster (1990) SA Journal of Ethnol-
ogy 152–154.
76 Vorster “Employment” in Centre for Indigenous Law (ed) (1990) 42.
77 Vorster “Employment” in Centre for Indigenous Law (ed) (1990) 42–43.
78 Vorster “Independent service” in Centre for Indigenous Law (ed) (1990) 45.
illness, the performance of a ritual, the protection of people and property against harm, and the
treatment of people and property to affect fertility and prosperity.80
This type of contract usually entails an implicit agreement regarding the service required and
the payment therefor. The parties usually agree in general terms about the work, while the cus-
tomary fees apply. Once the customary fee for treatment or the required protection has been
paid, the traditional healer is contractually bound to render the service to the best of his/her
ability. In the case of illness, it is customary that the final payment is only due once a cure has
been effected. The contract is usually terminated once the treatment is successful and payment is
delivered.81 The services of traditional healers in KwaZulu-Natal are partly regulated by provi-
sions of the Codes of Zulu Law.82
7.4 Quasi-contracts
A quasi-contract is a phenomenon of law that does not satisfy all the requirements of a contract.
In the case of quasi-contracts, liability arises from performance without agreement based on
enrichment or negotiorum gestio. Among the Zulu, ukwethula is an example of enrichment and
isondlo of negotiorum gestio.83
7.4.1 Ukwenzelela
The ukwenzelela custom is described in terms of a debt between houses of the same household
or a father’s provision of the marriage goods for the first wife of each of his sons.84 This rela-
tionship of debt is based on specific arrangements with a family and it is doubtful whether it is
quasi-contractual in nature. However, where one party is enriched at the cost of another, the
party so enriched may be expected to return the property.85
7.4.2 Isondlo
Customary law makes provision for the payment of compensation (Zulu-Xhosa: isondlo;
Tswana: kotlo) to a person for the care of a child who is not a member of his group. In rare
cases, isondlo is payable in respect of the care of adults, for example, mentally deficient persons.
The usual fee for maintenance in this sense is one animal.
The duty to pay isondlo may arise from an express agreement, in which case it is contractual.
The duty can also arise from the circumstances of each case, for example from negotiorum
gestio, and is thus quasi-contractual.86
________________________
80 Vorster “Employment” in Centre for Indigenous Law (ed) (1990) 53. The position of traditional healers is
nowadays regulated in terms of legislation. The Traditional Health Practitioners Act 22 of 2007 commenced
on 1 May 2014. The Act makes provision for the establishment of an Interim Health Practitioners Council of
South Africa. In 2011, the Regulations relating to the Appointment of Members of the Interim Traditional
Health Practitioners Council of South Africa (GN R685 in GG 34546 of 22 August 2011) was published,
and in 2015, the Traditional Health Practitioners Regulations (GN R1052 in GG 39358 of 3 No-
vember 2015) was added to the legal framework for traditional healers. It makes provision for the registra-
tion of traditional healers. According to our knowledge, not one has been registered in terms of the
legislation. For a general discussion, also see Van Schalkwyk (2006) 141– 145; Rautenbach (2007) Obiter
518–536; (2011) THRHR 28–46.
82 Sections 83–90 of the respective Codes.
83 Myburgh (1985) 92; Whelpton (1991) 76–77.
84 See Olivier et al (1989) 555–556.
85 See Whelpton (1991) 78–79.
86 Van Niekerk “Maintenance” in Centre for Indigenous Law (ed) (1990) 99–100.
7.4.3 Other obligations

Ukufakwa
The ukufakwa is an obligation based on performance which does not arise from a contract or
quasi-contract.
In Nobumba v Mfecane,87 the court described this obligation as follows:
. . . ukufakwa applies where contributions are made in connection with the ceremonies connected with those
of puberty (ntonjane) or marriage or other circumstances of women in which the contributor is fakwaed or
put into the lobolo of the woman.
This means that a relative of a female’s father is thus “put into” the marriage goods and becomes
entitled to the marriage goods as if he contributed towards the female’s puberty ceremonies, her
wedding expenses or any other expenses to which the father usually has to contribute.88
In Thomas v Ntantiso,89 the assessors were unanimous that the ukufakwa custom is not applic-
able to a cash loan to settle shop debts. However, an express agreement to pay such a loan from
the lobolo of his daughter is enforceable as an ordinary contract.
In Nkethleni v Mlanjeni,90 the court stated that ukufakwa is a well-known contract and recog-
nised by the courts. It requires similar proof to other contracts in similar circumstances.91
In Titi v Titi,92 the assessors advised the court that should a man have a claim on the lobolo of
a certain female under the ukufakwa custom and the female dies before her marriage, he has a
claim on the lobolo of the next sister and so forth, until the last sister.
From the above, it appears that occasionally, in order to settle a debt, a debtor designates
damages or the lobolo expected to be received for a female. This means that the creditor agrees
to wait for the settlement of his debt until the damages or the lobolo for the female is paid. The
female’s guardian receives the damages or lobolo and is obliged to settle the debt out of it. This
designation is apparently analogous to constructive delivery. Performance is achieved by means
of this designation.
Unlike the position of third parties, the position of the creditor has not yet been argued in
court. It seems as if ukufakwa is not a contract, but rather a form of performance. By means of
designation, the creditor becomes co-owner of the lobolo if and when it is delivered. He is not in
an ordinary creditor-debtor relationship: he is “put in” as participant in the debt to the degree to
which he has contributed. If no lobolo is received, he receives nothing, despite his contribution,
since he also shares in the “nothing” received.
Marriage contract
The negotiations between the bride and bridegroom’s families preceding their customary mar-
riage, followed by the payment of lobolo, and the marriage ceremonies, are all elements of the
marriage contract. The dissolution of the marriage has an effect on the return of lobolo – see
discussion at chapter 5.
7.5 Dispute settlement

Disputes that stemmed from customary law contracts were mostly settled outside the mainstream
courts through traditional dispute settlement mechanisms such as negotiation, mediation and
reconciliation.93 The primary aim of these mechanisms is to restore social harmony in the
________________________
87 2 NAC (1911) 104.

88 Olivier et al (1989) 557.
89 1945 NAC (C&O) 38.
90 4 NAC (1920) 368.
91 Vorster and Whelpton (1998) 31.
92 4 NAC (1920) 369.
93 See Van Schalkwyk (2006) 68–70.
community. With the focus on the community and the values of ubuntu,94 the contracting parties
have a moral obligation to reach a settlement as amicably and quickly as possible. As explained
by Van Schalkwyk:95
With indigenous courts, settling underlying social problems in the community, the courts endeavour to rec-
oncile disputing parties within the community’s social harmony. Individuals are persuaded to accept the
community’s boni mores – the standards of social behaviour and conformity (with the emphasis on extra-
legal diverse traits such as friendliness and generosity). Contractual disputes, in addition to the legal issues,
have further cultural, social and, to a lesser extent, psychological dimensions. Social tensions are relieved or
diffused and the prevailing community moral code is applied and upheld.
Although disputes were generally resolved on community level, it is possible for parties to
take their disputes to mainstream courts. There is nothing that prevents them from doing so.
However, in order to rely on the principles of customary law, a litigant needs to allege the
following:96
• that there is a community (“tribal”) connection between the litigants;
• which particular system of customary law is applicable; and
• what the relevant customary law principles are.
If the litigants failed to raise any one of these issues, customary law is not applicable, and a
presiding officer cannot find that customary law is applicable in a dispute involving contractual
liability.97 According to the judge:98
It is clear that indigenous law in cases of sale can only apply between black people in circumstances where
the principles of indigenous law provide for the sale of the thing sold.
It would be wrong to adjudicate upon a mater [sic] of a sale, which is not governed by indigenous law,
according to the principles of indigenous law, merely because the parties are both black people. It would be
wrong if common-law principles, not known to indigenous law were agreed upon by the parties to regard the
agreement as regulated by indigenous law. In indigenous law and before contact was made with the Western
way of living there was no provision for payment in money. It was therefore difficult to distinguish an
agreement of barter from one of sale. The law of contract was not sophisticated or highly developed.
Principles differ from tribe to tribe. Section 1 of [the Law of Evidence Amendment] Act 45 of 1988 requires
of a litigant who wishes to have an action determined according to indigenous law to prove that indigenous
law is applicable in the case. Unless judicial notice can be taken of the principles thereof it is for the litigant
to allege and prove those principles. If it fails to establish that, the common law applies.
There was a further reason why the High Court found the Magistrate Court’s finding that
customary law applied, questionable. The fact that the respondent’s pleadings equated the
“voetstoots” sale of the tractor in question to the sale of a cow to fit it into the framework of
customary law, was an indication to the High Court that common law applied and not customary
law, because the “voetstoots” concept does not form part of customary law.99
It is thus imperative that litigants who prefer their contractual disputes to be settled in a main-
stream court ensure that their pleadings mention the fact that customary law should be applied to
the dispute.100
________________________
94 See ch 2 for a discussion of ubuntu.

96 Maisela v Kgolane [2000] 1 All SA 658 (T) 663–664. These questions are factual questions which can be
admitted or denied by the other party in the pleadings.
97 Maisela v Kgolane [2000] 1 All SA 658 (T) 664.
98 Maisela v Kgolane [2000] 1 All SA 658 (T) 663. Footnotes omitted.
99 Maisela v Kgolane [2000] 1 All SA 658 (T) 664.
100 Also see discussion of “conflict of laws” in ch 3.
8
Law of Delict
Page
8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 161
8.2 Accessory liability of the family head........................................................................ 162
8.3 Sexual delicts .............................................................................................................. 164
8.3.1 Defloration of an unmarried girl ..................................................................... 164
8.3.1.1 Occurrence and nature ...................................................................... 164
8.3.1.2 Procedure and proof ......................................................................... 165
8.3.1.3 Calculation of compensation ............................................................ 165
8.3.2 The common-law action for seduction ........................................................... 166
8.3.3 Impregnation of an unmarried girl .................................................................. 166
8.3.3.1 Occurrence ....................................................................................... 166
8.3.3.2 Claimant ........................................................................................... 166
8.3.3.4 Quantum ........................................................................................... 167
8.3.4 Adultery .......................................................................................................... 167
8.3.4.1 Occurrence ....................................................................................... 167
8.3.4.3 Grounds of justification and condonation ........................................ 168
8.3.4.4 Quantum ........................................................................................... 169
8.3.5 Sexual intercourse with, and impregnation of, a woman in an ukungena
relationship ........................................................................................................... 169
8.3.6 Sexual intercourse with, and impregnation of, widows and divorced
women ............................................................................................................. 169
8.4 Ukuthwala as delict .................................................................................................... 170
8.5 Defamation ................................................................................................................. 172
8.6 Delicts regarding property .......................................................................................... 173
8.6.1 Damage to property ......................................................................................... 173
8.6.2 Damages caused by animals ........................................................................... 173
8.6.3 Theft ................................................................................................................ 173
8.7 Assault and causation of death ................................................................................... 174
8.7.1 Assault ............................................................................................................. 174
8.7.2 Culpable causation of the death of a breadwinner .......................................... 175
159
Chapter 8: Law of Delict 161
8.1 Introduction
The customary law of delict, actionable by individuals, gives redress for the violation of any
right representing material value, and can be acquired by a family head. This implies redress for
damage to property, as well as for injury to a woman insofar as a family head’s rights in her
have been violated.1 Thus, the customary law of delict originally comprised various sexual
wrongs, certain instances of the carrying-off of brides-to-be, damage to property, limited
instances of defamation, the death of a breadwinner, murder, and theft. These delicts will be
discussed later. In various instances, the scope of customary wrongs has been widened by
legislation and judicial decisions. With respect to legislation, the KwaZulu Law on the Code of
Zulu Law2 and the Natal Code of Zulu Law3 extended the scope of some delicts in KwaZulu-
Natal,4 and the South African legislature has provided by statute for the dependants’ claim for
maintenance at the death of a breadwinner.5 It is important to note, as a point of departure, that
the customary law of delict is not stagnant, but is in a dynamic process of adaptation and change.
Cultural rights are protected by sections 30 and 31 of the Constitution6 (the Bill of Rights),
to which a primary status is ascribed in the constitutional dispensation. However, the Bill
of Rights7 is in some respects potentially incompatible with the customary law of delict.
The custom of virginity testing may, for example, potentially violate a girl’s right to equality,
dignity, security of her body, as well as the girl child’s best interests having paramount im-
portance, in terms of sections 9, 10, 12 and 28 of the Constitution, respectively. This custom is
regulated by section 12 of the Children’s Act,8 which prohibits virginity testing of children
under the age of 16 years, and provides that consent and counselling are required if the child is
older than 16 years, that the testing must be performed in the prescribed manner, that consent is
required before the results are disclosed, and that the child’s body may not be marked.9
It presupposes that certain adaptations and even profound changes should in principle be
made to the customary law of delict. Consequently, there is a duty on courts to develop custom-
ary law in terms of section 39(2) of the Constitution.10 In this regard, the customary-law concept
of ubuntu may, where applicable, be used as a guideline to achieve the adaptations and to justify
them.11
________________________
1 Bekker (1989) 342.

2 16 of 1985.
3 Proclamation R151 of 1987.
4 According to traditional customary law, assault and personal injuries do not give rise to delictual liability,
but constitute crimes. However, in KwaZulu-Natal, a delictual action for immaterial damages on account of
assault could be instituted. See Bekker “Law of delict” in Joubert, Faris and Church (eds) LAWSA vol 32
(2009) para 138.
5 In terms of s 31 of the Black Laws Amendment Act 76 of 1963. See Bekker “Law of delict” in Joubert,
Faris and Church (eds) LAWSA vol 32 (2009) para 138.
6 The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (hereafter the Constitution).
7 Chapter 2 of the Constitution.
8 38 of 2005.
9 Also see Bennett, Mills and Munnick (2010) TSAR 254–270. Amongst others, the authors stated that
organisers of virginity testing events may face charges of rape, statutory rape and sexual violation in terms
of the Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act 32 of 2007. In addition, a suit
in delict may also follow (inter alia, as a result of the transmission of sexually transmitted diseases and
iniuria). Certain forms of virginity testing are also prohibited by a number of international instruments,
including the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, the Convention on the Elimination of
All Forms of Discrimination against Women, and the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the
Child.
10 See Kerr (1999) Obiter 41–51; Knoetze and Olivier (2005) Obiter 126–132.
11 De Kock and Labuschagne (1999) THRHR 114–120. Also see Bennett (2011) PER/PELJ 30–61, specifi-
cally 44.
In studying customary law, it must continuously be borne in mind that there is no clear dis-
tinction, as is the case in most Western legal systems, between criminal and private law sanc-
tions and procedures.12 Added to that, the general elements and principles for delictual, as well
as criminal, liability have not clearly crystallised in customary law to the same extent as in the
common law. In terms of the common law, a delict is defined as “the act of a person that in a
wrongful and culpable way causes harm to another”.13 Five elements must be met before a
person can be held delictually liable in our common law, namely: (a) an act; (b) wrongfulness;
(c) fault; (d) harm; and (e) causation. If any one or more of these elements are lacking, in terms
of the common law, there is no delict and consequently no liability.
8.2 Accessory liability of the family head

It is a generally accepted rule of customary law that the family head has accessory liability for
delicts committed by unemancipated inmates of his family home. This does not mean that the
family head is solely liable, but that he may be sued with the alleged wrongdoer; hence Bekker’s
description of accessory liability as “co-liability”.14 Bekker points out that it may be assumed
that nowadays women can also be regarded as family heads.15 The reasons are threefold: firstly,
in terms of section 9 of the Constitution, nobody may unfairly discriminate against anyone on
the basis of, inter alia, sex and gender. Secondly, in terms of section 6 of the Recognition of
Customary Marriages Act,16 the wife has an equal status to her husband and bears full status and
capacities. Thirdly, in terms of the Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act,17
women may be appointed as queens, senior traditional leaders and headwomen, and may thus
hold positions of status.
Traditionally, the accessory liability of the family head for delicts committed by family home
inmates seemed to be based on group liability and the fact that ownership of the traditional
medium of payment, namely cattle and other farm animals, vested in the group. Group liability
is a phenomenon found in all rudimentary communities. With the passage of time, it usually
makes place for individual liability. Moreover, insofar as individual ownership and proprietary
capacity are recognised, also in traditional communities, it casts into doubt the nexus between
proprietary capacity and delictual liability.
This raises the question as to why a family head should be held accountable for the delicts
committed by his family home inmates. The matter is further complicated by the provisions of
sections 6 and 9 of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act. In terms of section 6 of the
Act, spouses to a customary marriage have been afforded equal status and capacity, which
includes the capacity to acquire assets and to dispose of them, to conclude contracts, to litigate
and to be delictually liable. Section 9 of the Act lays down that the age of majority must be
determined in accordance with South African legislation. In this regard, section 17 of the Chil-
dren’s Act18 determines that a child, whether male or female, becomes a major upon reaching
the age of 18. This means that, in principle, residents of the family home over the age of major-
ity should have individual proprietary capacity and should consequently be individually delict-
ually liable.19
________________________
12 Labuschagne and Van den Heever (1991) Obiter 80–95.

13 Neethling and Potgieter (2010) 4.
14 Bekker “Law of delict” in Joubert, Faris and Church (eds) LAWSA vol 32 (2009) para 201.
15 Para 139.
16 120 of 1998.
17 41 of 2003. See ch 10, where the Traditional and Khoi-San Leadership Bill, 2015 is discussed. If enacted, it
will repeal and replace the Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act.
18 This section came into operation on 15 July 2007.
19 See Bennett (1991) 350–357; Bennett (2004) 325–327 and the cases cited there as examples of the potential
tension between proprietary capacity on the one hand, and delictual liability of the family head on the other.
There is a point of view that the family head is liable not because he holds the property, but
because he exercises, or is supposed to exercise, control and maintain discipline over those who
live with him.20 In this respect, the following principles, based on case law, purport to determine
a family head’s accessory liability in customary law:21
(a) Applicable only to customary law delicts
Family head liability is applicable only to delicts recognised in terms of customary law. Should
the case be heard by the Magistrate’s Court, it may take judicial notice of the custom concerned,
in terms of section 1(1) of the Law of Evidence Amendment Act.22 This does not preclude the
parties to use expert evidence to prove the existence of a particular custom.23
(b) The deciding factor is family headship and not relationship
The family head is responsible for delicts committed by family home inmates, irrespective of his
relationship with them. Hence, they might not necessarily be blood family members. A family
head may absolve himself from liability by disinheriting an inmate (for example, a son) or by
driving him away. If the person who committed the wrongful act established his own family
home before he committed the delict, the liability of the family head usually falls away.
(c) The wrongdoer must be a resident of the family home
The family head will be liable for wrongful acts committed by residents of the family home.
This would imply that a family head bears no liability for wrongful acts committed by mere
visitors. Moreover, he will not be liable if the wrongful act was committed when an erstwhile
inmate who set up his own family home, commits the act away from the family home. This
raises the question regarding the family head’s liability for wrongful acts committed by migrant
inmates of the family home who work away from home, but periodically return home. Bekker
points out that a family head is not liable for delicts committed by those who are employed
elsewhere on a permanent full-time basis. However, if a family home resident commits a delict
while temporarily absent from the family home and living elsewhere, the family head retains
liability.24 When a resident works away from home (for example a miner migrant worker), but
periodically returns home and has the intention to return home, the family head will arguably be
liable only if the wrongful act was committed at the family home. It is submitted that one should
thus distinguish between the erstwhile resident who has left the family home to work away from
home permanently, and those migrant workers who come home periodically with the intention
not to settle away from the family home.
(d) Effect of marital status
In some communities, the family head is liable only for delicts committed by unmarried family
home inmates and in others also for delicts committed by married inmates.
(e) Effect of age
Firstly, young children who do not have the capacity to distinguish between right and wrong
cannot be delictually liable. It is explained by the maxim that they “do not have eyes to see”.25
Bekker points out that despite conflicting decisions, a family should in such circumstances not
be held liable.26 Secondly, although the case law is not unanimous, it would appear that, in view
________________________
20 See Bennett (1991) 350–357 and Bennett (2004) 325–327 for a detailed discussion.
21 See Bekker “Law of delict” in Joubert, Faris and Church (eds) LAWSA vol 32 (2009) paras 201 et seq for a
detailed discussion of the general principles and relevant, often conflicting, case law.
22 45 of 1988.
23 See s 1(2) of the Law of Evidence Amendment Act.
25 Bennett (1991) 341, quoting Van Tromp (1947) 1–7.
of the fact that the courts, amongst others, base liability of the family head on the assumption
that he exercises control over family inmates, the age of the inmate has no effect on the family
head’s liability. This is, of course, in conflict with the provisions of sections 6 and 9 of the
Recognition of Customary Marriages Act, as explained earlier. Consequently, Bekker submits
that in present circumstances, all major inmates of a family home should be liable for wrongful
acts committed by them.27
(f) Effect of a Western-style civil marriage
The fact that a family head is married by civil (common law) rules does not mean that he can
escape family head liability. If he generally still follows a traditional way of life, he may be held
liable as family head despite his civil marriage. This can be explained with reference to the
court’s discretion to apply either customary or common law, taking into account various factors,
including the lifestyle of the parties, the type of marriage concluded and their cultural orientation.
(g) The family head must have been aware that the person who committed the delict was
in his family home
This question has not been expressly decided by the courts, although there are decisions from
which it may clearly be inferred that the family head will be held liable only for delicts commit-
ted by persons of whose presence in his family home he was aware.
8.3 Sexual delicts

Sexual delicts can only be properly understood against the background of the subordinate
position a woman occupies in customary law and the fact that her sexual integrity and child-
bearing capacity belong to a male person.28 Although well-known in customary law, the con-
tinued recognition of the sexual delicts, such as the defloration of a virgin, can be questioned in
view of the equality status conferred upon both genders in terms of section 9 of the Consti-
tution.29 Moreover, in terms of section 6 of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act,
spouses in a customary marriage have equal status, including delictual liability and capacity to
litigate. The question thus arises as to whether, in terms of the equality principle, an unmarried
woman over the age of majority can sue her alleged wrongdoer for defloration, or whether a
wife can institute a claim against a female wrongdoer for committing adultery with the claim-
ant’s husband.30 Insofar as courts have a discretion to apply either customary law or common
law in terms of section 1(1) of the Law of Evidence Amendment Act, the opportunity exists for
an unmarried woman to sue the wrongdoer for defloration.31
The most important sexual delicts are considered below.
8.3.1 Defloration of an unmarried girl

8.3.1.1 Occurrence and nature32
Unlike common law actions for seduction, which have a territorial operation, the customary
action for defloration operates personally. In other words, it applies only in respect of persons
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28 Namely her father, guardian, holder of lobolo or her husband.
29 See Bohler-Müller (2000) Codicillus 2–6; Bohler-Müller (2001) Obiter 142–152 for a discussion of the
constitutionality of the continued recognition of seduction as customary delict.
30 See the discussion of adultery as a customary delict in 8.3.4.
31 See, in this regard, the important decision of the Appeal Court in Ex parte Minister of Native Affairs: In re
Yako v Beyi 1948 (1) SA 388 (A).
32 See Bekker “Law of delict” in Joubert, Faris and Church (eds) LAWSA vol 32 (2009) para 142 for a detailed
discussion and the case law cited there.
subject to the customary system concerned. Defloration as such does not give rise to a delictual
claim in all communities.33 As a result of the influence of the common law, it is also presumed
in customary law that an unmarried woman, who is not a widow or divorcee, is a virgin. In
customary law, the virgin concept has a physical meaning, with the result that a virgin who has
been raped may also be a victim of defloration. The delictual act is therefore not about entice-
ment. Mere metsha (sexual intercourse without penetration) is not sufficient. In certain commu-
nities, a delict is found in cases which could simply be called sexual intercourse with an
unmarried girl, as not only the person who has sexual intercourse with a girl for the first time,
but also the second person who does it for the first time, can be held delictually liable.
8.3.1.2 Procedure and proof 34

In earlier customary law, it was not customary for the girl to report her defloration, as periodic
investigations by the women of the family home were carried out. These investigations revealed
whether the girls had been deflowered or not. Later the custom arose that the girl reported sexual
intercourse to her mother or to another female member of the family. Thereafter, she was exam-
ined for recent defloration. If it appeared that she had been in fact deflowered, she was expected
to reveal the identity of the person responsible to her family head. Accordingly, representatives
were sent to the family home of the alleged culprit, where he was publicly accused of the deflo-
ration of the girl and compensation was claimed. This accusation is analogous to what is known
in the common law as litis contestatio. If the wrongdoer admitted liability, arrangements were
made for the delivery of the customary fine, whereafter the claim was settled. Where liability
was denied, the matter was referred to either the chief’s or magistrate’s court.
As sexual intercourse normally takes place in private, the courts are often confronted by the
girl’s evidence only against that of the man. It was previously required for the girl’s evidence to
be corroborated, such as the production of an exhibit. In Mayer v Williams,35 the Appeal Court
held that insofar as the common law is concerned, corroboration is no longer required in sexual
cases, but that the cautionary rule as applied in criminal cases is adequate. The latter rule has in
the meantime also been rejected by the Supreme Court of Appeal in S v Jackson36 as discrimina-
tory and irrational. The effect on customary law is that if, on a preponderance of probabilities, it
appears from the evidence that the girl has been deflowered, the defendant can be held liable
even if there is no corroborating evidence.
8.3.1.3 Calculation of compensation37

Bekker points out that a distinction should be made between (a) the seduction beast,38 for the
defloration of the girl; and (b) the virginity beast, payable when a virgin gets married or the
initial intercourse is followed by a marriage. In several cases, the payment of the seduction beast
was considered a form of “punishment”, whereas the virginity beast is considered a form of
compensation payable to the mother of the girl for keeping her virginity intact.
Note that in terms of the common law, a girl who is a major has capacity to claim for damages,
including a loss of income.
________________________
33 See Labuschagne (1983) TSAR 7.

34 See Bekker “Law of delict” in Joubert, Faris and Church (eds) LAWSA vol 32 (2009) paras 144–145 and the
cases cited there.
35 1981 (3) SA 348 (A).
36 1998 (1) SACR 470 (SCA).
37 See Bekker “Law of delict” in Joubert, Faris and Church (eds) LAWSA vol 32 (2009) para 147.
38 The word “beast” in this context generally refers to cattle.
8.3.2 The common law action for seduction39

The common law defines seduction as “the extra-marital defloration of a girl with her consent”.
Two requirements must be met before a common-law claim for seduction will succeed, namely
(a) physical defloration of the girl must have occurred, and (b) the defloration must have
occurred as a result of the man’s seductive conduct.40
The common law action for seduction, which is primarily aimed at compensating the girl for
the impairment of her physical integrity, and the customary law action for defloration, does not
automatically exclude each other. A major girl is free to institute an action in terms of the com-
mon law. If her father or guardian has already successfully instituted a claim in terms of custom-
ary law, the amount/cattle awarded to him is taken into account in determining the amount
awarded to the girl. However, if the girl has already instituted a successful claim in terms of the
common law, her father or guardian may not thereafter institute an action in terms of customary
law. In customary law a fixed amount, namely one beast, is usually awarded in determining
compensation for seduction, the same is not done in terms of common law. The following
factors may be taken into account in calculating such amount: (a) the age of the plaintiff; (b) her
circumstances in life; (c) the measure of resistance she offered; (d) the methods applied by the
defendant to overcome her resistance; (e) whether the seduction took place when an offer of
marriage was made; and (f) whether the plaintiff has been rendered pregnant by the defendant.
The moral level, and in fact the whole personality, of the girl, are relevant in calculating the
amount of compensation payable.
8.3.3 Impregnation of an unmarried girl41

Although defloration of a virgin and the impregnation of an unmarried girl are often indicated as
a single delict, it is, for the following reasons, desirable to deal with them as separate delicts:
(a) impregnation of an unmarried girl other than defloration of a virgin traditionally constitutes a
delict in all communities; (b) defloration is a requirement which, by its very nature, is non-
recurrent, while the delict of impregnation of an unmarried girl may occur in the case of a girl
who is not a virgin and may occur more than once; (c) sexual penetration is a requirement for
defloration, while pregnancy may also take place without it such as with metsha; and (d) if
defloration is claimed and it later appears that the girl has also been impregnated, a further, that
is separate, claim, may be instituted.
8.3.3.1 Occurrence
Impregnation of an unmarried girl constitutes a delictual claim in all communities. In some com-
munities, a claim may also be instituted for second or third pregnancies.
8.3.3.2 Claimant42
As this action is based on the damage suffered by the girl’s guardian as a result of the reduction
in her lobolo value, the person who is entitled to lobolo for the girl is the plaintiff. If the girl is
impregnated by a third person before the marriage is concluded and her husband is not aware of
it at the time of entering into the marriage, he may institute an action for compensation.
________________________
40 Neethling and Potgieter (2010) 326–328.
42 See para 151.

As soon as the girl realises that she is pregnant, it is her duty to report this fact without delay to
her father or guardian. Such a report to the father or guardian of the girl is normally done
through her mother or another female inhabitant of the family home. If the girl does not report it
immediately, her father or guardian does not lose his action, but a satisfactory explanation by the
girl will be required. Delays will usually prejudice the claimant’s case.
It is customary for the girl to be examined by the women of the family home to make sure that
she is indeed pregnant. If it appears that she is in fact pregnant, she is sent, together with the
delegates of her father or guardian, to the family home of the alleged offender, to “show her
stomach”. On this occasion, compensation for the impregnation of an unmarried girl is formally
claimed. At this stage the alleged offender may –
(a) admit his responsibility for the pregnancy. In such a case, arrangements for payment will
follow his admission;
(b) admit sexual intercourse, but deny that he is responsible for the pregnancy. In such a
case, the baby’s birth will be awaited, where after he or she will be taken to the offender’s
family home to check the resemblance between the baby and the alleged offender; or
(c) deny intercourse completely. In the latter case, again the baby’s birth will be awaited and
once born, the baby will be taken to the alleged offender’s family home to determine
whether the baby looks like him.
If either no payment is made, or paternity is denied, the matter will be left to the court for
decision. Generally, if intercourse has been proven or admitted, the girl’s reliable evidence is
preferred above that of the man.
8.3.3.4 Quantum44
The amount payable as compensation for the impregnation of an unmarried girl differs from
community to community. If the daughter of a chief or other person belonging to the chiefly
family is impregnated, a higher amount is usually payable. In those communities where a claim
is made for a second or further pregnancy of the girl, the amount is, as a rule, less than the
amount claimed for the first pregnancy.
8.3.4 Adultery45
8.3.4.1 Occurrence
The customary law delict of adultery differs in various respects from the concept in South
African common law. In the common law, it was defined as “voluntary sexual intercourse
between a married person and someone other than his or her spouse”.46 However, in DE v RH,47
the Constitutional Court held, with regard to the common law, that “the act of adultery by a third
party lacks wrongfulness for purposes of a delictual claim of contumelia and loss of consortium;
it is not reasonable to attach delictual liability to it”.48 The court referred to undertakings of
fidelity, ho lauwa (SeSotho), go laiwa (SeTswana) and ukuyalwa (Nguni), and solemn vows,
and stated that these are no guarantee that adultery will not take place in a marriage. As a result,
the common law delict of adultery does not form part of South African law anymore.
________________________
44 See paras 154–155.
45 See paras 157–167 for a detailed discussion of the delict of adultery and applicable case law.
46 Neethling and Potgieter (2010) 351.
47 2015 (5) SA 83 (CC).
48 See para 63.
In customary law, adultery can, contrary to the South African common law, in the first place
only be committed with the wife, not the husband of a customary marriage. Thus, only the
husband has a claim for compensation on the ground of adultery. The claim is against the man
who had intercourse with the claimant’s wife, not against the wife herself. In the second place,
customary law also recognises forms of adultery which are not known in present-day South
African law, namely sexual intercourse with a widow by a man other than her ukungena partner,
appointed by the family as her consort after the death of her husband.

As soon as a woman’s adultery is known to her husband, he must, according to traditional pro-
cedural requirements, send messengers to the family home of the alleged offender, where the
adultery must be reported, and the customary compensation claimed. It is important to note that
other than in the case of defloration or impregnation of an unmarried girl, a woman is cus-
tomarily not obliged to tell her husband of her adultery or to inform him that she is pregnant as a
result of the adultery. The husband is supposed to discover it himself. The wife’s omission to
report the pregnancy to her husband accordingly does not influence his action. Should the wife
be pregnant, it must also be reported to the alleged offender’s home and in certain communities
she must proceed to “show her stomach”. Omission to report to the alleged offenders may lead
to the plaintiff’s claim being rejected, unless he provides good reasons for the delay. Where the
wife leaves her husband’s family home to live with another man and adultery is committed
while she no longer lives in her husband’s family home, there is apparently no obligation on her
husband to institute action immediately.
Should the defendant admit to the adultery, arrangements are made for payment of compensa-
tion. If he denies it, the next step is to institute an action for adultery. In traditional customary
law, a great deal of value is attached to concrete evidence, such as a “catch” or an article seized
from the defendant. The seizure, which may be accompanied by moderate violence, may consist
of a ntlonze (an exhibit) taken from the alleged offender, such as a stick or a jacket. If the wife,
in addition to the catch and the ntlonze taken from the man, also admits adultery, it is regarded
as sufficient evidence against the offender. A catch does not necessarily mean that the offender
and the woman must have been caught in the act of adultery. It includes any action that shows an
intimacy between them, for example: the husband meets two other men while they quarrel about
the question of whose girlfriend the woman is; or he catches his wife while she and another
woman quarrel about the husband of the other woman.
8.3.4.3 Grounds of justification and condonation50
From the case law, it appears that the following constitute grounds of justification against a
claim of adultery:
(a) Collusion and connivance
Where a husband leaves his wife with her family so that she could become pregnant there
and he would accordingly be able to catch somebody in the act in order to claim cattle, his
conduct would amount to connivance. Where a husband arranges with his wife to lure an-
other man to their house for intercourse so that he may be trapped by the husband, it
amounts to collusion. In such a case, the claimant may lose his claim for adultery.
(b) The plaintiff and his wife were never married
As customary marriages are often not registered, problems may arise around the fact
whether there was indeed a marriage relationship between the plaintiff and his wife. If the
existence of a marriage is denied in the pleadings, there is an onus on the plaintiff to prove
________________________
49 See Bekker “Law of delict” in Joubert, Faris and Church (eds) LAWSA vol 32 (2009) paras 158–161.
50 See para 161 for a discussion of the applicable “defences” against the claim.
that he was in fact married. On the one hand, section 4 of the Recognition of Customary
Act requires that a customary marriage must be registered, but on the other, provides that
the marriage will not be invalid if registration did not occur.
(c) The marriage had already been dissolved at the time of the alleged adultery.
(d) The marriage had been dissolved before the institution of an action on the ground of
adultery.
(e) A valid marriage existed between the defendant and the woman concerned.
(f) Absence of dolus (intention) on behalf of the defendant.
(g) The defendant bona fide contracted a marriage with the woman.
8.3.4.4 Quantum51
Each deed of adultery gives rise to a claim for compensation. It does not necessarily follow that
each separate deed of sexual intercourse constitutes a separate claim of adultery. An action for
adultery covers all the deeds of sexual intercourse preceded by a report to the family home of the
adulterer. The usual compensation in Xhosa-speaking communities is as a general rule three
head of cattle for adultery and five head of cattle if the adultery results in impregnation. With
other communities the compensation is determined by the courts. The amount may be increased
where there are aggravating circumstances, for example when the defendant infects the woman
with a venereal disease; in the case of continuous adultery; or where the woman is of royal
blood.52 The amount may be reduced if the woman is of loose morals and the plaintiff knew
about it when he married her; or if the man neglects his wife by leaving her at her father’s family
home without taking steps to get her back and she consequently commits adultery there. The fact
that the woman is past her child-bearing age does not affect the scope of the claim for adultery.53
8.3.5 Sexual intercourse with, and impregnation of, a woman in an ukungena

relationship54
Sexual intercourse followed by pregnancy of a woman in an ukungena relationship by a person
other than her ukungena consort or relative does establish a delictual claim for compensation.
The ukungena consort must have lived with the woman at the time of the adultery. He will also
have to point out that there was a valid ukungena relationship between them, which means that
he will have to prove that the customary ceremonies and formalities have been carried out. The
ukungena consort institutes the claim on behalf of the house concerned, and not in his personal
capacity.
8.3.6 Sexual intercourse with, and impregnation of, widows and divorced
women55
As a marriage in customary law is essentially a relationship between family groups, it follows
that the death of the woman or the man does not necessarily give rise to the dissolution of the
relationship. From this, the question arises whether sexual intercourse with, and impregnation of,
a widow gives rise to delictual liability. From the case law, it appears that with certain communi-
ties there is no delictual action in this regard. With others, a claim may be instituted if a widow
returns to the family home of her father or guardian. In the latter case, her father or guardian has
________________________
52 Bekker (1989) 366.
53 See Bekker (1989) 366–367 and the cases cited there.
54 See Bekker “Law of delict” in Joubert, Faris and Church (eds) LAWSA vol 32 (2009) paras 168–169. For a
discussion of ukungena, see Bekker and Buchner-Eveleigh (2017) De Jure 92.
a claim, as she is once more regarded as an unmarried daughter of his family home. Should the
marriage be dissolved, she once more becomes a daughter in her father’s or guardian’s family
home and the general rules applicable to sexual intercourse with and impregnation of unmarried
women apply.
8.4 Ukuthwala as delict56

The ukuthwala custom57 comprises the removal of the girl from her family home to the home of
the man’s father for marriage negotiations to commence.58 This practice must be distinguished
from abduction, which constitutes a crime.
The traditional and essential features of ukuthwala are as follows:59
• the woman must be of marriageable (child-bearing) age;
• both parties must consent; 60
• a mock abduction of the woman at dusk must be arranged. She should resist for the sake of
modesty (even though she agreed to the arrangement);
• the woman must be smuggled into the man’s homestead. The women of the man’s family
must defend the woman’s person and reputation. The father of the man must be informed of
the presence of the woman within his homestead and told of his son’s wishes to marry the
woman;
• sexual intercourse is prohibited, and is, whether with or without consent, punishable and
requires the payment of a fine or bopha to the woman’s father; and
• a letter must be sent by the man’s family to the woman’s homestead on the day of the mock
abduction or the following morning to notify the family that she was with the man – this
signals the man’s family’s wish to embark on marriage negotiations.
In addition, the woman’s parents’ consent is required, without which the woman must be
returned with payment of damages as a result of unsuccessful ukuthwala. However, if the pro-
posal is accepted, the woman must return home for regular lobola negotiations.61
A number of circumstances may exist under which ukuthwala may occur, as follows:
• the woman objects to an arranged marriage and decides to marry a third party;
• the woman’s family objects to her marrying the man of her choice;
• the man cannot afford and secure a marriage by means of the payment of lobola; or
• where time is important, e.g. where the woman is pregnant.62
________________________
Ukuthwala is sometimes referred to as chobediso (Prinsloo and Ovens (2015) Acta Criminologica 169).
57 See Labuschagne and Schoeman (1988) TRW 33–45. Also see Mwambene and Sloth-Nielsen (2011)
AHRLJ 1–22.
58 See Prinsloo and Ovens (2015) Acta Criminologica 173, with reference to Nhlapo’s expert testimony in S v
Jezile 2016 (2) SA 62 (WCC), and paras 73–74 of said case.
Jezile 2016 (2) SA 62 (WCC), as well as para 72 of said case. Also see Phooko (2016) Without Prejudice 8–9.
60 If the woman was unaware, she can consent after the fact. If she does not agree, her father may institute a
civil claim against the guardian of the man.
Jezile 2016 (2) SA 62 (WCC), and para 73 of said case.
Jezile 2016 (2) SA 62 (WCC), and para 73 of said case. Also see South African Law Reform Commission
Project 138: Revised Discussion Paper 132 (2015) 7–8.
Ukuthwala gives rise to delictual liability in only some communities. With yet other commu-
nities, ukuthwala constitute a delict only under certain circumstances, namely if (a) a marriage
offer is not made; (b) the young man’s family is not in a position to pay the required lobolo; or
(c) the girl’s father or guardian does not consent to the marriage with the man concerned. In the
latter case, a delict is committed and a compensation beast (the bhopa beast) is payable to the
father or guardian of the girl.63 A seduction beast, in addition to the lobolo cattle or thwala beast,
as the case may be, is payable by a man who seduces a twhalaed girl.64
It must be noted that traditional (consensual) ukuthwala must be distinguished from certain
current harmful practices, which may, in certain instances, even lead to human trafficking.
Ukuthwala could (a) take place with the (implicit) consent of the female and collusion between
the parties, (b) be planned by the families concerned (with the female initially being unaware
thereof, but consenting thereto prior to the ukuthwala act taking place), or (c) take place against
the will of the female (in which event the young man may be held criminally liable).65 The
customary law practice did not allow the young man to have sexual intercourse with the
thwalaed girl. Distorted ukuthwala practices may lead to criminal prosecutions in terms of the
common law, the Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act,66 the
Children’s Act,67 and the Prevention and Combating of Trafficking in Persons Act,68 as well as
delictual damages resulting from the operation of section 12(1)69 of the Children’s Act,70 and
possibly also the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act.71 The following international con-
ventions and protocols ratified by the South African Government are also relevant: the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights; UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimina-
tion Against Women; UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking In Persons,
Especially Women and Children; Protocol to the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights
on the Rights of Women in Africa; UN Convention on the Rights of the Child; African Charter
on the Rights and Welfare of the Child; Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the
Child on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography; and Addis Ababa
Declaration on Ending Child Marriage in Africa.72
In S v Jezile,73 the court found that ukuthwala is no defence to rape, human trafficking,
and assault with the intent to do grievous bodily harm. The court invited a number of state
________________________
63 See Van der Watt and Ovens (2012) CARSA 12, and Mwambene and Sloth-Nielsen (2011) AHRLJ 4.
64 Mwambene and Sloth-Nielsen (2011) AHRLJ 5.
65 See Van der Watt and Ovens (2012) CARSA 12, with reference to a number of other authors, as well as
Mwambene and Sloth-Nielsen (2011) AHRLJ 6–8 (on page 8 the authors stated that the right to bodily
integrity and freedom and security of the person, as well as the right to make choices, are violated). Also
see S v Jezile 2016 (2) SA 62 (WCC), as discussed in Prinsloo and Ovens (2015) Acta Criminologica
169–181. For further critique of ukuthwala, see Mabasa (2015) De Rebus 28–30.
66 32 of 2007. Also see Prinsloo and Ovens (2015) Acta Criminologica 174–175 for a discussion of specific
sections of said Act.
67 Also see Prinsloo and Ovens (2015) Acta Criminologica 174 for a discussion of specific sections of said
Act.
68 7 of 2013. Also see Prinsloo and Ovens (2015) Acta Criminologica 175 for a discussion of specific sections
of said Act.
69 This section protects children from social, cultural and religious practices harmful to their well-being. Sec-
tion 12(2), which deals with forced marriages, is not directly relevant to ukuthwala (see Mwambene and
Sloth-Nielsen (2011) AHRLJ 1720).
70 See Van der Watt and Ovens (2012) CARSA 21. Also see Mwambene and Sloth-Nielsen (2011) AHRLJ 2,
17–18, 21.
71 Also see Prinsloo and Ovens (2015) Acta Criminologica 174 for a discussion of specific sections of said Act.
72 See Prinsloo and Ovens (2015) Acta Criminologica 176–178.
73 2016 (2) SA 62 (WCC). Also see Mabasa (2015) De Rebus 28-30, South African Law Reform Commission
Project 138: Revised Discussion Paper 132 17.
institutions, organisations and experts on the practice of ukuthwala in customary law to assist it
as amici curiae.74 The court examined the relevant provisions of the Constitution; the Children’s
Act; Prevention and Combating of Trafficking in Persons Act;75 Recognition of Customary
Marriages Act; Promotion of Equality and the Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act;76
Universal Declaration of Human Rights; UN Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of
Discrimination Against Women; UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in
Persons, Especially Women and Children (supplementing the UN Convention against Transna-
tional Organised Crime); Protocol to the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights on the
Rights of Women in Africa; UN Convention on the Rights of the Child; African Charter on the
Rights and Welfare of the Child; Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child
on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography; and the Addis Ababa Decla-
ration on Ending Child Marriage in Africa.77 The court relied heavily on the expertise of Profes-
sor Nhlapo, who chaired the advisory committee assisting the South African Law Reform
Commission in their ukuthwala investigation.78 Nhlapo stated that “there are instances where
circumstances do not readily permit of the regular method of pursuing a customary marriage”.
He describes ukuthwala as follows: “the process of ukuthwala is not a marriage in itself, but,
properly understood, is the method instigated by willing lovers to initiate marriage negotiations
by their respective families” and “a self-directed form of betrothal by a man and woman to each
other, subject to parental approval, and is a collusive strategy of the couple to counter the influ-
ence of extreme parental authority and to give effect to the will of the young lovers”.79
The South African Law Reform Commission published a revised discussion paper on Pro-
ject 138 – The Practice of Ukuthwala in October 2015, and invited comments. Amongst others,
the Paper examines the relevant obligations under international law and relevant provisions in
South African Law. The SALRC supported the enactment of legislation and the paper also
includes a Draft Prohibition of Forced Marriages and Child Marriages Bill.80
8.5 Defamation81
Outside KwaZulu-Natal, the recognition of defamation as a delict in customary law is very
limited. Apparently under the influence of the courts in the former Ciskei and Transkei in the
Eastern Cape, only claims relating to accusations of witchcraft were actionable as delicts. It is
uncertain whether only this form of conduct constitutes defamation in customary law as prac-
tised today amongst approximately 800 traditional communities in South Africa. Hoctor stated
that the customary law crime of defamation is largely equivalent to common law defamation.82 It
is, however, interesting to note that the Constitutional Court explored the utilisation of ubuntu to
________________________
74 The National House of Traditional Leaders (which also produced a White Paper on the practice and
submitted same to Parliament), Woman’s Legal Centre Trust, Centre for Child Law, Commission for Gen-
der Equality, Rural Women’s Movement, Masimanyane Women’s Support Centre, and the Commission for
the Promotion of the Cultural, Religious and Linguistic Communities offered its assistance to the Constitu-
tional Court (see paras 54–55, 71).
75 Which, at the time of the court case, had not yet commenced (para 64).
76 4 of 2000.
77 Paras 57–69.
78 South African Law Reform Commission Project 138: Revised Discussion Paper 132 (2015).
79 Paras 73–74.
80 To date (1 October 2018), this Bill has not been introduced in Parliament and there are no indications as to
what its current status is.
82 Hoctor (2006) Fundamina 179 fn 103, as discussed in Hoctor (2013) Obiter 125–135, 127.
emphasise restorative justice in a defamation case, where the Roman Dutch amende honorable
(an apology) was preferred in a minority judgment above an order sounding in money.83
8.6 Delicts regarding property84

8.6.1 Damage to property
As a general rule, damage to property gives rise to a delictual claim.85 The rule in customary law
is that if an animal has been killed by an individual, the dead animal must be replaced with
another animal. In such a case, the carcass of the dead animal belongs to the perpetrator. It is
customary for the owner of a dead animal to be notified. If the specific person responsible for the
death of the animal is a suspect, the matter must be reported to the suspect’s family home and also
to the headman, who must inspect the dead animal. During the inspection, the owner must confront
the suspect and explain to him why he is suspected, and he must claim from him that the animal be
replaced. Thereafter, the carcass is placed at the disposal of the alleged perpetrator.
Bekker notes that amongst the majority of communities, the general principle is that a person
is liable to pay compensation for damage caused by arson, or where a person negligently omitted
to put out a fire. Damage to crops must be compensated.
8.6.2 Damages caused by animals

As a general rule, the owner of animals is responsible for damages done by them in places where
they should not be.86 That is why it is expected that animals that are dependent on grazing, such
as cattle and sheep, must be herded to avoid damages to lands, gardens and living quarters. The
owner of an animal that has been killed or injured by an animal belonging to another person is
entitled to compensation. An owner is expected to control his animals. If, for example, an animal
shows vicious propensities, the owner is expected to take proper precautions. If the animal has
not previously shown any vicious propensities, damage caused by it is regarded as a mere
accident, and no damages are payable. If an animal is killed or injured by a domestic animal
such as a dog, the owner is liable, irrespective of whether it had previous vicious propensities.
Damage caused to homesteads by animals must be compensated by the owner. Animals which
cause injury to individuals are killed. However, it is uncertain whether damages may be claimed
in all cases.
8.6.3 Theft87
In traditional customary law, theft, and especially stock theft, was seen in a serious light and
gave rise to delictual and criminal liability.88 The so-called “spoor law” was included in Cape
________________________
83 See the judgment written by Mokgoro J in Dikoko v Mokhatla 2006 (6) SA 235 (CC) (note that this case did
not deal with customary law). Also see Bennett (2011) PER/PELJ 44, Hoctor (2013) Obiter 133–134, and
Himonga, Taylor and Pope (2013) PER/PELJ 370–427, specifically 400–402. Also see Van Niekerk (2013)
Fundamina 397–412.
84 See Bekker “Law of delict” in Joubert, Faris and Church (eds) LAWSA vol 32 (2009) paras 174–180 and the
cases and examples of liability cited there. Bekker distinguishes between the following two forms of causa-
tion of damage: (a) damage caused by animals; and (b) damage caused by individuals. In the case of the for-
mer, he further distinguishes between (a) damage to cultivated land; (b) damage to homesteads; (c) damage
caused to animals; and (d) injury to people. In the case of damage caused by individuals, he distinguishes
between (a) damage to animals; (b) damage caused by arson; and (c) damage to crops.
85 See Labuschagne and Van den Heever (1997) TRW 133–147.
86 See Labuschagne and Maritz (1977) De Jure 363–375.
87 See Bekker “Law of delict” in Joubert, Faris and Church (eds) LAWSA vol 32 (2009) para 187 and the cases
cited there.
88 Labuschagne and Van den Heever (1991) CILSA 352–364.
Province, Natal and Transkeian Territories legislation.89 The (national) Stock Theft Act 57 of
1959 was later promulgated, and repealed the Cape and Natal Acts dealing with the spoor law.90
In accordance with the spoor law, the head of a homestead was held civilly liable if the tracks of
lost or stolen livestock were traced to the homestead concerned or its immediate surroundings.91
The head could avoid liability by either giving a satisfactory explanation for the livestock, or
assisting in searching for the livestock. The term “spoor” did not have a limited interpretation,
and could also include meat found at a homestead. In the event that the spoor did not point to a
specific homestead, all the heads in the vicinity of the spoor were held jointly liable (in a civil
sense). Criminal liability only resulted from the false laying of a spoor. Bennett and Jacobs
stated that the spoor law is probably still in force, but, with regard to criminal liability (as
opposed to civil liability) may not be able to withstand constitutional scrutiny, as it reverses the
onus of proof, and imposes collective liability in certain instances.92
In the case of theft of other goods, the offender is liable for twice the value of the stolen goods
only. This illustrates the value attached to cattle and other livestock.
8.7 Assault and causation of death

In customary law, assault (bodily injury) and causation of death of another are in most commu-
nities primarily seen as crimes and thus not actionable as delicts. Since considered as crimes,
only the traditional leader could institute a claim, and the fine was payable to him. The latter
would usually award some of the money to the injured party.93
8.7.1 Assault
Outside KwaZulu-Natal, a delictual claim for damages for assault may be instituted only in
terms of the common law. Thus, patrimonial and immaterial damages for assault can be claimed
in terms of the common law.94
Ukutheleka is a customary law method used by a wife’s maiden relatives to protect her against
her abusive husband. Her maiden family would keep her with them, until the husband has,
during a visit in person to his wife’s maiden home (ukuphuthuma):
(a) assured them that he would desist from further abuse;
(b) undertaken to treat her with dignity in future;
(c) with his family, accounted for abusive conduct to her family;
(d) apologised profusely and unreservedly;
(e) paid the fine imposed by her family as part of the deal of their acceptance of the apology;
and
(f) committed himself to the terms and conditions of his wife’s return to him.95
________________________
89 Amongst others, the Cattle Removal Act 14 of 1870 (Cape) and later the Cattle Stealing Act 1 of 1889 (Cape),
Act 1 of 1899 (Natal), the Stock Theft Act 25 of 1977 (Transkei) and the 1883 Transkeian Penal Code.
90 It did not specifically repeal the abovementioned Transkeian legislation. The customary spoor law was also
not specifically repealed.
91 Bennett and Jacobs (2012) SACJ 214.
92 Bennett and Jacobs (2012) SACJ 213–234.
93 See Labuschagne and Van den Heever (1995) CILSA 422–430.
95 See Ndima (2017) Obiter 15–33, specifically at 31, with reference to Konyana “The resilience of the
repugnancy clause in the customary law of South Africa” in Osode and Glover (2010) 491.
8.7.2 Culpable causation of the death of a breadwinner 96

In traditional customary law, the unlawful negligent causation of death of another person did not
give rise to delictual liability. Cases of homicide were instead referred to the senior traditional
leader for the imposition of punishment, for example, in the form of a fine. This led to severe
hardship for a spouse of a customary marriage where the person’s spouse was unlawfully killed,
resulting in loss of maintenance.97 However, since 1963, section 31 of the Black Laws Amend-
ment Act provides for a claim by a widow of a customary marriage for loss of means of subsist-
ence where the death of the breadwinner was unlawfully caused by another. Section 31 requires
compliance with various requirements, such as the production of a certificate issued by a com-
missioner (now a magistrate),98 stating the name of the partner or partners (in the case of a
polygamous marriage) with whom the deceased was married in terms of customary law at the
time of his death. The purpose of section 31 is twofold: (a) to provide the widow/s of a custom-
ary marriage with a remedy for maintenance identical to that available to a widow of a common
law marriage; and (b) to prevent the defendant having to pay more damages in a particular case
than is payable according to the common law.99 In respect of (a) above, the certificate issued by
the magistrate serves as conclusive proof of the existence of the customary marriage/s to the
widow/s, the name/s of which is/are mentioned therein. In respect of (b) above, in cases where
the deceased was survived by more than one spouse (the names of which would appear on the
certificate referred to above), the deceased estate would not be held liable for more than would
be the case had the deceased been survived by one spouse only.100 Section 31 led to various
interpretational problems and subsequent case law, relating, inter alia, to the production of the
certificate.101 Most, but not all,102 of the uncertainties regarding the certificate were resolved in
the case of Hlela v Commercial Union Assurance Co of SA Ltd.103
Arguably, the promulgation of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act, which legalises
customary marriages concluded in terms of the Act, and recognises those which were valid in
terms of custom before the commencement of the Act, made section 31 redundant. Maithufi and
Bekker point out that its repeal was obviously overlooked when the Recognition of Customary
Marriages Act was enacted.104 Since customary marriages are fully recognised in terms of the
Recognition of Customary Marriages Act, a widow of a customary marriage should in principle
have a claim for compensation also in terms of the latter. However, insofar as section 31 has not
been repealed by the Legislature, it is still relevant. In Road Accident Fund v Mongalo,105 it was
confirmed that section 4 of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act had not replaced sec-
tion 31 of the Black Laws Amendment Act as the mechanism to institute the dependant’s claim.106
Hence, Bekker comes to the conclusion that in the case of claims arising from customary marriag-
es, section 31 applies, and in the case of common-law marriages, common law applies.107
________________________
96 See Bekker “Law of delict” in Joubert, Faris and Church (eds) LAWSA vol 32 (2009) paras 193–200 for a
detailed exposition of the history, requirements for and consequences of s 31 of the Black Laws Amend-
ment Act. Also see Maithufi and Bekker (2009) Obiter 164–174.
97 Maithufi and Bekker (2003) Obiter 440 443; Pienaar (2006) Stell LR 318–319.
98 Since the commencement of the Special Courts for Blacks Abolition Act 34 of 1986.
99 Pasela v Rondalia Versekeringskorporasie van SA Bpk 1967 (1) SA 339 (W).
100 Section 31(5) of the Black Laws Amendment Act. Pienaar (2006) Stell LR 324 identifies the following two
additional objectives of the Act, namely (a) to limit the time and costs involved; and (b) to indemnify the
state and functionaries from claims that might arise later.
101 See Bekker “Law of delict” in Joubert, Faris and Church (eds) LAWSA vol 32 (2009) para 200 for a detailed
discussion of the questions raised by s 31 and the courts’ response thereto.
103 1990 (2) SA 503 (N).
105 2003 (1) All SA 72 (SCA).
106 See Pienaar (2006) Stell LR 325.
One advantage to the spouse/s of a claim in terms of section 31 of the Black Laws Amend-
ment Act is the provision that the certificate issued by the magistrate serves as conclusive proof
of the existence of the marriage/s. In terms of section 4(1) of the Recognition of Customary
Marriages Act, spouses to a customary marriage have the duty to ensure that their marriage is
registered. However, section 4(9) provides that non-registration does not invalidate a marriage.
Thus, a spouse to a customary marriage concluded after the promulgation of the Act on
15 November 2000 might not necessarily have a certificate of registration, and might conse-
quently have difficulty in proving the existence of the marriage.
Moreover, Maithufi and Bekker contend that section 31 also accommodates claims of spouses
to marriages concluded before the enactment of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act,
but not recognised by the Act, or customary marriages not registered within the prescribed
period allowed for by the Act.108 In conclusion, the authors recommend that due to the above-
mentioned uncertainties, law reform in this area is of paramount importance.
It must also be noted that historically, in certain communities, compensation was payable for
homicide (whether or not the victim was a breadwinner). Among the Basotho, homicide was
seen as a customary civil wrong, and punishable by requiring compensation (10 cattle for a male
or female adult, or four or five for a child, or another figure set by the court). No compensation
was payable upon the killing of a kinsman (as the giver and recipient were the same legal entity).
Compensation was calibrated according to the degree of culpability and the so-called value of
the victim. Amongst the Zulus, a fine or compensation could suffice for unpremeditated killings.
With regard to the Xhosas, a heavy fine was payable for murder. Other models of reparation
included the giving of cattle to enable a male member of the family of the victim to marry a
wife, the giving of a daughter as procreator, and the delivery of a token number of cattle/stock to
the deceased’s kin “to dry the tears”. The BaTlokwa practiced the death penalty, which was
accompanied by a fine to the chief, and the Ndebele prescribed the death penalty, or in certain
circumstances, a fine or corporal punishment.109
________________________

109 Nhlapo (2017) AHRLJ 1–34, especially 12–16, 26.
9
Law of Succession and Inheritance
Page
9.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 179
9.2 Customary law of succession ..................................................................................... 180
9.2.1 General principles ........................................................................................... 180
9.2.2 General order of succession ............................................................................ 181
9.2.2.1 Succession in a monogamous household ......................................... 181
9.2.2.2 Succession in a polygynous household ............................................ 182
9.2.2.3 Order of succession among male children ....................................... 182
9.2.3 General and special succession ....................................................................... 183
9.2.4 Powers and duties of the successor ................................................................. 183
9.3 Inheritance of property ............................................................................................... 184
9.3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 184
9.3.2 Dispositions of property .................................................................................. 184
9.3.3 Division of personal property ......................................................................... 185
9.3.4 Division of general and house property .......................................................... 186
9.4 Statutory and judicial amendments: historical overview ........................................... 186
9.4.1 Section 23 of the Black Administration Act ................................................... 187
9.4.2 Regulations for the Administration and Distribution of the Estates of
Deceased Blacks (GN R200 of 1987) ............................................................. 188
9.4.3 Codes of Zulu Law .......................................................................................... 189
9.4.4 Inheritance of land .......................................................................................... 189
9.4.5 Winding-up and administration of estates ...................................................... 191
9.4.6 Bhe v Magistrate, Khayelitsha 2005 (1) BCLR 1 (CC) ................................... 192
9.5 Recent legal reform .................................................................................................... 194
9.5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 194
9.5.2 Reform of Customary Law of Succession and Regulations of
Related Matters Act ........................................................................................ 195
9.6 Burial rights ................................................................................................................ 199
9.6.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 199
9.6.2 Right to bury a deceased family member: question of where ......................... 199
9.6.3 Right to bury a deceased family member: question of whom ........................ 201
9.6.4 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 204
177
Chapter 9: Law of Succession and Inheritance 179
9.1 Introduction
The law of succession (and inheritance) forms part of private law and generally includes those
rules which determine what must be done with a deceased’s property (or estate as it is called in
legal terms) after his or her death. In layman’s terms, the law of succession in South Africa
keeps itself busy with what should happen to a person’s estate after his or her death. The South
African law of succession is a dual legal system consisting of two branches, the common law of
succession and the customary law of succession.
In the common law of succession, inheritance concerns mainly the division of the assets of a
deceased among his or her heirs. The division of property can take place in terms of the provi-
sions of a will (or testament) – testate inheritance – or according to the rules of common law
where no will exists – intestate inheritance.1
Customary law of succession, however, is generally according to the rules of customary law
and is therefore intestate. Furthermore, the customary law of succession is concerned not merely
with the inheritance of property but also with succession to the status of the deceased.
The terms “succession” and “inheritance” are often used in the literature to describe the pro-
cess by which a deceased’s estate must be distributed amongst his or her beneficiaries. Strictly
speaking in customary law there is a difference between these two concepts. Succession means
the transfer of rights, duties, powers and privileges normally associated with one’s status, whilst
inheritance means the transfer of property rights only.
In the case of customary law of succession, the emphasis is, strictly speaking, not on the divi-
sion of property but on the continuation of status positions. The successor steps into the place of
the deceased and gains control over the property and people over which the deceased had con-
trol.2 Furthermore, the successor succeeds not only to the assets of the estate but also to its
liabilities. Should the liabilities exceed the assets, the successor in customary law succeeds to
these as well. One of the main objects of the traditional customary marriage is the continuation
of the family lineage of the husband as family head.3 In the case of the common law of succes-
sion, the liabilities of the deceased are first set off against the assets, and the balance is divided
between the heirs. Should the liabilities exceed the assets, the heirs inherit nothing. There is no
succession to the status of the deceased or anybody else.
Originally (in customary law) the death of a family head had a significant effect on control of
the members of the family group and its property. The family head was succeeded by a general
successor but at the same time there was also succession to the position as head of his various
houses. A distinction was thus made between a general successor and a successor in each house.
The death of other members of the family had no effect on the control of the group and its
property. There was thus no question of succession in status to their positions on their death.
It is often assumed that customary law knows only succession and that there is no division of
property.4 Recent research shows this assumption to be incorrect.5 There is also the notion that
wills (or testate inheritance) were not known in customary law of succession and inheritance.
However, it was accepted that a family head could make certain allocations of property to
houses and individuals and that his deathbed wishes should be respected.6 These remarks serve
________________________
1 See, e.g. Olivier et al (1989) 435; the common law of inheritance has been largely codified by the Intestate
Succession Act 81 of 1987 and the Wills Act 7 of 1953. Also see Rautenbach and Du Plessis “Law of suc-
cession” in Joubert, Faris and Church (eds) LAWSA vol 32(2009) paras 204–229.
2 Bekker (1989) 70.
3 Bekker and De Kock (1992) CILSA 368.
4 See Myburgh (1985) 94–95; Olivier et al (1989) 436.
5 See, e.g., Boonzaaier (1990) 483–489; Coertze (1987) 240–241; De Clercq (1975) 405–408; Hartman (1978)
437–441; Jacobs (1974) 276–279.
6 Olivier et al (1989) 436; Rautenbach and Du Plessis “Law of succession” in Joubert, Faris and Church (eds)
LAWSA vol 32 (2009) paras 224–225.
to indicate that the notion of wills may well have been known to customary law, albeit not in the
common law sense.
A number of empirical studies show that there is a difference between the “official” and “liv-
ing” version of customary law. This is also evident in the law of succession and inheritance. It is
almost impossible to discuss the “official” and “living” versions of customary law in this book
and, therefore, the focus will be on the “official” version of the customary law of succession and
inheritance.7
In chapter 6, a distinction is made between general, house and personal property. This distinc-
tion is important, since the death of a family head brings the division of general and house
property into play, while the death of other members of the group concerns mostly the division
of their personal property.
Over the years, the customary laws of succession and inheritance have been subject to consid-
erable judicial and legislative change. Some of these changes resulted in the abolishment of the
customary law of succession to a large extent. Also, the rules pertaining to the administration of
African estates underwent far-reaching changes and these changes will be discussed in brief.
Another important aspect pertains to the right of a family member to bury his or her deceased
family members. This aspect has led to many conflicts between family members of a deceased
which had to be resolved in the South African courts and will be discussed hereafter.
9.2 Customary law of succession

Although the customary law of succession has been abolished to a large extent, knowledge of
the general principles is necessary to understand the current legal position of an African
deceased and his or her successors.
9.2.1 General principles

The customary law of succession deals with the issue of continuation of status and control of
people and property. Although there are differences between the various African groups,8 the
following may be identified as general principles:9
(a) Succession to status positions takes place only when a family head dies. There is no ques-
tion of succession where the family head is still alive. The death of other members of the
family does not give rise to succession to their statuses.10
(b) A distinction is made between general succession (that is, succession to the general status
of the deceased) and special succession (that is succession to the position of head of the
various houses of the deceased).11
(c) Succession to status is limited largely to males, especially those of the patrilineage12 and as
a general principle a man cannot be succeeded by a woman.
________________________
7 See, e.g., Bennett (2004) 337–345 for a discussion of the differences between the “official” and “living”
versions of the customary law of succession and inheritance. To determine the “living” version of custom-
ary law of succession in a relevant community expert evidence will have to be led regarding the existing of
such a custom or law according to the principles set out in Van Breda v Jacobs 1921 AD 330.
8 See ch 2 for a discussion of the various African groups in South Africa.
9 See Rautenbach and Du Plessis “Law of succession” in Joubert, Faris and Church (eds) LAWSA vol 32
(2009) para 204.
10 An exception is pre-death dispositions. See 9.3.2.
11 Bekker (1989) 273; Rautenbach and Du Plessis “Law of succession” in Joubert, Faris and Church (eds)
LAWSA vol 32 (2009) para 204.
12 Bekker (1989) 273; Olivier et al (1989) 436.
(d) Succession follows the rule of male primogeniture,13 which means that a man is succeeded
by his first-born son in a particular house.
(e) Succession is a duty that cannot be relinquished or ceded. A son has to take up all the
responsibilities associated with the status position to which he succeeded. The general suc-
cessor in particular has the duty to care for all members of the family14 and to perform rituals
on behalf of the family to maintain the blessing and goodwill of the family ancestors.15
(f) Male descendants enjoy preference over male ascendants; male ascendants in turn enjoy
preference over collateral male relatives, in other words, relatives in the lateral line.16
(g) A successor could, on good grounds, be removed from the line of succession (often por-
trayed as the successor being “disinherited”).17 Such a step had serious consequences since
the person so affected was ousted not only from the financial and emotional support of the
family but also from the spiritual bond with the family ancestors. In most cases such oust-
ing was limited to the individual and not to his descendants as well.
(h) Originally, the successor succeeded to the status of the deceased in respect of his control
over people and the assets and liabilities of the family, which is universal succession. Pres-
ently the position is not uniform. In KwaZulu-Natal a successor is only liable for debts in
respect of the estate and only to the extent of the assets to which he succeeds. Outside
KwaZulu-Natal a successor succeeds to the assets and debts of the deceased. Among the
Pondo, the successor is not liable for the delicts committed by the deceased.18
9.2.2 General order of succession

The order of succession takes particular account of the following three principles, namely
succession on death, primogeniture and succession by males in the male line of descent. Succes-
sion in a monogamous and succession in a polygynous household are distinguished. A monoga-
mous house has one wife, whereas a polygynous household has several wives and houses.
9.2.2.1 Succession in a monogamous household

The order of succession is briefly as follows:19 when a male dies, his eldest son, or, if he is
deceased, his eldest son inherits. If the eldest son died without male descendants, the second son
or his male descendants succeed, in their order of birth. Should the deceased die without male
descendants, the deceased’s father succeeds. Should the deceased survive all his male descend-
ants and his father, he is succeeded by his eldest brother or his eldest brother’s male descendants
according to the order of the houses. In this manner all the brothers of the deceased and their
male descendants are considered with regard to succession. Should the deceased’s father or the
deceased’s brothers have no male descendants to succeed, the grandfather of the deceased or one
________________________
13 Bekker (1989) 273; Koyana (1980) 80; Olivier et al (1989) 437. The rule of primogeniture was unsuccess-
fully contested in the high court of South Africa: see Mthembu v Letsela 2000 (3) SA 867 (SCA) and suc-
cessfully contested in the Constitutional Court of South Africa in the Bhe case. Also see Rautenbach (2005)
Jul/Sept AFLA Quarterly 30–33.
14 This rule was accepted as not discriminatory against women in Mthembu v Letsela.
15 See e.g. Bekker (1989) 297–303; Olivier et al (1989) 484–497; Rautenbach and Du Plessis “Law of
succession” in Joubert, Faris and Church (eds) LAWSA vol 32 (2009) para 233.
16 “Descendants” refers to your own children, “ascendants” are predecessors and ancestors, while collateral
relatives are relatives in the lateral line, such as brothers and sisters.
17 See e.g. Bekker (1989) 303–306; Olivier et al (1989) 474–483; Rautenbach and Du Plessis “Law of
succession” in Joubert, Faris and Church (eds) LAWSA vol 32 (2009) para 232.
18 Rautenbach and Du Plessis “Law of succession” in Joubert, Faris and Church (eds) LAWSA vol 32 (2009)
para 233.
19 See Bekker (1989) 274–275; Olivier et al (1989) 438–440; Rautenbach and Du Plessis “Law of succession”
in Joubert, Faris and Church (eds) LAWSA vol 32 (2009) paras 205–206.
of his male descendants according to seniority succeeds to his status position. In the same
manner, the deceased’s great-grandfather and his male descendants are considered.
Where there are no male descendants to succeed, which is highly unlikely given the cultural
practices of substitution of spouses, the traditional leader of the deceased’s traditional authority
succeeds to this estate.
9.2.2.2 Succession in a polygynous household

A distinction is made between those groups who divide the household into sections20 and those
who do not.21 In all cases, the eldest son in each house succeeds in that particular house.22 If he
is deceased, his male descendants are firstly considered and thereafter his younger brothers and
their descendants. Should a particular house have no male descendant, a successor is obtained
from the house next in rank.
Among groups where the household is divided into sections, an attempt is first made to obtain
a successor from the houses affiliated to the main house within a section before going to the next
section for a successor. In other words, if there is no male within a particular section who can
succeed, the senior male successor in the section next in rank succeeds in the section without a
successor.
9.2.2.3 Order of succession among male children

It sometimes happens that a deceased has no son in a particular house and that, during his
lifetime, he transferred a younger son as successor from one of his senior houses to that house.
Where a deceased leaves no legitimate sons but does have an illegitimate son or a son from a
supporting marriage,23 such a son can succeed under certain circumstances. Despite considerable
variations among the different groups, the order of rank of sons with regard to succession can, in
order of precedence, be summarised as follows:24
(a) A legitimate son fathered by the deceased himself.
(b) A married man’s illegitimate son with an unmarried or divorced woman for whom isondlo
(maintenance) has been paid.
(c) Sons born out of an ukungena relationship.25
(d) Adopted children or children born from an adulterous relationship with the wife, unless the
latter have been repudiated, according to the chronological order in which they became
attached to the late husband’s family. An adopted child is, however, excluded by a legiti-
mate child. The Zulu and Swazi groups do not recognise adoption.
(e) Sons of a wife of the deceased who are not born from an ukungena relationship.
________________________
20 The household amongst the Zulu, Xhosa and Ndebele-speaking people are usually divided into two or three
sections.
21 The Sotho-speaking (Tswana, South Sotho and Northern Sotho), the Swazi, Tsonga and Venda do not
divide the household into sections, although the wives (or houses) are ranked.
in Joubert, Faris and Church (eds) LAWSA vol 32 (2009) paras 206–207.
23 Supporting marriages include the raising of children by a substitute wife should a wife die without a son or
where a wife is barren. Children can also be raised by one of the deceased’s wives in the name of the deceased
in terms of the ukungena custom. See further Vorster (1993) TSAR 552–560.
24 See Bekker (1989) 242–246, 283–296; Olivier et al (1989) 462–561.
25 The children begotten through a widow are referred to as the ukungena custom. It is based on the principle
that the death of a family head does not terminate the marriage relationship between the widow and her hus-
band’s family.
(f) A premarital son of an unmarried woman or the extramarital son of a divorced woman for
which no isondlo has been paid. This is an example of succession through a woman since
such children are regarded to belong to the family of their mother and not to the family of
the deceased. Such a son can succeed through his mother only if the deceased has no other
male relatives.
Bhe v Magistrate, Khayelitsha26 extends the Intestate Succession Act27 to all persons in South
Africa, including those adhering to a system of customary law. As a result of such extension, no
distinction will in future be made between legitimate and illegitimate children or between men
and women.
9.2.3 General and special succession

General succession is concerned with control over the household and property of the general
estate. Special succession is concerned with control over the constituent houses of a household
and house property. There are as many house successors as there are houses in a household.
However, houses differ in rank. The successor to the main house is in most cases at the same
time also the general successor. Where the household is divided into sections, the successor to
the main house of the main section (indlunkulu, among the Nguni groups) is at the same time
also the general successor. In the case of the Tswana and Pedi, the youngest son inherits the
household.28
There may be one deceased but several successors. This situation can be explained as follows:
although succession deals with status and concomitant powers of control over people and prop-
erty, each house successor succeeds to all the powers of the deceased in respect of the members
and property of the house. Each house successor acquires control over the members of the house
concerned and the house property and this control is exercised in consultation with the adult
members of the house. After the death of the family head, each house forms a potentially inde-
pendent unit from which a new household may eventually emerge. The general successor,
however, obtains overall control over all the houses and, to a certain extent, maintains the
original unity of people and property.
In due course the original household develops into various independent households, with the
overall control of the general successor as a binding factor of what now forms a family group.
At the same time, the senior members of the family group form a family council which, to a
greater or lesser degree, exercises control over the constituent households and houses. Such a
family council can, for example, discipline a family head should he waste the general property
or neglect his duties towards his family.
9.2.4 Powers and duties of the successor

Succession was originally of a universal nature. This means that the successor acquired benefits
and duties.29 When a family head died, his powers and duties passed to the general successor
and to the house successors in more or less direct proportion to the rank of each house. Each
house successor acquired a considerable measure of autonomy over the affairs of his house. His
duties, among others, included care and support for the members of the house, ensuring that
debts were paid and collected and provision of the marriage goods for sons and the wedding
outfits of daughters.
________________________
26 2005 (1) SA 580 (CC) – hereinafter in this chapter referred to as the Bhe case. See the discussion at 9.4.6 and 9.5.
27 81 of 1987. In this chapter, “this Act” refers to the Intestate Succession Act, unless indicated otherwise.
28 See 9.3.4.
in Joubert, Faris and Church (eds) LAWSA vol 32 (2009) para 214.
The general successor’s powers and duties with regard to the house to which he succeeded
were the same as those of the other house successors. As general successor, he acted in the place
of the deceased family head and acquired control over the general property. He had the same
powers and duties as his predecessor, although his authority over the various houses was less
than that of his predecessor. He was therefore responsible for the general debts of the household
and could also collect outstanding debts. As general successor, he was responsible for perform-
ing family rituals on behalf of family members. To this end he relied on the property of the
general estate.
The financial powers and duties of a successor have been changed by statute in KwaZulu-
Natal. The current position in KwaZulu-Natal is briefly as follows:30 the successor is generally
liable only for debts equivalent to the assets of the estate. The successor is, however, fully liable
for lobolo debts contracted with another house to establish its own house (i.e. inter-house loans).
A successor’s liability for his predecessor’s debts in areas outside KwaZulu-Natal is probably
that he is still liable for the debts, even if there are not enough assets. In addition, he is also
liable for any lobolo debts, which implies universal succession.31
A successor is also liable for the delicts of the deceased. This liability is, however, limited to
cases where the action was instituted before the death of the deceased or where the deceased
accepted liability during his lifetime. In such a case the successor’s liability is limited to the
extent of the estate.32 In this connection the Mpondo of the Eastern Cape Province are an excep-
tion in the sense that the successor is not responsible for the delicts of his predecessor.33
9.3 Inheritance of property

9.3.1 Introduction
It is often assumed that only a few males acquired control over property to the exclusion of the
other male and all female members of the family. Research reveals a more complex picture
regarding the division of the various categories of property.34 In this regard, the distinction
between general, house and personal property should be kept in mind.35 General and house prop-
erty were not usually divided after the death of a family head, although the successor (general
and house) and a senior brother of the deceased may make allocations from such property to
specific members of the family. The formal division of property usually takes place during a
ritual signifying the end of the mourning period.
9.3.2 Dispositions of property

It has been stated above that succession to status occurs only on the death of a family head.
Furthermore, the order of succession followed fairly clear principles. Despite these principles, a
family head could, during his lifetime, make certain allotments from general property which
________________________
30 Section 81(8) of the KwaZulu Act on the Code of Zulu Law 16 of 1985 and the Natal Code of Zulu Law
Proc R151 of 1987 in GG 10966 of 9 October 1987 (hereinafter the “Codes of Zulu Law”).
para 214.
32 Bekker (1989) 302.
para 214.
34 See Boonzaaier (1990) 519–539; Coertze (1987) 249–254; De Clercq (1975) 428–434; Hartman (1978)
467–484; Jacobs (1974) 289–291.
35 See ch 6.
would remain valid after his death. Ways in which a family head could allot property include the
following:36
(a) Allotment of property to a specific house or son. Such allotment is accompanied by certain
formalities and need not occur only once.
(b) Linking of daughters to sons in a house as a means of providing for the marriage goods of
these sons. The marriage goods received for a daughter are then used as marriage goods for
the wife of her linked brother. This method of providing for the marriage goods of sons is
found mainly among the Sotho groups.
These methods have a definite influence on the customary rules of inheritance. For this reason
such a disposition must be accompanied by particular formalities and must be done in consulta-
tion with the wider family group.
A family head, and apparently also other members of the group, can dispose of personal prop-
erty by means of a customary will. This must be done in a formal manner in the presence of
senior members of the family, also including, where possible, the general successor and other
children. Among the people who should be present are a senior brother, sometimes a sister and,
among some, also the local ward head.37
Another well-known means of disposing of property is the so-called deathbed wish of a per-
son.38 In such circumstances certain people must be present. A deathbed wish is not often dis-
puted, provided it follows the general principles of inheritance. Nowadays such wishes are often
recorded in writing, taking the form of a last will.
9.3.3 Division of personal property

Personal possessions may include clothes and various personal items such as pipes, tobacco
bags, walking sticks, watches and jewellery and other ornaments of a personal nature. Some of
the clothes of a deceased are usually put in the coffin. The principles of division of such property
vary significantly among the various African-speaking groups. The basic rule among the Bafo-
keng is that at least half of the property should go to the deceased’s malome (maternal uncle)
while the rest are divided among close relatives.39
Personal property of unmarried persons usually reverts back to their parents and is often
divided among their children, if any, and their brothers and sisters.40 Personal property of a
married woman is usually divided among her children, daughters in particular, and her sisters.41
The division of property usually takes place at the end of the mourning period. After the
mourning period, a senior member of the family oversees the division of property between
family members. Such division cannot be disputed in court. If a family member is dissatisfied,
he or she can approach the senior members of the family to consider the discontent.
________________________
36 See Olivier et al (1989) 454–455; Rautenbach and Du Plessis “Law of succession” in Joubert, Faris and
Church (eds) LAWSA vol 32 (2009) para 211.
37 See Boonzaaier (1990) 489–491; Coertze (1987) 245; De Clercq (1975) 409–410; Hartman (1978) 439.
442–449; Jacobs (1974) 288–289; Olivier et al (1989) 450–453; Rautenbach and Du Plessis “Law of suc-
cession” in Joubert, Faris and Church (eds) LAWSA vol 32 (2009) para 211.
39 Coertze (1987) 249–250; also see De Clercq (1975) 432–433; Jacobs (1974) 289.
482–484; Jacobs (1974) 289.
479–481; Jacobs (1974) 290–291; Rautenbach and Du Plessis “Law of succession” in Joubert, Faris and
Church (eds) LAWSA vol 32 (2009) para 210.
9.3.4 Division of general and house property

It is generally assumed that general property and house property are not divided and that such
property is inherited by the general and house successors respectively.42 Research reveals a more
complex picture.43 The following is a summary of the main principles.
General property may include agricultural implements such as tractors, ploughs and wagons,
and other property such as motor vehicles, investments and money. Such property was to be
used during the lifetime of the deceased to the benefit of all the members of the household. This
basic principle continues to apply after the death of the family head. Property should be used for
his funeral and to settle any debts there may be. The balance should be used to maintain the
various units of the household and especially the wives and dependent children of the deceased.
Depending on the size of the estate, it is possible for the general successor to divide some of the
property first among the house successors and then among the other sons.44
House property usually includes the house and the land on which it is erected, fields allocated
to the wife for cultivation, animals, furniture and cooking utensils, and occasionally also mone-
tary savings of the wife. Such property is used to maintain the wife and her children after her
husband’s death. Depending on the size of the house estate, the house successor may sometimes
divide the property after his mother’s death among his brothers and sisters. However, it is cus-
tomary in some communities for the youngest brother to receive the house with furniture and
cooking utensils as well as any fields for cultivation. This is referred to in the literature as
“ultimogeniture”.45
9.4 Statutory and judicial amendments: historical overview

Although the customary law of succession and inheritance remained for the most part uncodi-
fied, some codification and changes have been brought about by means of legislation.46 The
most important codifications were:
(a) Section 23 of the Black Administration Act;47
(b) Regulations for the Administration and Distribution of Estates of Deceased Blacks (Gov-
ernment Notice R200 of 1987);48
(c) The Codes of Zulu Law;49 and
(d) Land Regulations.50
Although most of the legislative provisions have been amended considerably by the Bhe case51
and other legislation,52 it is important to know what implications the legislation and judicial
________________________
42 See Bekker (1989) 373–374; Olivier et al (1989) 435.

43 See Boonzaaier (1990) 521–531; De Clercq (1975) 430–432; Hartman (1978) 468–478; Jacobs (1974)
303–305; Watney (1992) 15–24.
44 See Boonzaaier (1990) 521–525.
45 Watney (1992) 17 deals with this phenomenon as a form of succession rather than inheritance; also see
Boonzaaier (1990) 530–531; Coertze (1987) 267; De Beer (1986) Phil thesis UP 336.
46 Also see Rautenbach and Du Plessis “Law of succession” in Joubert, Faris and Church (eds) LAWSA vol 32
(2009) paras 222–226.
47 38 of 1927. Also see 9.4.1. In this chapter, “the Act” refers to the Black Administration Act unless indicated
otherwise.
48 See 9.4.2.
49 See 9.4.3.
50 See 9.4.4.
51 See 9.4.6.
52 See 9.5.
decisions had on the customary law of succession and inheritance.53 The Codes of Zulu Law, for
example, have not yet been repealed.
9.4.1 Section 23 of the Black Administration Act

Section 23 of the Black Administration Act commenced on 1 January 1929 and it was intended
to provide unified rules to determine which law of succession is to be applied; the customary or
common law of succession. It did not apply in KwaZulu-Natal because the Codes of Zulu law
applied there. Section 23 was found to be unconstitutional and invalid by the Bhe case and
finally repealed on 12 April 2006 by the Repeal of the Black Administration Act and Amend-
ment of Certain Laws Act 28 of 2005 but in essence it provided as follows:
(a) Section 23(1) provided that “[a]ll movable property belonging to a Black [African] and
allotted by him or accruing under Black law or custom to any woman with whom he lived
in a customary union, or to any house, will upon his death devolve and be administered
under Black law and custom.” The reason for this rule was the fact that all household prop-
erty usually belonged to the family head and had to be kept in the family for the common
good of the rest of the family members. However, the South African Law Reform Commis-
sion54 was of the opinion that the social circumstances of people living under a system of
customary law have changed so dramatically that this provision served no purpose anymore
and that it had to be repealed.
(b) Section 23(2) provided that “[a]ll land in a tribal settlement held in individual tenure upon
quitrent conditions55 by a black will devolve upon his death upon one male person to be
determined in accordance with tables of succession to be prescribed under section 23(10).”
The South African Law Reform Commission56 pointed out that quitrent land has been up-
graded to full ownership in terms of the Upgrading of Land Tenure Rights Act 112 of 1991
thereby making its existence redundant in the context of succession.
(c) Section 23(3) provided that “[a]ll other property of whatsoever kind belonging to a black
may be devised by will”. This section was necessary in light of the previous two provisions
limiting an African’s freedom of testation. Repealing the two previous subsections would
make this provision uncalled for and it was also recommended that it be repealed.
The remaining subsections of section 23 included the following:
(a) Section 23(5) and (6) made provision for the adjudication of disputes arising out of the
administration of any estate of a deceased African.
(b) Section 25(7) to (9) excluded the jurisdiction of the Master of the High Court with regard to
the administration of the estate of a deceased African. Section 25(7)(a) that specifically ex-
cluded the powers of the Master regarding “the estate of any Black who has died leaving no
valid will” was declared unconstitutional by the Constitutional Court in Moseneke v The
Master.57
(c) Section 23(10) and (11) empowered the Governor-General to make regulations and dealt
with deceased estates of Africans reported to the Master before the commencement of the
Act.
________________________
53 For a detailed discussion of the statutory amendments to the law of succession and inheritance before 2001,
see Rautenbach (2001) 259–267.
54 South African Law Reform Commission Project 90: Report on the customary law of succession (2004) 63.
55 Meaning that the owner of land held under a quitrent title does not have full ownership of the land but only
the right to loan the property from the government for a certain period of time and against payment of a cer-
tain amount of money.
56 South African Law Reform Commission Project 90: Report on the customary law of succession (2004) 64.
57 See 9.4.5.
On 15 October 2004, section 23 was declared unconstitutional and invalid by the Constitu-
tional Court in the Bhe case. This judgment had far-reaching implications and will be dis-
cussed here-after.
9.4.2 Regulations for the Administration and Distribution of the Estates of

Deceased Blacks (GN R200 of 1987)58
Government Notice R200 of 1987 was issued in terms of the repealed section 23(10) of the
Black Administration Act. Government Notice R200 gave legislative recognition to the rule of
male primogeniture and described how the estate of a deceased African had to devolve if sec-
tion 23 of the Black Administration Act was not applicable and if the deceased did not dispose
of his estate by means of a valid will. In the absence of a valid will, the property had to devolve
according to the rules laid down in regulation 2 which could be summarised as follows:
(a) If the deceased was resident outside South Africa, the personal law of his or her land of
origin was applicable.59
(b) If the deceased was the holder of a letter of exemption issued in terms of section 31 of the
Black Administration Act,60 his or her property had to devolve according to the common
law of succession.
(c) If the deceased concluded only a common law marriage, his or her estate had to devolve in
terms of the common law of succession.61
(d) The Minister was empowered to make an equitable distribution if he or she was of opinion
that the partial or full application of customary law to the devolution of the estate would
result in inequitable or inappropriate circumstances.62
(e) The customary law of succession had to apply to all cases that did not fall in the classes
already described above, for example, if the deceased was not married.63
In Zondi v President of the Republic of South Africa,64 the court declared regulation 2 to be
unconstitutional to the extent that it distinguishes, for the purpose of intestate succession,
between the estate of an African who was a partner in a section 22(6) marriage (marriage out of
community of property) on the one hand and the estate of an African who was a partner in a
marriage in community or property or a marriage under an ante-nuptial contract on the other
hand. The case is a decision of the Natal Provincial Division and is therefore not binding on the
other provinces.
However, the Constitutional Court in the Bhe case declared regulation 2 to be unconstitutional
and invalid.65 This means that all property (irrespective whether it is house property or quitrent
and) may be disposed of by means of a will from 15 October 2004 and that the Intestate Succes-
sion Act66 will be applied to all estates irrespective of the race or gender of a deceased.
________________________
58 GG 10601 of 6 February 1987 (hereafter referred to as GN R200 of 1987). These regulations were amended
by the Amendment of the Regulations for the Administration and Distribution of Estates in GG 24120 dated
3 December 2002 (hereafter referred to as GN R1501 of 2002).
59 The magistrate had to forward all his or movable assets (less claims against the estate) to the relevant officer
of the district where the deceased was ordinarily resident – reg 2(a).
60 The repealed s 31 of the Black Administration Act granted the president the power to exempt any African
from the operation of customary law under such conditions as he may seem fit.
61 Regulation 2(c).
62 Regulation 2(d).
63 Regulation 2(e).
64 2000 (2) SA 49 (N).
65 See 9.4.6.
66 81 of 1987.
9.4.3 Codes of Zulu Law

In KwaZulu-Natal, the customary succession rules have been codified in the so-called “Codes of
Zulu law”. The Codes of Zulu law consist of the KwaZulu Act on the Code of Zulu Law67 and
the Natal Code of Zulu Law.68 The application of these two Acts are territorial and their provi-
sions are generally applied to all African people living in KwaZulu-Natal, irrespective of the fact
that such a person might belong to another ethnic group than the Zulus.
The application of the two Codes is not without problems. The KwaZulu Act on the Code of
Zulu Law refers to the partly repealed Black Administration Act as the principal Act. Section 23
of the latter Act was repealed on 12 April 2006 by the Repeal of the Black Administration Act
and Amendment of Certain Laws Act.69 It might, therefore, be necessary to apply the rules of
statutory interpretation to interpret each and every provision in the KwaZulu Act on the Code of
Zulu Law that still refers to the principal Act (the Black Administration Act) in order to deter-
mine the correct legal position.
It is also important to point out that customary law falls under the functional area of concur-
rent national and provincial legislative competence and that both the national and provincial
legislature may legislate on areas of customary law.70 The repealed section 23 of the Black
Administration Act is an example of national legislation dealing with customary law of succes-
sion whilst Chapters 10 of the two Codes of Zulu law (dealing with succession) are examples of
provincial legislation dealing with the same.
The two Codes are regarded as remnants of an apartheid South Africa and their repeal have
been advocated by some academic scholars.71 Both Codes stand to be repealed by section 53(1)
of the KwaZulu-Natal Traditional Leadership and Governance Act72 but to date the date of the
repeal has not been published.
9.4.4 Inheritance of land

Immovable property (or land belonging to a specific African group) devolved in accordance
with prescribed tables of succession. It is impossible to deal with all the permutations and com-
plexities of the regulations dealing with the inheritance of land within the scope of one chapter.
A few remarks should suffice the reader that the type of land and its locality may be inextricably
interwoven with the rules of succession to land and improvements on it. The position can gener-
ally be summarised as follows:
(a) Proclamation 142 of 1910 (Black Marriages and Estates):73 This proclamation deals with
succession to land held under quitrent title in the former Transkei. It has been assigned to
the Eastern Cape in terms of Proclamation 111 of 1994.74 The fate of this proclamation hin-
ges on the fact that quitrent land in the former Transkei has not been upgraded yet to full
ownership in terms of the Upgrading of Land Tenure Act.75 Also, the commencement of
________________________
67 16 of 1985. In terms of Proc 107 of 17 June 1994 in GG 15813 of 17 June 1994, the Act has been assigned
to the Province of KwaZulu-Natal. Succession is regulated in Ch 10 of the Act.
68 Proclamation R151 of 1987 in GG 10966 of 9 October 1987. In terms of Proc R166 of 1994 in GG 16049
of 31 October 1994, this Code has been assigned to the Province of KwaZulu-Natal.
69 28 of 2005.
70 See Sch 4 (part A) of the Constitution.
71 Bennett and Pillay (2003) SAJHR 217–238.
72 5 of 2005.
73 Published on 8 November 1910.
74 Published in GG 15813 of 17 June 1994.
75 112 of 1991.
the Communal Land Rights Act76 that upgrades the remaining quitrent land in the former
Transkei to full ownership will make Proclamation 142 of 1910 redundant.
(b) Proclamation R188 of 1969 (Black Areas Land Regulations):77 This proclamation was
promulgated in terms of section 23(10) of the Black Administration Act and applied to the
devolution of quitrent land outside the former Transkei. Quitrent land did not devolve
according to the ordinary rules of testate or intestate succession but according to specific
tables of succession,78 which corresponded more or less to the customary law of succession.
Regulation 35 of Proclamation R188 of 1969 precluded the transfer of quitrent land to
women except in the circumstances specifically provided for in the regulations. If there
were no beneficiaries to inherit the land the Minister could, in his discretion, authorise the
transfer of the quitrent land to a female member or her descendants. The official could
cause the land to be sold and the proceeds to be divided between the female members and
their descendants. If a male beneficiary was found, the customary wife of the deceased (in a
monogamous relationship) and his main wife (in a polygynous relationship), received a right
to usufruct.79 This right terminated upon remarriage of the wife. Proclamation R188 of 1969
also applied in rural areas. In the former Venda these regulations applied until 1990 before
they were replaced by the Venda Land Affairs Proclamation 45 of 1990.80 In the rest of
South Africa, these regulations applied until the repeal of the Black Administration Act –
the extent of the repeal of the regulations is, however, is still uncertain as these regulations
were assigned to the provinces.81 Although the succession rules may have been repealed,
deceased estates may still include quitrent land that has to be dealt with in intestate estates
– especially if no will has been drawn up.
(c) Government Notice R1036 of 1968 (Regulations Governing the Control and Supervision of
an Urban Bantu Residential Area and Relevant Matters):82 In urban areas, people were
granted site permits, certificates of occupation and residential permits in terms of this regu-
lation. These permits lapsed automatically on a holder’s death and the local authority could
re-allocate the property – the heir usually had preference. These rights could be upgraded to
leasehold and full ownership. Although Government Notice R1036 of 1968 had been
repealed by the Conversion of Certain Rights into Leasehold Act 81 of 1988, it is still
applicable to people who hold such permits.83
(d) Proclamation R293 of 1969 (Regulations for the Administration and Control of Townships
in Black Areas):84 This regulation applied in rural-urban areas under the control of the for-
mer South African Development Trust. People acquired ownership units, deeds of grant
and certificates of occupation. In the former self-governing territories (Lebowa, QwaQwa,
KwaZulu, Kangwane, KwaNdebele and Gazankulu), Proclamation R293 of 1969 also
applied. The same arguments raised in (b) above regarding the applicability of proclama-
tions assigned to the provinces will apply here.
________________________
76 11 of 2004.
77 Published in GG 1154 of 11 July 1969.
78 See Annexure 24, Proc R188 of 1969.
79 Usufruct means that the property rights belong to the owner but that the right to use, enjoy and take fruits
from the property belong to someone else, in this particular case the customary wife of the deceased.
80 Which was, in turn, partially repealed by the Communal Land Rights Act.
81 It is uncertain whether national legislation could repeal assigned provincial legislation.
82 Published in GG 2096 of 14 June 1968.
83 Section 11 of the Act.
84 GG 373 RG 140 of 16 November 1962 as amended by the Amendment of the Regulations for the Admin-
istration and Control of Townships in Black Areas in GG 8933 RG 153 dated 14 October 1983 (hereafter
referred to as Proc R153 of 1983).
Other immovable property, such as that owned by a person in terms of the common law, was
inherited in accordance with the principles of the common law. Furthermore, in light of the
recent changes to the customary law of succession, the repeal of most of the statutory provisions
dealing with the devolution of customary land and the upgrading of quitrent land and other
rights regarding land to full ownership may lead to the application of the common law of suc-
cession to such property in future.
9.4.5 Winding-up and administration of estates

Before 6 December 2000, the winding-up and administration of estates in South Africa could be
divided broadly into two categories. The Magistrate had jurisdiction over the intestate estate of
an African who ordinarily resided within his or her jurisdiction85 whilst the Master had jurisdic-
tion over all other deceased estates, including the testate estate of an African.86
The powers of the Master regarding the administration of the intestate estate of an African
were expressly excluded in terms of section 23(7)(a) of the Black Administration Act and sec-
tion 4(1A) of the Administration of Estates Act.87 The power to administer intestate Black
estates was confined to a magistrate in terms of regulation 3(1) of Government Notice R200 of
1987.
The constitutionality of section 23(7)(a) and regulation 3(1) was successfully contested in the
Constitutional Court in Moseneke v The Master of the High Court.88 The court found that sec-
tion 23(7)(a) and regulation 3(1) impose differentiation on the grounds of race, ethnic origin and
colour and as such constitute unfair discrimination as envisaged in terms of section 9 of the
Constitution and, furthermore, that the limitations posed by the relevant legislative provisions
were not “reasonable and justifiable in an open and democratic society based on equality, free-
dom and dignity”. Accordingly, it was held that both provisions were inconsistent with the prov-
isions of the Constitution and thus invalid. However, in order to reach a just and equitable order,
the court held as follows:
(a) Section 23(7)(a) of the Black Administration Act is invalid with immediate effect, i.e.
6 December 2000.
(b) The status quo with regard to estates already completed in terms of section 23(7)(a) of the
Black Administration Act and regulation 3(1) of Government Notice R200 of 1987 should
be upheld.
(c) The declaration of invalidity in respect of regulation 3(1) of Government Notice R200 of
1987 is suspended for two years.
Beneficiaries of an intestate estate, which are not governed by the principles of customary law,
had a choice to report the estate to a Master or a magistrate.
The order of the Constitutional Court in Moseneke v The Master89 brought considerable
changes to the winding-up and administration of intestate estates of Africans that devolve in
terms of the common law. The Administration of Estates Amendment Act90 and Government
Notice R1501 of 2002 came into operation on 5 December 2002. The Administration of Estates
________________________
85 Also see Olivier et al (1989) paras 245–247.

86 However, house property and quitrent land were excluded from testamentary disposition; see s 23(9) of the
Black Administration Act.
87 66 of 1965.
88 2001 (2) SA 18 (CC). For a detailed discussion of the facts and findings of the case, see the previous edition
of this publication 117–118 and also Rautenbach (2004) THRHR 219–226.
89 See 9.4.2.
90 47 of 2002.
Act91 made provision for service points where officials of the Department of Justice and Consti-
tutional Development could exercise functions on behalf of and under the direction of the
Master. The power to appoint Master’s representatives under section 18(3) of the Administration
of Estates Act in deceased estates below R50 000 was delegated to the incumbent of a designated
post at the service post by the Master. However, customary estates still had to be administered
under the supervision of magistrates in terms of regulation 3(1) of Government Notice R200.
The order of the Constitutional Court in the Bhe case altered the position even further.92
Estates that formerly fell under section 23 of the Black Administration Act and regulation 3(1)
of Government Notice R200 must now be supervised by the Master. Magistrates will no longer
have the responsibility to supervise and administer customary estates.93 Estates that are currently
being administered under section 23 must be completed as if section 23 has not been declared
invalid. In future, all the so-called section 18(3) estates will be dealt with at the service points
irrespective of the race of the deceased.
To facilitate a uniform process, Justice College has compiled a manual which should be fol-
lowed at every service point.94 For practical reasons, the manual proposes that estates in respect
of persons who died before 27 April 1994 and which have not been reported to the Master yet,
should be reported to the Master. If a person died on or after 27 April 1994, the deceased estate
must be administered under the supervision of the Master. At this time, it is probably too soon to
comment on the Master’s ability to cope with the new demands and on whether the extra work-
load would hamper the effective and speedy winding-up of estates.
9.4.6 Bhe v Magistrate, Khayelitsha 2005 (1) BCLR 1 (CC)

This case has far-reaching implications for the existing customary succession and inheritance
laws. The Constitutional Court95 heard three cases concurrently, since they were all concerned
with the customary law of intestate succession. In the first case, Ms Bhe applied on behalf of her
two minor daughters for an order declaring the rule of primogeniture unconstitutional in order to
enable her two minor daughters to inherit from their father’s intestate estate. In terms of the rule
of primogeniture, the property had to devolve on the father of the deceased. The latter indicated
that he intended to sell the property of the deceased in order to pay the funeral expenses incurred
as a result of the deceased’s death.
In the second case, Ms Shibi approached the court for a similar order after being barred from
inheriting from her deceased brother’s intestate estate. The deceased was unmarried and had no
dependants. In terms of the rule of primogeniture her brother’s two cousins shared the estate of
the deceased.
The third case is an application for direct access to the Constitutional Court brought jointly by
the South African Human Rights Commission96 and the Women’s Legal Centre Trust, who has
established the Women’s Legal Centre to conduct public interest litigation to advance the rights
________________________
91 Section 2A of the Administration of Estates Act.

92 See 9.4.6.
93 The court ordered that all new estates have to be administered in terms of the Administration of Estates Act
but allows the possibility that the Constitutional Court may be approached if serious administrative or prac-
tical problems occur – see para 132.
94 Meyer, Rudolph and Cronjé (2004).
95 The Constitutional Court of South Africa is the highest court with regard to constitutional matters.
96 The South African Human Rights Commission is a State institution established in terms of s 181(1)(b) read
with ss 184, 185 and 186 of the Constitution.
of women.97 Both organisations brought the application for direct access in their own
est,98on behalf of someone else,99 as well as in the public interest.100 They also attacked the
constitutional validity of the rule of primogeniture in the interest of women and children in
general.
The Constitutional Court distinguished two main issues, namely the constitutional validity of
section 23 of the Black Administration Act and the constitutionality of the rule of primogeniture.
The court found that section 23 of the Black Administration Act contravenes sections 9(3), 10
and 28 of the 1996 Constitution and that the discrimination was not justifiable in terms of
section 36 of the 1996 Constitution. The court then evaluated the constitutionality of the rule of
male primogeniture, which forms the basis of the customary law of succession and inheritance.
From the onset, the court recognised that the context in which the rule of primogeniture operated
has changed and said:101
Modern urban communities and families are structured and organised differently and no longer purely along
traditional lines. The customary law rules of succession simply determine succession to the deceased’s estate
without the accompanying social implications which they traditionally had. Nuclear families have largely
replaced traditional extended families. The heir does not necessarily live together with the whole extended
family which would include the spouse of the deceased as well as other dependants and descendants. He
often simply acquires the estate without assuming, or even being in a position to assume, any of the
deceased’s responsibilities.
Within this “new” setting, the practice to succeed the assets of a deceased to the eldest male heir
does not necessarily correspond with an enforceable responsibility to support and maintain the
family of the deceased. The order of the court had to reflect the changed circumstances and,
although it is ordinarily desirable to leave it to the legislature to bring customary law in line with
the Constitution, the court had the responsibility to provide relief to parties who sought it.
The court emphasised that the basis of the constitutional challenge to the rule of primogeni-
ture is that it precludes a widow from inheriting as an intestate heir from her deceased husband,
a daughter from inheriting from her deceased father, a younger son from inheriting from his
deceased father and an extra-marital child from inheriting from his natural deceased father.
These exclusions are, first, based on gender and thus a violation of equality;102 secondly, an in-
fringement of women’s right to dignity;103 and thirdly, against the rights of children.104 Accord-
ing to the court, the customary heir’s duty to support cannot serve as justification for the
limitation that the rule imposes on the rights of women and children.105 As a result, the court had
to find that the rule of primogeniture, in its current application to customary law of succession,
is unconstitutional and invalid.
This finding of the court had far-reaching implications for the existing customary law of intes-
tate succession and it was necessary to give an order which could provide interim relief until the
South African legislature is able to provide a lasting solution. As such, the court ordered that
________________________
97 The Women’s Legal Centre Trust is a non-governmental organisation which was established to “advance
women’s rights by conducting constitutional litigation and advocacy on gender issues”. The particulars of
the Women’s Legal Centre Trust can be found at http://www.wlce.co.za.
98 In terms of s 38(a) of the Constitution.
99 In terms of s 38(c).
100 In terms of s 38(d).
101 Paragraph 80 of the Bhe case.
103 Section 10.
104 Section 28.
105 The limitation that the rule imposes had to be reasonable and justifiable in an open and democratic society
based on the values of equality, human dignity and freedom. See paras 95–97 of the Bhe case.
estates that would previously have devolved according to the customary law of intestate succes-
sion must now devolve according to the rules provided for in the Intestate Succession Act,106
which applies to the intestate estates of the rest of the South African population. In order to
protect partners in polygamous customary marriages,107 the court expanded the Intestate Succes-
sion Act to all the spouses and children (irrespective of their gender) of a deceased.108 In order to
facilitate this, the court made the following order:
(a) A child’s share in relation to the intestate estate of the deceased, shall be calculated by dividing the
monetary value of the estate by a number equal to the number of the children of the deceased who
have either survived or predeceased such deceased person but are survived by their descendants, plus
the number of spouses who have survived such deceased;
(b) Each surviving spouse shall inherit a child’s share of the intestate estate or so much of the intestate
estate as does not exceed in value the amount fixed from time to time by the Minister for Justice and
Constitutional Development by notice in the Gazette, whichever is the greater; and
(c) Notwithstanding the provisions of subparagraph (b) above, where the assets in the estate are not
sufficient to provide each spouse with the amount fixed by the Minister, the estate shall be equally
divided between the surviving spouses.
The ruling of the Bhe case leaves a number of questions unanswered. Nothing is said, for exam-
ple, about supporting unions, such as ukungena relationships. The court’s judgment was, how-
ever, a temporary remedy until legislation is promulgated. In 2009, the Reform of Customary
Law of Succession and Regulations of Related Matters Act109 was enacted. It came into opera-
tion on 20 September 2010 and has important implications for the customary and common law
of succession which will be discussed in the next paragraph.
9.5 Recent legal reform

9.5.1 Introduction
The customary law of succession and inheritance has been a contentious issue since the new
human rights dispensation in South Africa. The South African Law Reform Commission (for-
merly the South African Law Commission) embarked on a project of legal reform aiming,
amongst others, at the harmonisation of the common and customary law. In this regard, the
South African Law Reform Commission published the Report on the harmonisation of the
Common Law and Indigenous Law: Conflicts of Laws (Project 90) in September 1999, and, in
2008, the Report on the Customary Law of Succession (Project 90).110
The customary law of succession and inheritance is complex and varies among the different
African groups. The official version of customary law of succession seems to conflate the idea
of succession to status and inheritance of property, while the living customary laws do give
ample evidence of distribution of property to individuals. However, the fact that a customary
estate has to provide for the well-being and care of all the members of the family during their
lifetimes, including members still to be born, as a result of cultural institutions providing for
________________________
106 This Act regulates intestate succession to estates other than those that use to be regulated in terms of cus-
tomary law.
107 Although polygyny is generally unlawful in South Africa, the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act
recognises the validity of polygamous customary marriages. In terms of the Act, a “customary marriage” is
one concluded in terms of customary law and “customary law”, in turn, is defined as “the customs and
usages traditionally observed among the indigenous African peoples of South Africa and which form part of
the culture of those peoples” – see s 1.
108 However, the court emphasised that it made no pronouncement on the constitutional validity of polygynous
unions – see para 124.
109 11 of 2009.
110 Also see Rautenbach (2001) 279–287; Rautenbach and Du Plessis (2003) De Jure 20–31 for a discussion of
some of the proposals of the Commission.
substitution, should also be accounted for. Moreover, the general and house successors may be
called upon at any time to perform certain rituals, which often include the slaughtering of ani-
mals and which have to be bought, on behalf of family members to impact their and the group’s
continued well-being. For this reason, division of an estate into equal shares between the benefi-
ciaries may not be regarded as fair and may well jeopardise the harmonious relationships
between family members.
Nevertheless, as a result of the Bhe case and the proposals of the South African Law Reform
Commission, the Reform of Customary Law of Succession and Regulation of Related Matters
Bill111 were published in 2008.112 The Bill was finally transformed into an Act entitled the
Reform of Customary Law of Succession and Regulations of Related Matters Act. The Act
commenced on 20 September 2010 and as it now stands, it has important implications for the
customary law of succession and it is important to consider its provisions.113
9.5.2 Reform of Customary Law of Succession and Regulations of Related

Matters Act114
(a) Purpose of the Act: The long title of the Act states the main purpose of the Act as to
modify the devolution of intestate property in relation to persons subject to customary law.
The preamble of the Act elaborates further on the purpose of the Act, and reiterates that
widows and certain children need protection under the customary law of succession. Fur-
thermore, social circumstances have changed, and the customary law of succession does
not provide adequate protection for the welfare of family members.
(b) Application of the Act: Section 2(1) of the Act reaffirms that the Intestate Succession Act
will be applicable to all intestate estates, irrespective of the fact that a person is subject to
customary law.
(c) Definitions: Section 1 of the Act redefines various customary law and traditional common
law concepts, for example:
• “Customary law” is defined as “the customs and practices observed among the indige-
nous African people of South Africa which form part of the culture of those people”.
The term “indigenous” is contentious and it is not always certain who qualifies as indig-
enous and who not.115
• “Descendant” is defined as “a person who is a descendant in terms of the Intestate
Succession Act, and includes – a person who is not a descendant in terms of the Intes-
tate Succession Act but who, during the lifetime of the deceased person, was accepted
by the deceased person in accordance with customary law as his or her own child; and
(b) a woman referred to in section 2(2)(b) or (c)”. In terms of this provision, the follow-
ing category of persons will be regarded as descendants in terms of the Act:
– a person who is a descendant in terms of the Intestate Succession Act;116
________________________
111 B10–2008.
112 See GN 309 of 2008 in GG 30815 of 25 February 2008.
113 This section relies heavily on the authors exposé of the Act in Rautenbach and Du Plessis “Law of suc-
cession” in Joubert, Faris and Church (eds) LAWSA vol 32 (2009) para 226.
114 See Rautenbach “Mixing South African common law and customary law of intestate succession: ‘Potjiekos’
in the making” in Örücü (ed) (2010) 222–240 for a discussion of some of the features of the Act and the
mix between customary and common law principles.
115 See the discussion in ch 2.
116 The Intestate Succession Act does not define “descendant”, but the common-law understanding of descend-
ant is that descendants include the blood relations in the descending line. However, the Act does make pro-
vision for an extension of the concept to adopted children who are regarded as the descendants of the
adoptive parents in s 1 of the Act.
– a person who was accepted by the deceased as his or her own child in terms of
customary law;
– a woman from a substitute marriage;117
– a woman from a woman to woman marriage.118
• “House” is defined to include “the family, property, rights and status which arise out of
the customary marriage of a woman”.
• “Spouse” is defined to include “a partner in a customary in a customary marriage that is
recognised in terms of section 2 of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act, 1998
(Act No. 120 of 1998)”.
• “Traditional leader” is defined to mean “a traditional leader as defined in section 1 of
the Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act, 2003 (Act No. 41 of
2003)”.
• “Will” is defined to mean “a will to which the provisions of the Wills Act, 1953 (Act
No. 7 of 1953), apply”.
(d) Interpretation: Section 3 of the Act introduces special rules of interpretation for certain
provisions of the Intestate Succession Act. These rules include:
• In terms of section 3(1) of the Act a wider meaning must be given to the term “spouse”
as referred to in section 1 of the Intestate Succession Act when dealing with customary
marriages to include all the “spouses” of the deceased as defined in terms of section 1 of
the Reform of Customary Law of Succession and Regulations of Related Matters Act.
• In terms of section 3(2) of the Act, the words “the estate shall be divided equally
between such spouses” must be added to section 1(1)(c) of the Intestate Succession Act
to make provision for the situation where the intestate estate is not sufficient to provide
each spouse of the deceased with the amount fixed by the Minister.
• In terms of section 3(3) of the Act, the following paragraph (f) must be added to sec-
tion 1(4) of the Intestate Succession Act when determining a child’s portion in terms of
the Intestate Succession Act: “a child’s portion, in relation to the intestate estate of the
deceased, shall be calculated by dividing the monetary value of the estate by a number
equal to the number of children of the deceased who have either survived the deceased
or have died before the deceased but are survived by their descendants, plus the number
of spouses and women referred to in paragraphs (a), (b) and (c) of section 2(2) of the
Reform of Customary Law of Succession and Regulation of Related Matters Act,
2008.”
(e) Freedom of testation: Section 4(1) of the Act introduces the concept of freedom of testa-
tion, a concept fairly peculiar to the customary law of succession, by giving women living
under customary law the right to dispose of property allotted to her and house property by
means of a will. Similarly, section 4(2) recognises a person’s freedom to make testamentary
provisions regarding his assets. Section 2 of the Act also makes it clear that a customary
law estate can be devolved in terms of a will.
________________________
117 A substitute marriage consists of a marriage between the deceased and another woman in accordance with
customary law for the purpose of providing children on behalf of his wife.
118 A woman to woman marriage consists of a marriage between a deceased woman and another woman under
customary law for the purpose of providing children for the deceased woman’s house.
119
Can a testator revive the rule of male primogeniture by exercising his or her right to freedom of testation?
The law as it stands is anything but clear. Under the common law a testator is free to divide his estate
between his or her beneficiaries as he or she pleases. This freedom is however not borderless and a few
common and statutory law limitations do exist. There are no statutory limitations that would prevent a testa-
tor living under a system of customary law to revive the rule of male primogeniture, but the common law
limitation that prevents a testator from making bequests against public policy might come to its rescue.
However, there seems to be nothing preventing a testator from applying his freedom of testation to indirectly
revive the rule of male primogeniture through a testamentary provision. Typically, such a provision would
be considered by a family head who wishes to retain the customary law property within the family living
120
under a system of customary law. Such a clause may read as follows:
“I bequeath my property to my eldest son. If he predeceases me, repudiates the benefit or otherwise can-
not receive the benefit, the property must pass to my second son. If my second son also predeceases me,
repudiates the benefit or otherwise cannot receive the benefit, the property must pass to my third son
(and so on). If I die without any child in the male line, my property must pass to my father and if he pre-
deceases me, repudiates the benefit or otherwise cannot receive the benefit, the property must pass to the
male descendants of my father related to him in the male line in descending order until one is found
which will exclude all other surviving descendants from inheritance.”
(f) Descendants in relation to women: In addition to the extended meaning given to descend-
ants in terms of section 1 of the Act, section 4(2) extends the meaning even further in rela-
tion to the will or intestate estate of a woman. In her case the terms “children” in her will or
“descendant” in the Intestate Succession Act have to be interpreted to include the following
categories:
• “[Any child] born of a union between the husband of such a woman and another woman
entered into in accordance with customary law for the purpose of providing children for
the first-mentioned woman’s house.”121
• “[Any child] born to a woman to whom the first-mentioned woman was married under
customary law for the purpose of providing children for the first-mentioned woman’s
house.”122
A problem of definition:
123
The use of the terms “spouse” and “descendant” is confusing. The legislature adapted the meaning of
typically Roman-Dutch concepts to provide for special circumstances prevalent in customary law only. The
common law understanding of the word “descendant” usually means blood relations in the descending line
(for example children, grandchildren or great-grandchildren) and not everyone provided for by the deceased,
whilst “spouse” normally refers to the wife of a deceased and not to a surrogate wife (substitute wife) or a
seed-raiser wife (woman involved in a woman-to-woman marriage). To regard the latter two categories as
both spouses and descendants could also lead to absurd results, especially when the so-called “child’s por-
124
tion” must be calculated. A child’s portion is normally calculated by dividing the estate by the number of
surviving children and spouses of a deceased. In terms of the Customary Law of Succession and Regulation
of Related Matters Act surrogate and seed-raiser wives are regarded as spouses and descendants. Does this
mean that they should be regarded as such for the purpose of calculating the child’s portion, thus resulting in
them receiving a double portion in the estate whilst other spouses do not? This is obviously an oversight in
the Act which should be rectified.
________________________
119 This question was dealt with by Rautenbach (2014) Acta Juridica 132–159.
120 See Rautenbach (2014) Acta Juridica 149.
121 Section 4(2)(a) of the Reform of Customary Law of Succession and Regulation of Related Matters Act.
122 Section 4(2)(b).
123 For a discussion of this issue, see Rautenbach and Meyer (2012) TSAR 149–160.
124 The calculation of the child’s portion is described in s 1(4)(f) of the Intestate Succession Act.
(g) Disputes: In the case of disputes regarding the status of persons, the nature and content of
assets or devolution of family property, section 5 of the Act lays down that the Master of
the High Court has jurisdiction to resolve these disputes. This section is in accordance with
the jurisdiction of the Master in connection with the administration of estates. However,
when dealing with customary estates, the dispute may be referred to a magistrate to make
an enquiry into the matter in order to provide the Master with a recommendation. When
making a determination, both the Master and the magistrate must have due regard to the
best interest of the family members and the equality of spouses.
(h) Property of a traditional leader: Property held by a traditional leader in his official capacity
in terms of the Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act 41 of 2003 is
excluded from his estate by section 6 of the Act. This is a special provision to make sure
that the provisions of the Intestate Succession Act would not interfere with the devolution
of property held by a deceased traditional leader in his official capacity.
(i) Property rights: The purpose of section 7 of the Act is to protect spouses involved in
certain customary marriages. Until 2 December 1988 a man involved in a customary mar-
riage, could enter into a civil marriage with another woman, thereby dissolving his custom-
ary marriage. Section 7(1) is meant to protect the rights of those “discarded” customary law
wives by providing that the proprietary rights of customary spouses and children will not be
affected by a civil marriage, if the latter was entered into on or after 1 January 1929 but
before 2 December 1988. Section 7(2) also affords equal rights in the deceased estate to the
spouses and children of both the civil and customary marriages.
(j) Amendment of laws: If and when the Act comes into operation, it will amend the following
Acts mainly to make provisions for the devolution of estates where the deceased was
involved in a polygynous marriage:125 the Administration of Estates Act; the Intestate Suc-
cession Act; and the Maintenance of Surviving Spouses Act 27 of 1990.
In assessing the Act, a few points come to mind. The Act claims to be a modification of the
Intestate Succession Act which deals with intestate succession. However, the common law
division between testate and intestate succession is not always kept in mind. For example, sec-
tion 4 gives freedom of testation to females regarding house property and also extends the mean-
ing of children referred to in the will of a female to include more than just her biological child-
ren. The Act is silent on its retroactivity and will thus apply only to estates where the deceased
died after the commencement of the Act. Also, the Act will apply only to intestate customary
estates and will alter the character of the customary law of succession by “replacing” it in
essence with the Intestate Succession Act. Not only is the customary law of succession influ-
enced by common-law principles but also the common law of succession will be influenced by
customary law principles. This development may nevertheless be regarded as a healthy shift in
the direction harmonising of the laws of South Africa.
Another aspect comes to mind. According to customary law, the eldest male “steps in the
shoes of the deceased” and has certain duties that the deceased had, for example, the duty to
support some of his family members. The inheritance that he receives is intended to help him in
doing so. To date the question of what will happen to his concomitant duty to support others if
he does not receive his inheritance has not been sufficiently addressed by the legislature. The
question remains whether the dependants would be able to compel him to support them on the
basis of his customary duty, or whether they would have a common law claim for maintenance
against the estate of the deceased.
Furthermore, what happens to the private property of women; does the Act apply ipso facto to
their estates as well? And what happens to the distinction between house and family property; is
________________________
125 Section 8 read with the Sch to the Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act.
the devolution of this property also going to fall under the Intestate Succession Act? A number
of questions remain which needs to be addressed by the legislature and the courts.
9.6 Burial rights

9.6.1 Introduction
The “right to bury” a deceased family member is a highly contentious issue; an issue that was
exacerbated by the promulgation of the Extension of Security of Tenure Act,126 as well as by the
courts’ apparent inability to agree on a suitable and just application of this “right”.127
The confusion of the courts are fuelled by the fact that one may distinguish between two pos-
sible arguments, the one relating to where the deceased may be buried (on the property of
another)128 and the other to who may bury the deceased or who would be regarded competent to
bury the deceased (the customary claim or right to bury a deceased as a last token of respect or
an expression of the will of the deceased).
The first argument addresses rights in the constitutional or legislative sense, in that the actual
recognisable rights of individuals are highlighted; these rights cannot be dealt with without
studying the common law rights relating to burial (if any) or visitation. The rights or claims to
visit the graves of one’s deceased family members (the iter ad supulcrum) had been recognised
before the time of De Groot and Voet. These rights are subject to the consent of the owner of the
land on which the grave is situated and principles of reasonableness. This common law right was
recognised in the ESTA per section 6(3) and yet again the claim to the right had been limited,
taking into account the principles of reasonableness.129 This inclusion can be regarded as a
legislative recognition of the iter ad supulcrum.
9.6.2 Right to bury a deceased family member: question of where

The aspect that needs to be addressed is the other “rights” enunciated in the ESTA and which
changed the “rights-landscape” forever, with the introduction of the right to bury one’s deceased
family members on the property of another (albeit with some restrictions). As early as 2000 the
courts braced themselves for the first hearing relating to the interpretation of the controversial
________________________
126 62 of 1997 (hereafter the ESTA).

127 A few of the judgments since 2008 include: NT v MT [2018] JOL 39794 (T); Nxumalo v Mavundla [2017]
JOL 39576 (KZD); Mjuza / Kamile v Ntshibilili [2017] JOL 37144 (ECB); Wellem v Silwana [2016] JOL
35804 (WCC); Ramonare v Molly’s Funeral Parlour [2015] JOL 33858 (FB); Sithole v Majeke [2011] JOL
27944 (GSJ); Noqayi v Skeme [2014] JOL 31838 (ECM); Selomo v Doman [2014] JOL 31582 (LCC);
Matau v Longrops 5 (Pty) Ltd [2011] JOL 27380 (LCC); Majola v Mortimer [2010] JOL 25455 (LCC);
Thwala v Greyling [2010] JOL 25381 (LCC); Ntlonze v Diko [2009] JOL 23266 (Tk); Sikita (born Mayiji) v
Tiki [2009] JOL 23243 (Ck); Njokweni v Luthuli Ranches CC [2008] JOL 22383 (LCC); Njokweni v Luthuli
Ranches CC [2008] JOL 22383 (LCC); Sokani v Sokani [2008] JOL 22085 (Ck); Fanti v Boto [2008] JOL
21238 (C); Yona v Rakotsoane [2008] JOL 21069 (O). Also see Rautenbach and Du Plessis “Law of suc-
cession” in Joubert, Faris and Church (eds) LAWSA vol 32(2009) para 221; Pienaar and Mostert (2005)
SALJ 633–660; Pelser and Rautenbach (2012) Litnet Akademies 134–175.
128 As is regulated and made possible by the ESTA.
129 Section 6(2) states clearly that “[w]ithout prejudice to the generality of the provisions of section 5 [which
guarantees freedom of religion, belief and opinion] and subsection (1) [which guarantees the right to bury a
deceased family member on the land on which he or she resides], and balanced with the rights of the owner
or person in charge, an occupier shall have the right – . . . (d) to family life in accordance with the culture
of that family; section 6(4) further states that the occupier has the right to ‘visit and maintain his or her fam-
ily graves on land which belong to another person’, provided that such visitation is subject to ‘any reasona-
ble condition imposed by the owner or person in charge of such land’ in order to safeguard the property”.
For an interpretation of these rights, see Janse van Rensburg (2002) Obiter 175–185.
section 5 (read with section 6(4)).130 In this instance the Land Claims Court had decided in
Serole v Pienaar131 that one cannot lay claim to the right to bury one’s deceased family members
on the land of another, for that would be tantamount to granting servitude over the property
without his consent of the owner thereof.132 The court further affirmed that the right to establish
a grave:
is . . . not the kind of right which the Legislature intended to grant to occupiers under [ESTA] . . . [and that
the granting of] . . .[s]uch a right could constitute a significant inroad into the owner.133
The court warned that, despite the fact that freedom of religion was in fact recognised in the Act,
one cannot interpret it to bestow more rights on the occupier than the rights that the owner of the
property had in fact consented to.
This judgment was quoted with authority in Bührmann v Nkosi134 by the Transvaal Provincial
division. Du Plessis J stated clearly that when the contextual meanings of “use” and “residence”
are taken into account, “the right to reside on land and to use the land in connection with such
residence does not ordinarily include the right to bury the dead on that land”.
In a separate but concurring judgment Satchwell J found no authority that supported the view
that an individual (such as the owner of the land) is obligated to perform a positive act to pro-
mote the religious practices and beliefs of another (such as the occupier or resident), and added
that the resident’s freedom of religion cannot be “exercised in a manner which permanently
deprives the appellant of his right of ownership over [a] portion of his land”.135
Ngoepe JP, in a controversial dissenting judgment found that:
the right to freedom and belief cannot . . . be interpreted merely enabling the holder [of the right] to choose a
particular kind of religion . . . [but it] entitles the holder of the right to actually manifest it; to put it into
136
practice.
Both Serole and Bührmann were confirmed by the Supreme Court of Appeal in Nkosi v Bühr-
mann137 and the court unequivocally found that the right to freedom of religion (in terms of
section 5), read with the right to “use” the land (in terms of section 6(1)) cannot be construed to
include the right to bury a deceased member of the occupier’s family on land without the con-
sent of the owner.138
In recent decisions the courts considered whether an established practice exists before a per-
son could be buried on the land of another. Section 6(2)(dA) of the ESTA was inserted in 2001
to provide that an occupier has the right to “bury a deceased member of his or her family who, at
the time of that person’s death, was residing on the land on which the occupier is residing, in
accordance with their religion or cultural belief, if an established practice in respect of the land
________________________
130 Section 5 of the ESTA reads: “Subject to limitations which are reasonable and justifiable in an open and
democratic society based on human dignity, equality and freedom, an occupier, an owner and a person in
charge shall have the right to—(a) human dignity; (b) freedom and security of the person; (c) privacy;
(d) freedom of religion, belief and opinion and of expression; (e) freedom of association; and (f) freedom of
movement, with due regard to the objects of the Constitution and this Act.” Section 6(4) reads: “Any person
shall have the right to visit and maintain his or her family graves on land which belongs to another person,
subject to any reasonable condition imposed by the owner or person in charge of such land in order to safe-
guard life or property or to prevent the undue disruption of work on the land.” Emphasis added.
131 2000 (1) SA 328 (LCC) (hereafter Serole).
132 Janse van Rensburg (2002) Obiter 180.
133 Paragraph 16 of Serole.
134 2000 (1) SA 1145 (T).
135 1157A–B.
136 1160E–G.
137 2002 (1) SA 372 (SCA).
exists.” In Gate Development Ltd v Mahlangu,139 the court stated that if a graveyard exists it can be
deduced that an established practice exists. The practice needs not to be exercised regularly.140
9.6.3 Right to bury a deceased family member: question of whom

The question of who may bury a deceased that is who chose the final resting may place of the
deceased in the absence of clear instruction of the deceased, is sometimes controversial. This
issue is further complicated by the fact that the courts did not always follow a similar approach
in dealing with the burial rights. The notorious nature of the issue had prompted the South Afri-
can Law Reform Commission, in its Issue Paper 12 of 1998, to state that the problem of the right
to bury a deceased should be resolved.141
The point of departure for determining who has the right to arrange the burial of a deceased, is the wishes of
the deceased himself. . . . Thus, directions in the deceased’s will concerning the disposal of his mortal
142
remains, if lawful and possible, have to be carried out.
In the absence of such an agreement or instruction in a will,143 the court is faced with the prob-
lem alluded to by the South African Law Reform Commission. Mokotong144 states that in the
absence of instructions to the contrary, the duty to bury the deceased lay with the heirs of the
deceased. He further avers that the right to bury the deceased is coupled with the right to choose
a final resting place.
Some courts took customary practices, as is the case with the Pedi, the competency to bury
the deceased rests with the male agnatic members of the family145) into account, while others
had decided the issue with reference to the common law (Voet 11 7 7).146 The Transvaal courts
had, however, focused on the principles of fairness. The problem had become more and more
contentious and the South African Law Reform Commission had intimated in its Issue Paper 12
of 1998 that the problem of the “right” to bury a deceased should be resolved.
In Finlay v Kutoane147 Flemming DJP stated that the court needs to distinguish between
(a) the right to ignore the wishes of the deceased regarding burial (or even less the right of
others to bury the deceased), (b) the right to burial in the sense of the lawfulness of such an
undertaking (Voet 11 7 7), and (c) the duty to bury a dead man (which may coincide precisely
with the right to bury). It may happen that there is a difference of opinion as to who may bury a
________________________
139 LCC 103/08 decided 4 March 2009.

140 Paragraph 13.
141 Despite its apparent urgency the South African Law Reform Commission had not addressed the issue
regarding the right to bury a deceased in its proposals on intestate succession.
142 Knoetze (2001) Obiter 206.
143 The will of the deceased is the first point of reference to decide who has the right to bury the deceased. See
Mjuza / Kamile v Ntshibilili [2017] JOL 37144 (ECB).
144 Mokotong (2001) THRHR 298.
145 Prinsloo (1991) TSAR 666.
146 This last possible solution is problematic for it is common cause that the heir in customary law is not the
same person as the heir under the common law. See Prinsloo (1991) TSAR 669. Also see Ntlonze v Diko
[2009] JOL 23266 (Tk), where the court stated that the husband is the intestate heir of the deceased (at pa-
ra 17). The respondents were the brother and mother of the deceased (although there was some dispute in
this regard). They alleged that the applicant maltreated the deceased. There was evidence that the applicant
(husband) tried to take his wife to a specialist when she became ill at the house of her family but that her
family refused that he took her to a specialist in Port Shepstone (para 5). The court did not further deal with
the factual disputes but due to the urgency of the matter decided the matter on the basis of the law. The
court found in favour of the heir to decide on the burial place of the deceased, in this case the husband. He
also ordered that the respondents may attend the funeral but that they are interdicted from interfering in the
preparations of the funeral (at para 1). Also see Goniwe v Mawinde [2007] JOL 20854 (SE), where the dis-
pute was between a nephew of the deceased and her son. The court ordered the son, as the heir, to bury his
mother.
147 1993 (4) SA 675 (W) 679I.
deceased, and in such a case, where one has to contend with competing interests, the learned
judge stated, one should answer the question with reference to “what the community regards to
be proper and fair”.148 The search for fairness could per implication mean an application of the
customary claim of the heir or the family of the heir, or in other instances, it may entail the claim
of the widow to lay the deceased to rest.
Contrary to the Flemming judgment, the court in Human v Human149 focused on the strict
application of the rule in Voet and completely ignored the competing interests of the parties. In
this case the deceased had left verbal instructions, and the court did not give effect to such
instructions because of the highly pragmatic interpretation of the hearsay rule. The court had
decided that the heirs in terms of his (the deceased’s) last will and testament had the right and
duty to bury him. According to Flemming DPJ,150 Voet cannot be regarded as an authority on
how the South African legal system should cope with cases unknown to him. The duty to bury a
deceased is based on a need to formulate legal rules in dealing with that need, the need itself and
the views of society, which reflects those views.
The courts were confronted with several cases where the wishes of a deceased were in dis-
pute. The disputes mainly arise where the deceased does not express his burial wish in writing as
was stated by the court in Sokani v Sokani.151 In Yona v Rakotsoane,152 for example, the appli-
cant, a widower, disputed the claims of the mother and brother of the deceased regarding
the deceased’s burial. The widower was the sole heir of the deceased’s estate. However, the
deceased wrote a note expressing her wish that she should be buried at her home town, Philip-
polis.153 The applicant based his right to bury the deceased on “his marriage to her; his status as
her sole heir; his status as the father and natural guardian of her children; his economic position
as the sole breadwinner of the family unit; his view that Bloemfontein was her permanent place
of residence and his view that she had not expressed any genuine wish to be buried at any place
other than Bloemfontein.”154 The court stated that the “burial principle makes it abundantly clear
that the privilege or the right of the surviving spouse to bury his or her deceased spouse is
subordinate to the written direction of the deceased spouse concerning all the matters pertaining
to the final disposal of the corpse,”155 Even though in this case the mother and brother took the
corpse to Philippolis in a clandestine manner the court still found that they had the right to bury
the deceased based on the mother’s “unselfish and sympathetic willingness . . . to respect the last
wish of her daughter.” The court found that “(t)he considerations of justice, fairness and equity
strongly militate against the idea of allowing the applicant to reclaim his lost privilege, call it a
right if you will, at the expense of the respondents.”156
The courts in the Eastern Cape based their decisions, for the large part, on Voet in cases of
competing interests regarding the right to bury. In Tseolo v Maqutu157 the court addressed the
contradicting claim of the mother of a deceased and the widow of the deceased (married to him
in community of property). It found that the wishes of the widow should prevail, as it is her right
and duty to bury her husband where she pleased (based on their marital status), and, contributing
to their finding, the court stated that the cost implications bound to the mother’s claim moved it
________________________
148 Finlay v Kutoane 1993 (4) SA 675 (W) 679I–680A.

149 1975 (2) SA 251 (E).
150 Finlay v Kutoane 1993 (4) SA 675 (W) 681H–I.
151 [2008] JOL 22085 (Ck) para 12.
152 [2008] JOL 21069 (O).
153 Paragraph 11.
154 Paragraph 29.
155 Paragraph 30.
156 Paragraph 34.
157 1976 (2) 418 (Tk).
to find in favour of the widow.158 In another decision, the court in Mankahla v Matiwane,159
found that where the heirs were minors, the court as upper guardian of children could decide
where the deceased was to be buried. In casu, the court decided that the deceased be buried in
the hometown of his two minor children. In Gabavana v Mbete160 the court found that consider-
ing that the applicant was not an heir in the will, he did not have a claim to the burial of the
deceased, and that the existence of a will serves as an indication of the wishes of the testator.
Had no will existed, the issue would have been more complicated. In Mjuza / Kamile v Ntshibilili161
the court listed the relevant principles (conveniently summarised in the Gabavana case) as
follows:
(a) If someone is appointed in a will by the deceased, then that person is entitled and obliged to attend to
his burial and that person is entitled to give effect to his wishes.
(b) The deceased person can appoint somebody to attend to his burial in his will or in any other docu-
ment or verbally, formally or informally, and in all these instances effect should be given thereto in
so far as it is otherwise legally possible and permissible.
(c) A deceased can, in the third instance, die intestate, but can appoint someone to attend to his burial in
a document or verbally.
(d) In the absence of a testamentary direction, the duty of and the corresponding right to see to the burial
of the deceased is that of the heirs. The heirs appointed as heirs in the will of a deceased.
(e) The aforementioned principle that heirs (appointed as heirs), in the absence of any provision in the
will as to the burial of the deceased are entitled and obliged to attend to the burial of the deceased
applies in my view similarly and equally to intestate heirs of a deceased. That would mean that, in
the absence of any indication by a deceased as to his burial arrangements, the intestate heirs would
be in the same position as testate heirs. I can see no reason why the position should be different in the
case of intestate heirs.
(f) It also follows that persons obliged and entitled to see to the burial arrangements are entitled to
arrange where and when the deceased is to be buried.
In Trollip v Du Plessis,162 the court held that fairness is decisive and that a claim could not be
evaluated according to the mathematical proportions of heirship. The court further looked at the
expenses incurred, the religion of the deceased and the wishes of the rest of the family whose
views differed from the applicant’s into account in order to determine what would be regarded
fair. In the same year as in Trollip’s case, the Transvaal Provincial Division seemed to deviate
from the fairness principle. In Thembisile v Thembisile,163 the dispute to bury the deceased arose
between the wives of the deceased. The deceased married his first wife in 1979 according to
customary law and the second wife according to civil law 1996 and allegedly again according to
customary law in 1999. The court found that there was no evidence that the first marriage was
dissolved and found that the second marriage (the civil marriage) was a nullity. The finding of the
court is contrary to the view that the second marriage would be voidable at the choice of the wife
married according to civil rights.164 The court found without reference to fairness that the first
________________________
158 The court relied on Voet 11 7 13 in this regard, namely that if the testator’s wishes go beyond a just scale of
expenditure (in other words taking into account the standard of living of the deceased) or are impractical,
these wished can be ignored. Tseola v Mequtu 1976 (2) 418 (Tk) 421F–G. In Khumalo v Khumalo 1984 (2)
SA 229 (D), the court supported the customary claim of the deceased’s son to bury the deceased and it
based its decision on “fairly well settled law”.
159 1989 (2) SA 920 (Ck).
160 [2000] 3 All SA 561 (Tk). See Mokotong (2001) THRHR 299.
161 [2017] JOL 37144 (ECB) para 7.
162 2002 (2) SA 242 (W).
163 2002 (2) SA 209 (T).
164 A similar outcome was reached in NT v MT [2018] JOL 39794 (T) where the court held that the second
civil law wife bears the onus to prove that the first customary law marriage has been dissolved. If the
second wife cannot prove this, her marriage will be null and void and she would not have a right to bury the
deceased.
applicant and the eldest son have the strongest right to bury the deceased. In other cases where two
or more wives claim the right to bury the deceased, it sometimes happens that both of them pro-
duce “valid” marriage certificates.165 The courts then mostly have to decide the matter based on the
facts or on the basis of who the heirs would be.
Where disputes such as these arise, it seems that the courts will order that the costs be borne by
the deceased’s estate, rather than the applicants.166 However, there is no hard and fast rule. In other
cases the courts have ruled in favour of the successful party,167 and in at least three judgments
involving burial disputes, the courts have held that each party should pay its own costs, irrespective
of who had been victorious among them.168 In Nxumalo v Mavundla,169 however, the Durban and
Coast High Court held that it should deviate from the general rule that the unsuccessful party
should bear the costs where the applicant failed to investigate the existence of a will conferring a
right to bury on the respondent.
The validity of a customary marriage is sometimes challenged to deny a husband or wife the
right to bury the deceased. In Fanti v Boto,170 a person alleging to be the husband approached the
court to claim his wife’s body for burial in the Eastern Cape. The mother of the deceased denied
that a customary marriage existed and stated that her daughter should be buried in Hermanus
where she lived. In Noqayi v Skeme171 the court held that the wishes of the deceased were the
paramount consideration to determine where a deceased should be buried, regardless of the fact
that the family of deceased alleged that the customary marriage between the deceased and the
respondent was invalid because it did not comply with the requirements of a customary marriage.
Since the Bhe case,172 the courts have relied more strongly on the argument of possible dis-
crimination against the widow or widower of the deceased vis-à-vis his or her possible intestate
heirs. In Mahala v Nkombombini173 the court found in favour of the customary widow of the
deceased even though the mother of the deceased supported by three sons from other alliances
applied to bury the deceased. The court decided that fairness and equity dictates that the widow
and her children should decide where the deceased should be buried despite the expenses
incurred by the mother-in-law.174
9.6.4 Conclusion
The right or competency to bury a deceased remains a highly contentious issue and either Par-
liament or the courts (by means of unanimous decisions) should perhaps take the lead to address
the difficulties surrounding this issue. On the other hand, there might not be only one solution to
fit all circumstances as the court stated in Ndlovu v Ramocoela:175
Now that I have reviewed the principle through juristic writings and case law, it is clear to me that in decid-
ing disputes of this nature a judge has to be guided by a number of factors such as the rules of the general
________________________
165 See in this regard Tshatela v Qendwana [2001] JOL 76722 (Tk); Sokani v Sokani [2008] JOL 22085 (Ck);
Sikita (born Mayiji) v Tiki [2009] JOL 23243 (Ck).
166 See, e.g., Sikita (born Magiji) v Tiki [2009] JOL 23243 (CK) paras 36–42.
167 Erasmus v Grunow 1980 (2) SA 793 (O); Letsiele Stores (Pty) Ltdv Roets 1959 (4) SA 579 (T); Smit v
Maqabe 1985 (3) SA 974 (T).
168 See Sekeleni v Sekeleni 1986 (2) SA (Tk); Mnyama v Gxalaba 1990 (1) SA 650 (C); and Mabulu v Thys
1993 (4) SA 701 (SECLD).
169 [2017] JOL 39576 (KZD) 7.
170 2008 (5) SA 405 (C). Also see Manona v Alice Funeral Parlour [2002] JOL 9717 (Ck).
171 [2014] JOL 31838 (ECM).
172 See 9.4.6.
173 2006 (5) SA 524 (SE).
174 530F–531A.
175 [2003] JOL 10737 (O). Also see the court’s exposition on how the courts should interpret the express
wishes of a deceased person regarding his or her burial – pages 14–20 of the case.
burial principle, the convictions of society, the public morality, the public policy, and a sense of what is right
and equitable in the interest of justice according to the circumstances of each particular case. The list of
factors is not exhaustive.
The approach by some courts to apply the principle of fairness seems to lead to more acceptable
outcomes to the issues in question and should therefore be encouraged.
10
Traditional Leadership and Governance
Page
10.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 209
10.2 Features of modern and traditional government ..................................................... 209
10.3 Notion of “tradition” ............................................................................................... 209
10.4 Transformation of the institution of traditional leadership ..................................... 210
10.4.1 Pre-colonial phase ..................................................................................... 210
10.4.2 Traditional government under colonial influence ..................................... 210
10.4.3 Democratic government ............................................................................ 211
10.5 Traditional leadership under the South African Constitution ................................. 211
10.5.1 Institution of traditional leadership ........................................................... 211
10.5.2 Traditional leadership and issues of discrimination .................................. 213
10.6 Historical authority system ..................................................................................... 214
10.6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 214
10.6.2 Historical central community authority (traditional community
leader-in-council) ...................................................................................... 214
10.6.2.1 Traditional leader ..................................................................... 214
10.6.2.2 Bodies advising the traditional leader ...................................... 217
10.7 Recognition and functions of traditional leaders .................................................... 219
10.7.1 Government intervention – indirect rule ................................................... 219
10.7.2 Black Administration Act.......................................................................... 220
10.7.3 Powers, functions and duties ..................................................................... 220
10.7.4 Apartheid era ............................................................................................. 221
10.7.5 Homeland phase ........................................................................................ 221
10.7.6 Constitutional recognition ......................................................................... 222
10.7.7 White Paper on Traditional Leadership and Governance ......................... 222
10.7.8 Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act ......................... 223
10.7.8.1 Traditional communities .......................................................... 224
10.7.8.2 Recognition of king- and queenships ....................................... 224
10.7.8.3 Recognition of principal traditional communities.................... 225
10.7.8.4 Establishment and recognition of traditional councils ............. 225
10.7.8.5 Establishment and recognition of king- and queenship
councils..................................................................................... 226
207
Page
10.7.8.6 Establishment and recognition of principal traditional
councils ................................................................................ 227
10.7.8.7 Functions of traditional councils ......................................... 227
10.7.8.8 Functions of king- and queenship councils ......................... 227
10.7.8.9 Functions of principal traditional councils .......................... 228
10.7.8.10 Recognition of traditional leadership positions ................... 228
10.7.8.11 Houses of traditional leaders ............................................... 230
10.7.8.12 Roles and functions of traditional leaders ........................... 234
10.7.8.13 Dispute and claim resolution and Commission on
Traditional Leadership Disputes and Claims....................... 235
10.7.8.14 Commission ......................................................................... 235
10.7.9 Code of conduct ...................................................................................... 238
10.7.10 Other legislation ...................................................................................... 238
10.7.11 Traditional Courts Bill, 2017 [B1–2017] ................................................ 239
10.7.12 Traditional and Khoi-San Leadership Bill, 2015 [B23–2015]................ 239
10.8 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 241
Chapter 10: Traditional Leadership and Governance 209
10.1 Introduction
The constitutional recognition of the institution of traditional leadership1 brought the interplay
between modern constitutionalism (democracy as a form of government) and traditional gov-
ernment to the fore. Sachs2 is of the opinion that there is no inherent conflict between the tradi-
tional and democratic forms of government, provided each operates in its own sphere.
The objectives of this chapter are first, to determine the scope and features of the institution of
traditional leadership in the South African context, and second, to explore its constitution, role
and functions in present-day South Africa.3
10.2 Features of modern and traditional government

Modern constitutionalism accepts the Constitution of a country as the supreme law.4 The Consti-
tution binds and directs all organs of state. The institutional pillars of good government are the
rule of law and the separation of the powers of the state: legislative, executive and judicial. The
rule of law implies government in accordance with well-defined and known rules which are
provided in broad terms in the Constitution.5
In contrast, traditional government is not based on the idea of the separation of legislative,
executive and judicial powers. The legitimacy of the people in positions of power and their
actions were not subject to, and were not assessed by, the rule of law. The traditional ruler’s
reign was directed by flexible traditional norms, based on legal, social and religious ideas
regarding good government. These norms were adaptable to changing circumstances, without a
specific legislative process necessary to bring about changes. Moreover, rulers were not elected
by the people, but acquired their positions mainly on kinship grounds (being a member of a
particular (ruling, royal) family).6
10.3 Notion of “tradition”

Traditional government is grounded in the belief that the power of rule was from time immemo-
rial informed and maintained by the ancestors. Legitimacy to rule was thus based on “sacred”
traditions.7
________________________
1 Section 211(1) of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (hereafter the Constitution).
2 Sachs (1992) 77–78.
3 For a detailed discussion on the position of traditional leadership and institutions before the Traditional
Leadership and Governance Framework Amendment Act 23 of 2009 discussed from 10.7.8 onwards, see
Olivier and Williams “Traditional leadership and institutions” in Joubert, Faris and Church (eds) LAWSA
vol 32 (2009) paras 13–43. For a discussion on traditional leadership and governance in Africa, see Ndlela,
Green and Reddy (2010) Africa Insight 1–18.
4 For the position under the Namibian Constitution, see Hinz in d’Engelbronner-Kolff et al (eds) (1998) 11.
5 Sections 1, 2, 7 and 8 of the Constitution. Also see Hinz in d’Engelbronner-Kolff et al (eds) (1998) 1;
Bennett “The constitutional base of traditional rulers in South Africa” in d’Engelbronner-Kolff et al (eds)
(1998) 14.
6 Hinz in d’Engelbronner-Kolff et al (eds) (1998) 1; Bennett “The constitutional base of traditional rulers in
South Africa” in d’Engelbronner-Kolff et al (eds) (1998) 14; Myburgh (1985) 50–62; Prinsloo (1983)
37–45; Vorster (1996) SA Journal of Ethnology 77.
7 Hinz in d’Engelbronner-Kolff et al (eds) (1998) 4; Also see Bekker (1989) 11: “During the existence of the
pre-colonial sovereign Black ‘states’, customary law was an established system of immemorial rules which
had evolved from the way of life and natural wants of the people, the general context of which was a matter
of common knowledge, coupled with precedents applying to special cases, which were retained in the
memories of the chief and his councillors, their sons and their sons’ sons, until forgotten, or until they
become part of the immemorial rules”.
This idea of long history gave rise to the (erroneous) perception of traditional government
being static, non-progressive and incapable of development. However, recent studies of tradi-
tional governance in Africa indicate that all “tradition” is a specific construction at a specific
time for specific purposes, implying that many traditions were “invented”. They were mostly
products of codification; petrifaction, coercion and colonial rule; missionary activity and post-
colonial state formation.8 According to Hinz,9 it is not so much the time at which a particular
issue at hand had emerged, but rather whether the issue can be understood as “part of our tradi-
tion”. Tradition, again, is what the community is owing to its ancestors. Therefore, “traditional is
legitimate because, and to the extent that, it can be traced back to the ancestors who made the
life of the people of today possible. Traditional authority is legitimate because, and to the extent
that, it can be related to the same tradition rooted in the ancestors”.10 This implies that the test
for tradition and custom in terms of customary law cannot be the same as the test applied in
common law for a custom to be legally binding and enforceable.11
10.4 Transformation of the institution of traditional leadership

10.4.1 Pre-colonial phase
The pre-colonial relationship between traditional authorities and their followers is often por-
trayed as a dynamic process of mediation between rulers and followers.12 In pre-colonial times,
various forms of government existed, ranging from empires to tribal states. Power was hierar-
chical and consultative. The head of the empire or tribal state was at the apex of the power
hierarchy with subordinate leaders, commonly referred to as “ward heads”. At grassroots level,
there were heads of patriarchal households.13 Decisions were taken in consultation with various
councils at different levels.14
10.4.2 Traditional government under colonial influence

Under the onslaught of colonialism and capitalism, the relationship between traditional rulers
and their followers was seriously undermined. The colonial policy of indirect rule transformed
traditional rulers into government functionaries. Their positions were from then on guaranteed
by the colonial state and were no longer dependent on the support of their followers.15
In South Africa, indirect rule was implemented nationally in 1927 with the Black Administra-
tion Act16 transforming traditional authorities and traditional courts into government institutions.
Traditional institutions of government were subjected to statutory rules which introduced a
legislative and administrative superstructure over traditional structures. Traditional rulers were
recognised and appointed by the colonial government and their positions were no longer deter-
mined in accordance with indigenous laws and procedures. The jurisdiction of traditional courts
was curtailed and subjected to appeal to, and revision by, specially created commissioners
________________________
8 Van Dijk and Van Rouveroy van Nieuwaal in Van Rouveroy van Nieuwaal and Van Dijk (eds) (1999) 1–3.
9 Van Dijk and Van Rouveroy van Nieuwaal in Van Rouveroy van Nieuwaal and Van Dijk (eds) (1999) 7.
10 Hinz in d’Engelbronner-Kolff et al (eds) (1998) 7.
11 For the position of custom in common law, see Van Breda v Jacobs 1921 AD 330.
12 Bennett (1995) 67–68.
13 Bennett (1995) 66; Myburgh (1985) 15–17.
14 Myburgh (1985) 101–112; Prinsloo (1983) 51. Also see Iya (2014) SAPL 267–268 for the characteristics of
pre-colonial African leadership.
15 Bennett (1995) 68. Also see Iya (2014) SAPL 268.
16 38 of 1927. Also see Iya (2014) SAPL 268–269.
‘courts (established in terms of the Black Administration Act).17 Traditional ward governmental
structures were not officially recognised.18
10.4.3 Democratic government

Bennett’s19 view is that all the conflicts and inconsistencies that beset traditional leadership
under colonialism and apartheid20 have been transferred to the new democratic dispensation in
South Africa. In terms of section 211(1) of the Constitution, the institution, status and role of
traditional leadership are recognised, subject to the Constitution. This is a conspicuous anomaly,21
since democracy implies periodic and popular elections, while traditional leadership is inherited.
Election was never a criterion for assuming the office of traditional ruler. Moreover, the recogni-
tion of the institution of traditional leadership seemed to be in conflict with the non-
discrimination clause of the Constitution,22 because the office used to be mainly reserved for
men only. According to the Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act,23 there is
no prohibition on females being recognised as traditional leaders, and, in addition, specific
provision is made for the recognition of queens and headwomen.24 The first step in the filling of
a traditional leadership position is the identification of the successor (new traditional leader) by
the royal family of the traditional community concerned, with due regard to the applicable
customary law.25 In Shilubana v Nwamitwa,26 the Constitutional Court acknowledged that a
female may also be recognised as a traditional leader in cases where the customary law of the
community concerned provides for the identification of a female as the new traditional leader.
10.5 Traditional leadership under the South African Constitution

10.5.1 Institution of traditional leadership
In section 211(1), the Constitution27 refers specifically to the “institution, status and role of
traditional leadership, according to customary law”. The various concepts and phrases in this
________________________
17 Sections 12 and 20 of the Black Administration Act; Also see ch 11.

18 Also see Rautenbach in Steytler (ed) “Decentralisation and Constitutionalism in Africa” (2019 forthcoming)
para 1.
19 Bennett (1995) 70.
20 For a discussion of what transpired during the apartheid era, see Iya (2014) SAPL 269–270, 274–275. Also
see Rautenbach in Fombad and Steytler (eds) (2019 forthcoming) para 1, specifically note 28.
21 Bennett (1995) 71–73.
22 Section 9(3).
23 41 of 2003.
24 Section 8(a) and (c) of the Act.
25 Section 9(1)(a) of the Act (kingships and queenships), s 10A(1)(a) (principal traditional leadership),
s 11(1)(a) (senior traditional leadership and headmanship).
26 2009 (2) SA 66 (CC). For a commentary on this judgment, see Bekker and Boonzaaier (2008) CILSA
449–462, Williams and Klusener (2013) SAJHR 279, Mireku (2010) AHRLJ 515–523 (where the author
states as follows on page 522 (footnotes omitted): “It is submitted that the Shilubana decision is not only
revolutionary but, more importantly, a quintessentially transformational judgment celebrating gender equal-
ity in chieftaincy succession disputes. Shilubanais also welcomed because it is consistent with the grand
transformative agenda of the Constitution, the equality jurisprudence progressively developed by the Con-
stitutional Court since its inception as well as international law obligations in respect of women that South
Africa has undertaken after its transition from apartheid in 1994”. Also see Phooko (2016) Without Preju-
dice 8–9.
27 Bennett (1995) 66 notes that the colonial tendency to refer to all African leaders as “chiefs” obscured the
diversity of rulers that actually existed in Southern Africa. Also see Rautenbach in Fombad and Steytler
(eds) (2019 forthcoming) para 2.
section are not defined in the Constitution, so that their meaning has to be established from other
sources.
The Concise Oxford Dictionary describes “institution” as “established law, custom or prac-
tice”. In the social sciences generally, and anthropology in particular, reference to social institu-
tion implies forms of standardised activities linked to a set of complex and interdependent norms
and roles.28 These activities are underpinned by values and ideas of the people recognising the
relevant institution. Against this background, we may describe traditional leadership in terms of
standardised and persisting activities concerning the exercise of public authority over people to
ensure orderly co-existence. The people exercising power hold status positions at various levels.
With regard to traditional leadership, at least three status positions can be distinguished, namely
rulers and leaders, councillors and followers (subjects, citizens). Each of these positions has
distinctive powers, duties and functions.
In pre-colonial times, the institution of traditional leadership encompassed at least the follow-
ing aspects:
• status positions (ruler, ruling family, councillors, ward heads, citizens);
• procedures (for instance to identify leaders, to make and enforce decisions at different
levels, to acquire membership);
• scope of authority (national, local); and
• values, norms, practices and rules (for instance with regard to consultation, and participation
in decision-making processes).
The above indicates that the institution of traditional leadership is much wider than the notion of
traditional leaders. The latter is but one element of the institution. In the South African context,
the institution would include, among others, the identification of, and processes of legitimising
the ruler; the system of, and conditions for, consultation; and the functions of the various
domains and levels of authority (legislative, executive and judicial; community and local level).
The Constitution qualifies the recognition of the institution of traditional leadership in two
important respects. The recognition must be in accordance with customary law and is subject to
the Constitution. Again, customary law is not defined in the Constitution. Section 211(2) makes
reference to a system of customary law, including amendments to, or repeal of, legislation and
customs. This seems to indicate a version of customary law as it has been transformed over time
by legislation and court decisions. This would imply that the institution of traditional leadership
according to customary law would also include the provisions of the Traditional Leadership and
Governance Framework Act29 and the National House of Traditional Leaders Act.30
The recognition of the institution of traditional leadership is also subject to the Constitution as
a whole, and thus also to the provisions of the Bill of Rights contained in Chapter 2 of the
Constitution. In this regard, the following sections of the Constitution are implied:
(a) section 8(1), which makes the Bill of Rights applicable to all law, including customary law,
and which binds all organs of state, including traditional authorities;
(b) section 9, which forbids unfair discrimination by the state and private persons on various
grounds, including race, gender, disability, culture and birth;31
________________________
28 Seymour-Smith (1986) “institution”; Also see Coertze and Coertze (1996) “instelling”.
29 41 of 2003.
30 10 of 1997. The National House of Traditional Leaders Act 22 of 2009 commenced on 27 January 2010,
and replaced the National House of Traditional Leaders Act 10 of 1997.
31 With regard to traditional leadership, the following customary practices may be deemed to be contrary to
s 9 of the Constitution: primogeniture (firstborn) and exclusion from office on grounds of disability and
illegitimacy (birth). The succession to office on grounds of gender (males only) is no longer at issue – see
the discussion of Shilubana v Nwamitwa 2009 (2) SA 66 (CC) above.
(c) section 39(2), which binds courts in their development of customary law to the promotion of
the “spirit, purport and objects of the Bill of Rights”;32
(d) section 39(3), which recognises the existence of other rights or freedoms, recognised by,
among others, customary law, to the extent that they are consistent with the Bill of Rights;
(e) sections 40 and 41, which provide for co-operative government at all levels of government,
in particular also between municipalities and traditional authorities on local level;
(f) section 151, which limits the local sphere of government to municipalities;
(g) section 212, which allows for the possible enactment of national legislation to make provi-
sion “for a role for traditional leadership as an institution at local level on matters affecting
local communities”; and
(h) Schedule 4 (Part A), which determines functional areas in respect of which both the National
Parliament and the Provincial Legislatures are competent to enact legislation, and lists “cul-
tural matters”, “indigenous law and customary law, subject to Chapter 12 of the Constitu-
tion”, and “traditional leadership, subject to Chapter 12 of the Constitution” as such matters.
10.5.2 Traditional leadership and issues of discrimination

The institution of traditional leadership among the indigenous people of South Africa is embed-
ded in a social system of patriarchy.33 This used to imply that the position of traditional leader-
ship was limited to male members of the family; in fact it was limited to the oldest son of the
principal wife. In this regard the position of the successor used to be determined by the follow-
ing factors: the status of the principal wife; gender (male); firstborn son (principle of primogeni-
ture in respect of males);34 and physical ability. At the time of succession, the successor is
perceived to represent the most senior living link with the ancestral world of the ruling family.35
This system of succession by males only is regarded as being in conflict with the constitutional
requirement of non-discrimination on the grounds of gender.36 In the past, it was only among the
Lovedu of the Limpopo Province that a woman could become leader of the traditional commu-
nity, and where men were excluded from this position (however, males could hold the position
of ward heads). Among all the other groups, women are according to customary law nowadays
allowed to act as regents if a successor is under-aged or not able to succeed immediately.
Female succession to traditional leadership is no longer an issue. In terms of section 2(3) of
the Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act,37 a traditional community must
transform and adapt customary law and customs relevant to the application of this Act in order
to comply with the relevant principles contained in the Bill of Rights in the Constitution, in
particular by:
(a) preventing unfair discrimination;
________________________
32 See Mayelane v Ngwenyama 2013 (4) SA 415 (CC), where the Constitutional Court had to deal with the
manner in which the content of a customary law rule or norm should be ascertained and/or developed to
give effect to the Bill of Rights.
33 There is no generally accepted or rigorous definition of patriarchy and there is some confusion about the
domestic and public aspects of male dominance in societies characterised as patriarchal. In the South Afri-
can context, societies vary from strong male dominance to strong influence of females in public affairs. The
Venda and Swazi are examples of the latter.
34 See Ndima (2017) CILSA 84–108 for a discussion on male primogeniture.
35 See Vorster (1999) Obiter 3.
37 41 of 2003.
(b) promoting equality; and

(c) seeking to progressively advance gender representation in the succession to traditional
leadership positions.
As indicated above, the Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act does not pro-
hibit the recognition of females as traditional leaders, and a typical example of the gender parity
approach in the Act is the explicit references to queens and headwomen.38 In Shilubana v Nwa-
mitwa,39 the Constitutional Court held, without reference to section 2(3), that traditional com-
munities may develop customary law in accordance with norms and values of the Constitution,
and that females may be recognised as traditional leaders.40
10.6 Historical authority system

10.6.1 Introduction
The discussion in this section gives a brief overview of the manner in which authority systems
used to operate in the absence of, and sometimes in non-compliance with, binding statutory
provisions. To a significant extent, characteristics and elements of the historical authority sys-
tems have been changed (and in some instances replaced by new norms) on account of the
contents and impact of the new constitutional order and post-1994 national and provincial
legislation and related administrative practices; see in this regard the discussion in10.7.8 regard-
ing the current situation.
Among the South-Eastern Bantu-speaking people, political and judicial authority is not clearly
differentiated. The term “authority system” is therefore preferred. The characteristic indigenous
authority system of the South-Eastern Bantu was retained in most rural areas in South Africa to
the present day in spite of the process of cultural change to which these people have been sub-
jected, and regardless of the fact that they had been under the legislative and administrative
control of colonial and post-colonial authorities for many years. The survival of the indigenous
system seems all the more remarkable when it is taken into consideration that only a limited
segment of it was statutorily recognised by the colonial and post-colonial governments.
The indigenous authority system is characterised by a political and administrative component.
It consists of a central decision-making community government (the traditional leader-in-council)
which delegates some of its powers and functions to the heads of smaller administrative units.
These smaller units are known by different names and are demarcated in different ways. We refer
to them as wards. Among the Nguni and Tsonga groups, the territorial principle dominates the
demarcation of wards while in the case of the Sotho-Tswana, kinship is the dominant factor.
10.6.2 Historical central community authority (traditional community leader-in-

council)
10.6.2.1 Traditional leader
Attaining a position of authority
In general, the basic pattern of succession to traditional leadership is very similar among the
different South-Eastern Bantu-speaking peoples.
________________________
38 Section 8(a) and (c) of the Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act.
39 2009 (2) SA 66 (CC). For a commentary on this judgment, see Bekker and Boonzaaier (2008) CILSA
449–462, Williams and Klusener (2013) SAJHR 279, Mireku (2010) AHRLJ 515–523.
40 Also see s 3(3)(b) of the Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act providing that at least a
third of the members of a traditional council must be women. In addition, see Claassens in Mostert and
Bennett (eds) (2012) 174–209, specifically 197–199.
The head of the community is normally the most senior male member of the ruling lineage.
His position as the central authority figure in the community is determined by his ranking in the
line of descent within the ruling lineage, and is passed on to his successor in accordance with the
rules of succession observed by the community concerned. These rules prescribe that the tradi-
tional leader’s successor should be the oldest son (Tsonga: mudyandzhaka) of his principal wife
(Tsonga: nsati lonkulu).Thus, the chieftainship is born (Tsonga: vuhosi byo velekeriwa; North
Ndebele: bukgosi buatalelwa).The seniority principle is certainly a primary consideration, and is
usually decisive; but the successor is nevertheless subject to thorough deliberation and consulta-
tion among the senior members of the ruling lineage, who are responsible for designating the
effective successor.41
In almost every case, the essential condition for the succession to the traditional leadership is
that the potential successor should have been born to a particular woman, namely the principal
wife – the wife or mother of the community (Tsonga: nsati wa tiko; Xhosa: inkosikazi; Pedi:
mohumagadi; North Ndebele: nositjhaba/masetshaba/mohumagdi).The traditional leader’s
principal wife is designated in a special way. It is customary for a traditional leader to marry the
daughter of another traditional leader. However, this is not an absolute requirement. If such a
marriage is not possible, a woman belonging to one of the senior lines of descent within the
community may be selected as principal wife. As is the case with traditional leadership itself, the
duty and responsibility of selecting the ideal successor rests with the senior members of the
traditional leader’s lineage (the royal family).Normally they will not nominate a particular
woman, but will merely indicate the specific lineage, or the particular ruling house, to which the
traditional leader should look for his principal wife. Even then, his choice is subject to the final
approval of the senior members of his own lineage. In some communities, the traditional lead-
er’s lineage (the royal family) is duty-bound to provide the marriage goods for his bride, on
behalf of the community as a whole. In others, the only condition is that the marriage goods
should be provided by the community.42 Hartman and Kriel43 report that the principal wife does
not attain her status on account of the order in which she was married, but rather because she
was designated by the royal family to bear the successor to the traditional leadership.
Another point that applies is that the deathbed wish of a deceased traditional leader should be
taken into account. In this regard, the Tsonga have a proverb which emphasises the principle:
“Rito ra mufi a ri tluriwi – the wish of a deceased is not opposed”. From different case studies
among different Tsonga communities it seems that deathbed wishes are usually honoured.44
Adulthood is regarded as a prerequisite for the traditional leadership. As adulthood is attained
by marriage, it is a requirement that the rightful heir to the throne be married before he may
succeed. Among certain communities, the principal wife may be married by the successor to be
only after the death of his father (the current traditional leader)while, among others, the rightful
heir to the throne has the right to marry his principal wife while his father (the traditional leader)
is still alive.45 Junod46 refers to an alternative practice among the Tsonga whereby a traditional
leader who lives to be very old and does not wish to delay the marriage of his son and heir, can
himself pay the lobolo and acquire, for his son, the official wife who will be considered as being
“the wife of the country”. He adds that it seems to be an exceptional occurrence.
________________________
41 Hartman (1991) 154; Coertze (1987) 68; Breytenbach (1971) 74; Jacobs (1974) 62; De Beer (1986) 77–78.
42 Hartman (1991) 188–189; Boonzaaier (1980) 62; Boonzaaier (1990) 507; Coertze (1987) 68; Breytenbach
(1971) 74; Jacobs (1974) 63; Mönnig The Pedi (1967) 256; De Beer (1986) 78.
43 Hartman and Kriel (1989) SA Journal of Ethnology 117–125.
44 Boonzaaier (1980) 66–67.
45 Boonzaaier (1980) 67; Breytenbach (1971) 750; De Beer (1986) 79.
46 Junod (1913) 370.
Replacement and regency

Should the principal wife be barren or bear only daughters, a supplementary wife (Tsonga:
nhlantswa; mupfula rhumbu) may be requested in accordance with the sororate. This practice
ensures that the traditional leader will have a male successor (Tsonga: mudyandzhaka) and that
this successor will be born in the principal house as the supplementary wife is affiliated to the
principal house. The nhlantswa/mupfula rhumbu bears the successor on behalf of the barren
principal wife. It is normally not possible for the oldest son of the second wife to succeed as she
was not designated by the royal family as the principal wife. Neither were the marriage goods
delivered for her provided by the community.47
Should it happen that neither the principal wife nor the supplementary wife (nhlantswa) give
birth to a boy, the traditional leadership will go to the oldest son of the late traditional leader’s
second wife in the ranking of women. Normally, the ranking of wives is determined by the order
in which they were married. When a supplementary wife is married, this ranking is disturbed,
since the supplementary wife is always ranked directly after the wife for whom she was married.
Hence, all other women will then shift one position lower in the order of ranking.48
Should the successor die before his father (the traditional leader), the status as traditional
leader will eventually go to the oldest son of the late successor, provided the royal family
approves this son’s mother as principal wife. If the successor dies without any male descendants
with his principal wife, two options remain. The first option is to procreate a son with his princi-
pal wife in accordance with the levirate practice.49 It is a prime requisite that the procreator be
the younger brother of the deceased successor or a close patrilineal relative of the deceased or
his father (the deceased traditional leader).The alternative is to designate the younger brother of
the late successor as the new successor. According to spokespersons, the latter option should be
exercised as this son was fathered by the deceased traditional leader and as such, he will be of
“purer” descent than the son procreated in accordance with the levirate practice.50
The argument mostly advanced against the succession of women is that, where a woman mar-
ries, the traditional title will divest from the right royal family and vest in foreign hands, as a
result bringing with it foreign rule and that women should, in the first place, bear children who
will succeed in the place of their father. The customary belief is that when a man delivers lobolo
and marries a woman, her procreative being is transferred to her husband’s community.
When a traditional leader dies and his rightful heir does not comply with the adulthood
requirement regarding succession, a regent will be appointed. A regent normally acts as tradi-
tional leader until the successor fulfils all the requirements for the traditional leadership. The
regent is appointed by the family council of the royal family. Normally the younger brother of
the late traditional leader is appointed as a regent. Before he may be appointed as regent, he
must comply with all the requirements for the traditional leadership. If the late traditional leader
has no brother who can act as a regent, one of the half-brothers of the rightful heir to the throne
will normally be appointed as regent. As stated above, women are now also allowed to act as
regents if a successor is under-aged or not able to succeed immediately.
Performance of functions
Although the position of traditional leader is due to his descent (the fact that he is of high-
ranking birth), his ability to maintain that position depends on how well he performs his func-
tions and carry out his obligations. If he fails to fulfil his roles (powers, functions and duties), he
________________________
47 Hartman and Kriel (1989) SA Journal of Ethnology 118.

48 Boonzaaier (1980) 62.
49 Maluleke defines the term as follows: “Levirate unions occur when the deceased’s surviving male relative
inherits the widow of the deceased” – Maluleke (2012) PER/PELJ 2–22.
50 Hartman and Kriel (1989) SA Journal of Ethnology 118.
will lose authority and prestige in the eyes of the community concerned. With the exception of
the judicial duties, a number of the erstwhile functions of the traditional community leaders have
diminished. This phenomenon may be partially ascribed, on the one hand, to the influence of
missionaries, and, on the other hand, to the fact that, in terms of legislation and administrative
practices, provincial and local government officials have taken over many of the particular
functions formerly fulfilled by the traditional leaders.
10.6.2.2 Bodies advising the traditional leader

The traditional leader performs his duties with the guidance of several advisory bodies, whose
advice he must respect. He is obliged to consult his various advisers on all matters relating to
community affairs. In the process, the ruling family has to ensure that he meets this obligation.
They are entitled to criticise his actions. There are essentially four advisory bodies which the
traditional leader has to consult in the execution of his duties and performance of his functions:
the private (family) council, the traditional council (community council), the community court
(judicial council), and the community assembly (public council).51
(a) Private (family) council
Composition
The private council is no formal body, which implies that it has no formal composition. The
number of members varies in accordance with the traditional leader’s wishes, depending on the
nature of the advice he requires. The most important members are the traditional leader’s
father’s brothers (and in the case of the Tswana also his mother’s brother – i.e. malome), his own
brothers, and a number of trusted confidants whose knowledge and experience of community
affairs justify their appointment to his council. The council always meets in secret, and the mem-
bers are summoned to meetings by the traditional leader himself.
Although the council as a whole is the advisory body, the traditional leader may consult sep-
arately with individual members in order to seek their confidential advice. It is common practice
for a traditional leader to seek the advice of his mother (Tsonga and Tswana) or father’s sister
(Tsonga and Venda).52 Among the Nguni (Xhosa and Zulu), women are apparently not con-
sulted.53
Functions
The private council may be described as the body that rules from behind the scenes. In essence,
it may be regarded as the policy-making body within the community. It concerns itself with all
matters relating to the political and judicial organisation of the community. The traditional
leader may not take any decision affecting the community without consulting this council. The
council discusses any new community rules which are contemplated, the appointment and
dismissal of ward heads and other community officials, the utilisation of land for specific pur-
poses, and other similar matters.54
(b) Traditional council (community council)
This council is more correctly a community council. However, in current parlance it is referred
to as the traditional council of a community.
________________________
51 Boonzaaier (1980) 60.

52 Hartman (1991) 193; Coertze (1987) 69–70.
53 Jacobs (1974) 68; Breytenbach (1971) 76.
54 Hartman (1991) 193; Coertze (1987) 70; Boonzaaier (1980) 111–112; Jacobs (1974) 68; Breytenbach
(1971) 76.
Composition
The traditional council is a closed council with a formal composition. All ward heads are auto-
matically entitled to seats on this council, as are all the members of the family council on the
grounds that they represent the ruling family. Each ward head attending the council meetings is
entitled to bring with him at least one of his own ward councillors. If a ward head cannot attend
a meeting of the council, at least two of his own ward councillors have to represent him at the
meeting. With the approval of the council, the traditional leader may co-opt additional members
on account of their special insight into community affairs. They are usually drawn from the
traditional leader’s own private councillors, or those who served his predecessor in that capacity.55
Functions
Important community matters must be laid before the traditional council. In most cases, the
private (family) council will already have formed an opinion on the matter in hand. When it is
discussed in the traditional council, these members have the task of convincing the council as a
whole that this opinion is the correct one. The traditional council, however, is not restricted to
discussing matters laid before it by the private (family) council. Before the opening of a council
session, any member may notify the chairman of a proposal, complaint or problem relating to
community administration, which he wishes the council to discuss. A wide variety of matters
may be discussed by the council in this manner. The most important of these relate to the actions
of the traditional leader, new community rules, the levying of taxes,56 land utilisation, the control
of cattle, the appointment and dismissal of ward heads, the administration of justice, and matters
concerning the general administration of the community.57
(c) Community court (judicial council)
Composition
The court of the traditional leader is closely related to the person and status of the traditional
leader and to those of his family. It is the traditional leader who is primarily bound to fulfil
judicial duties. The senior members of his patrilineage are co-responsible. In addition to these
seniors, there are, however, a number of other people who bear some responsibility. In theory,
all adult men of the community are members of the community court (judicial council), but not
everyone can always be present at the same time. The judicial duties fall mainly on those who
live near the royal village and on the elderly men and others who have some knowledge of the
indigenous law. These men are appointed for this purpose and must therefore be present.
The community court (judicial council) of the traditional leader meets in the dwelling com-
plex of the traditional leader. Today, every community has a courtroom in the community
offices.
________________________
55 Hartman (1991) 194; Coertze (1987) 70; Boonzaaier (1980) 114; Breytenbach (1971) 75; Jacobs (1974) 69–70.
56 It has emerged that certain traditional leaders still extort tribal levies. The payment of annual and special
levies is enforced by only granting letters from the tribal authority or traditional council confirming the per-
son concerned as a known and bona fide member to paying community members. Such letters are required
for, among others, applications for child support grants, pensions, identity documents and bank accounts. It
is important to note that Limpopo is the only province that allows the levying of traditional council taxes
(s 25 of the Limpopo Traditional Leadership and Institutions Act 6 of 2005). See Claassens (2011) 35 SA
Crime Quarterly 11–16 and Claassens (2011) SAJHR 522–545 (where the author specifically states neither
the Constitution, nor other national legislation, empowers traditional councils to levy taxes, possibly result-
ing in s 25 of the Limpopo Act being unconstitutional).
57 Hartman (1991) 194; Boonzaaier (1980) 115–121; Jacobs (1974) 70; Breytenbach (1971) 76; Coertze
(1987) 70–71.
Functions
In former times, the court of the traditional leader was the highest court of appeal in any rural
community. The traditional leader is the presiding officer and, by virtue of his position as
traditional leader, is competent to pass sentences in accordance with the findings of the court
council. Although this court is known as the traditional leader’s court, it is in fact the court of the
community. At present, it is also the only traditional community court which enjoys statutory
recognition, and which has judicial authority in both civil and criminal (limited) matters.58
(d) Community assembly (public council)
Composition
In former times the community assembly (public council) (Tswana: pitso; Xhosa: intlanganiso
yakomkhulu) played a more prominent role than today. All the adult men in the community are
entitled to attend community assemblies.
Functions
The community assembly (public council) is summoned only when the traditional council
(community council) wishes to make a public announcement concerning its decisions. Commu-
nity rules, the levying of taxes, land utilisation, the control of cattle, the appointment and dismis-
sal of ward heads, the administration of justice, and the moving of the community are examples
of such announcements. Normally the announcement is followed by some discussion, after
which the decision is accepted unanimously. The traditional leader’s authority and the fact that
he is supported by his traditional council (community council) were usually sufficient motiva-
tion for the community to accept it.59
Boonzaaier60 mentions that the traditional council (community council) can also fulfil a judi-
cial function when an exile, with the support of a ward head and at least three of his (the ward
head’s) councillors, appeals to the traditional leader to retract his writ of expulsion. The correct
procedure is for the traditional leader to call a meeting of the community assembly and to
explain the reasons for the writ of expulsion for their final decision. The expulsion of a member
of a community would nowadays probably be unconstitutional.
10.7 Recognition and functions of traditional leaders

10.7.1 Government intervention – indirect rule
Traditional authorities passed through a long phase of colonial and post-colonial government
intervention. The point of departure was that traditional leaders and authorities had to be recog-
nised officially and that statutory powers and functions should be assigned to them. This is
generally referred to as the era of indirect rule, whereby the central government exerted its auth-
ority through the medium of the local traditional leaders. It was not confined to South Africa. It
was a characteristic of European (particularly British) rule in Africa.61
________________________
58 Hartman (1991) 195, 212–215; De Beer (1986) 161–168; Coertze (1987) 71; 102–105; Boonzaaier (1980)
202–210; Breytenbach (1971) 77; Jacobs (1974) 71–72.
59 Coertze (1987) 71; Jacobs (1974) 72; De Beer (1986) 95; Boonzaaier (1980) 121–123.
60 Boonzaaier (1980) 123–124.
61 See Mair (1965) 107–120.
10.7.2 Black Administration Act

In South Africa, indirect rule was implemented nationally in 1927 when, in terms of the Black
Administration Act,62 a comprehensive system of native administration was created. The main
features were:
(a) the institution of the Governor-General (subsequently replaced by the President) as
supreme chief of all Bantu-speaking groups with all the powers which a traditional leader
holds under indigenous law;63
(b) granting the President edictal legislative powers in respect of Bantu-speaking communi-
ties.64 These powers were exercised by proclamation that was held to be similar to par-
liamentary legislation.65 Chief Commissioners, Native Affairs Commissioners and other
officials were appointed to administer, and to exercise control over, Africans;66
(c) special commissioners’ courts were established to adjudicate in disputes between Africans,
and chiefs were granted limited civil and criminal jurisdiction in respect of Africans;67 and
(d) last, but not least, traditional leaders were appointed by the Governor-General (subsequently
replaced by the President).68 Although he generally had to have regard to customary rules
of succession, he was not bound by it.69
10.7.3 Powers, functions and duties

The powers, functions and duties of “chiefs and headmen” prescribed by the 1957 Proclama-
tion70 included the following:
(a) to further the interests of the community;
(b) to develop and improve the territory;
(c) to maintain law and order in the territory; and
(d) to further the exercise of all acts and regulations in his area in respect of:
• public health;
• tax;
• registration of births and deaths;
• prevention of animal diseases; and
• land use and land administration.
________________________
62 The remaining sections of this Act, insofar as they deal with traditional authorities and the regulations
promulgated in relation to traditional authorities, were repealed by the Repeal of the Black Administration
Act and Amendment of Certain Laws Act 28 of 2005. However, the commencement date of the Repeal Act
has been postponed a number of times, most recently by the Repeal of the Black Administration Act and
Amendment of Certain Laws Amendment Act 20 of 2012, on account of the fact that new legislation deal-
ing with traditional courts has not been enacted (see 10.7.10). The result is that the sections in the Black
Administration Act 38 of 1927 that deal with the civil and criminal jurisdiction of traditional courts (as well
as all similar legislation enacted by the four former TBVC states (Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Venda and
Ciskei) and the six former self-governing territories) remain in place.
63 Section 1 of the Black Administration Act.
64 Section 25.
65 R v Maharaj 1950 (3) SA 187 (A).
66 Section 2 of the Black Administration Act.
67 Sections 10, 12 and 20.
68 Section 1.
69 Buthelezi v Minister of Bantu Administration and Development 1961 (3) SA 256 (N) confirmed in Buthelezi
v Minister of Bantu Administration and Development 1961 (4) SA 835 (A).
70 Regulations Prescribing the Duties, Powers, Privileges and Conditions of Service of Chiefs and Headmen –
Proc 110 of 1957 published in GG 5854 of 18 April 1957.
10.7.4 Apartheid era

The apartheid government took the matter a step further. It made traditional authorities the foun-
dation stones of its policy of ethnic homelands.
The Black Authorities Act71 granted recognition to indigenous organs of authority. The Act
made provision for self-government at local, regional and territorial level. It also dealt with the
adaptation of indigenous authorities to the demands of modern administration.
A traditional authority was composed of the traditional leader and a number of council mem-
bers. The council members could be nominated by the traditional leader or they could be elected,
to the degree that the local indigenous law made provision for this. In addition, regional and
territorial authorities were established.
According to section 4, the powers, functions and duties of a traditional authority included the
following:
(a) managing the affairs of the traditional community (“tribe”);
(b) assistance and guidance to the traditional leader in the exercise of his duties; and
(c) in general, exercising powers and performing activities and duties which are within the
Governor-General’s (subsequently replaced by the President) direction and fall within the
scope of the traditional community (“tribal”) management or powers that the Governor-
General (subsequently replaced by the President) could grant.
The words “tribe”, “tribal” or “tribalism” are regarded by some scholars as derogative in meaning and
72
should not be used. Although they are still used in some literature, statutes and judgments, the concept
“traditional community” is to be preferred. Section 1 read with section 2 of the Traditional Leadership and
Governance Framework Act 41 of 2003 defines a “traditional community” as one that is recognised as one.
It will be recognised as such when the community is subject to a system of traditional leadership in terms of
the customs of such community and if it observes a system of customary law. Though the Act also uses the
term “tribe” on a number of occasions, it is only done in the context of former statutory recognition of
“tribes” and “tribal authorities”. For example, section 28(3) reads as follows: “Any ‘tribe’ that, immediately
before the commencement of this Act, had been established and was still recognised as such, is deemed to be
a traditional community . . .”.
10.7.5 Homeland phase

The next phase was the homeland phase,73 when most homeland governments passed their own
laws on traditional leaders and authorities.74 They took their cue from the Black Authorities Act,
but nevertheless put an individual stamp on homeland traditional authorities. All in all, it left the
1996 national and provincial governments with a variety of statutorily recognised traditional
organs of authority, based on the pre-1994 legislation, which continued to exist during the life of
________________________
71 68 of 1951. Also see De Souza (2014) SA Crime Quarterly 42.

72 See Wiley (2013) 1–2.
73 In respect of the six homelands which did not opt for so-called independence, the empowering statutory
framework was provided by the Bantu Homelands Constitution Act 21 of 1971 (subsequently renamed as
the National States Constitution Act 21 of 1971, and finally as the Self-governing Territories Constitution
Act 21 of 1971). The four TBVC states (Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Venda and Ciskei) had full legislative
powers.
74 Transkeian Authorities Act 4 of 1965; Ciskei Administrative Authorities Act 37 of 1984; Bophuthatswana
Traditional Authorities Act 23 of 1978; Qwaqwa Administration Authorities Act 6 of 1983; KwaZulu
Amakhosi and Iziphakanyiswa Act 9 of 1990; KwaZulu Act on the Payment of Salaries, Allowances and
other Privileges to the Ingonyama, Act 6 of 1993; Kwandebele Traditional Authorities Act 2 of 1994; and
Venda Traditional Leaders Proclamation, 1991 (Proc 29 of 1991).
the interim Constitution of the Republic of South Africa75 (27 April 1994–3 February 1997),76 and
after the commencement of the Constitution.77
10.7.6 Constitutional recognition

The hallmark of the current phase is the constitutional recognition of traditional leaders and
authorities. Section 211 of the (final 1996) Constitution78 recognises traditional leaders as
follows:
(1) The institution, status and role of traditional leadership, according to customary law, are recognised,
subject to the Constitution.
(2) A traditional authority that observes a system of customary law may function subject to any
applicable legislation and customs, which includes amendments to, or repeal of, that legislation or
those customs.
(3) The courts must apply customary law when that law is applicable, subject to the Constitution and any
legislation that specifically deals with customary law.
Section 212 envisaged a role for traditional leaders as follows:
(1) National legislation may provide for a role for traditional leadership as an institution at local level on
matters affecting local communities.
(2) To deal with matters relating to traditional leadership, the role of traditional leaders, customary law
and the customs of communities observing a system of customary law –
(a) national or provincial legislation may provide for the establishment of houses of traditional
leaders; and
(b) national legislation may establish a council of traditional leaders.
Both sections are vague and couched in general terms. This led the Constitutional Court, in
certifying the Constitution, to say:
The Constitution cannot be constitutionally faulted for leaving the complicated, varied and ever-developing
specifics of how such leadership should function in the wider democratic society, and how customary
law should develop and be interpreted to future social evolution, legislative deliberation and constitutional
79
interpretation.
10.7.7 White Paper on Traditional Leadership and Governance

In 2003, the then Department of Provincial and Local Government published a White Paper80
that set out the framework that would inform legislation intended to:
(a) define the place and role of the institution within the new system of democratic governance;81
________________________
75 Act 200 of 1993.

76 Section 229 of the interim Constitution.
77 Item 2 of Sch 6 to the (final, 1996) Constitution, which provides for the continuation of old-order (pre-
27 April 1994) legislation and legislation enacted during the interim period, subject to any amendment or
repeal, and consistency with the Constitution.
78 See Ch 11 of the interim Constitution. Also see Rautenbach in Fombad and Steytler (eds) (2019 forthcom-
ing) para 2.
79 Ex parte Chairperson of the Constitutional Assembly: In re Certification of the Amended Text of the
Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1997 (2) SA 97 (CC) para 197.
80 The White Paper on Traditional Leadership and Governance (2003) published as GN 2336 in GG 25438 of
10 September 2003. Also see Rautenbach in Fombad and Steytler (eds) (2019 forthcoming) para 3.
81 See Mathonsi and Sithole (2017) African Journal of Public Affairs 35–46, where the authors highlight
incompatibilities between traditional leadership systems and the modern liberal democratic system in South
Africa, especially in respect of governance, and advocate the harmonisation of the two. Also see Rauten-
bach in Fombad and Steytler (eds) (2019 forthcoming) para 4, where the author discusses Dalindyebo v S
2016 (1) SACR 329 (SCA). The conduct of King Dalindyebo, as the principal leader of the AbaThembu
traditional community, towards the community was found to be unjustifiable in terms of the Constitution,
even though he stated that he acted in the community’s best interests.
(b) transform the institution in accordance with constitutional imperatives; and

(c) restore the integrity and legitimacy of the institution of traditional leadership in accordance
with customary law and practices.82
10.7.8 Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act83

The White Paper on Traditional Leadership and Governance culminated in the Traditional
Leadership and Governance Framework Act in 2003 (which commenced on 24 Septem-
ber 2004). It provides a framework, as well as norms and standards on traditional leadership and
governance.84 It informs and guides more detailed legislation developed by provinces with
regard to traditional leadership and governance and other related matters.85 The Act was exten-
sively amended in 2009 by the Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Amendment
Act (which commenced on 25 January 2010).86
The following is an outline of the Act. The statutory recognition and framework do not coin-
cide in all respects with the traditional institutions as described above. Yet the point of departure
is still the “customary institution or structure” defined in section 1 of the Act as “those institu-
tions or structures established in terms of customary law”.
Moreover, the objectives of the Act, as stated in the Preamble to the Act, are:
(a) to set out a national framework and norms and standards that will define the place and role
of traditional leadership within the new system of democratic governance;
(b) to transform the institution in line with constitutional imperatives; and
(c) to restore the integrity and legitimacy of the institution of traditional leadership in line with
customary law and practices.87
The Act requires provincial legislation to be enacted. As indicated above, such provincial
legislation may not be in conflict with the provisions of the (national) Act, but must contain
province-specific arrangements.88
________________________
82 White Paper on Traditional Leadership and Governance 11.

83 41 of 2003 (hereafter ‘the Act’).
84 See Matlala (2014) SA Crime Quarterly 32, where the author states that the Act deems “tribes” that existed
prior to the commencement of the Act as the “present-day traditional communities”, and tribal authorities
established by the Bantu Authorities Act 1951 and recognised as such prior to said date, as traditional coun-
cils (if they met the new composition requirements set out in the Act).
85 Section 2(2)(b) of the Act. See, for example, the Eastern Cape Traditional Leadership and Governance Act
1 of 2017. The Repeal of Local Government and Traditional Affairs Laws Act (Eastern Cape) 6 of 2016
repealed obsolete and old order legislation dealing with local government and traditional affairs in the East-
ern Cape, including, but not limited to, sections of the Black Administration Act 38 of 1927, Transkeian
Authorities Act 68 of 1951, and the whole of the Black Authorities Act 68 of 1951, Customary Law
Amendment Decree (Ciskei) Act 23 of 1991 and a number of Ordinances and Proclamations.
86 23 of 2009 (hereafter the Amendment Act). Chapter 6 of the Act came into operation on 1 February 2010.
This chapter deals primarily with Dispute and Claim Resolution.
87 See Iya (2014) SAPL 206–281 for a discussion of the traditionalist view of the recognition of traditional
leadership, the modernist view (the abolition of the institution of traditional leadership), and the pragmatic
middle course, with a specific focus on the need for innovative ideas by the youth.
88 See the KwaZulu-Natal Traditional Leadership and Governance Act 5 of 2005, the Eastern Cape Traditional
Leadership and Governance Act 1 of 2017, the Gauteng Traditional Leadership and Governance Act 4 of
2010, the Mpumalanga Traditional Leadership and Governance Act 3 of 2005, the North West Traditional
Leadership and Governance Act 2 of 2005, the Free State Traditional Leadership and Governance Act 8 of
2005, the Northern Cape Traditional Leadership, Governance and Houses of Traditional Leaders Act 2 of
2007, and the Limpopo Traditional Leadership and Institutions Act 6 of 2005. Also see 10.7.8.11 for pro-
vincial legislation dealing with the provincial houses of traditional leaders, and for a discussion of the statu-
tory provisions relating to local houses of traditional leaders.
The Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Amendment Bill89 is still under con-
sideration in Parliament. If enacted, it will extend the time-frames in which king- and queenship
councils and traditional councils must be established and community authorities must be dis-
established. It will also align the term of office of entities referred to as traditional authorities,
traditional councils and king- and queenship councils with the term of the National House of
Traditional Leaders. It needs to be noted that the Act (including all its amendments)will be
repealed by the Traditional and Khoi-San Leadership Bill,90 if it is enacted (see discussion
below).91
10.7.8.1 Traditional communities92

A community may be recognised as a traditional community if it:
(a) is subject to a system of traditional leadership in terms of that community’s customs; and
(b) observes a system of customary law.
The recognition is to be done by the Premier of a province in accordance with provincial legisla-
tion and after consultation with the provincial house of traditional leaders, the community
concerned and the king or queen, if any, under whose authority that community would fall.
A radical innovation is that the community must transform and adapt the relevant customary
law and customs in order to comply with the relevant provisions contained in the Bill of Rights,
especially by:93
(a) preventing unfair discrimination;
(b) promoting equality; and
(c) seeking to progressively advance gender representation in the succession to traditional
leadership positions.
10.7.8.2 Recognition of king- and queenships94

A group of traditional communities may be recognised as a king- or queenship. The group must
in terms of provincial legislation be recognised as being a king- or queenship; each constituent
community must have a recognised traditional council and each senior traditional leader con-
cerned must be recognised in terms of provincial legislation. One of the senior traditional leaders
who has a higher status than the others must be recognised as king or queen by those traditional
communities; the group must regard themselves as a distinct group, and it must have a system of
traditional leadership at a king- or queenship level. It must, lastly, have a proven history of
recognition as king- or queenship with a recognised senior traditional leader of higher status as a
king or queen in terms of the applicable customary law of succession.
________________________
89 [B8–2015].
90 [B23B–2015].
91 See discussion at 10.7.12.
92 Section 2(1) of the Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act, No. 41 of 2003; The Eastern
Cape Traditional Leadership and Governance Act 1 of 2017 states that there are three requirements before a
community may be recognised as a traditional community, namely that it must have a system of traditional
leadership at a senior traditional leadership level, it must observe a system of customary law, and must con-
sist of five or more administrative areas (s 4(1)). See Bakgatla-Ba-Kgafela Communal Property Association
v Bakgatla-Ba-Kgafela Tribal Authority 2015 (6) SA 32 (CC) for rights of traditional communities with re-
gard to land, and the role of “chiefs” (traditional leaders). Also see Mnwana (2014) SA Crime Quarterly
21–29; and Wicomb (2014) SA Crime Quarterly 57–64).
93 Section 2(3) of the Act.
94 Section 2A.
This would appear to be an acknowledgment of a de facto position. If the criteria are met, the
recognition would follow. The recognition is to be done by the President in consultation with the
Minister, the Premier concerned, the Provincial and National Houses of Traditional Leaders and
the senior traditional leaders concerned.
10.7.8.3 Recognition of principal traditional communities95

The Act, as amended, introduces a new concept, namely principal traditional communities, with
three levels, namely:
(a) traditional communities;
(b) principal traditional communities; and
(c) king- and queenships.
The criteria for establishing principal traditional communities are the same as those for king- and
queenships, except that the institution is referred to as principal traditional communities having
principal traditional leaders. Its purpose is to cater for those traditional communities that are
grouped together, but in respect of which the status of the most senior traditional leader is less
than that of a king- or queenship.
10.7.8.4 Establishment and recognition of traditional councils96

A council is to be established for each of the three levels of traditional communities (traditional
communities, king-/queenships, and principal traditional councils). The first is a traditional
council in respect of a traditional community. Again the principles and guidelines must be
embodied in provincial legislation. The membership of a traditional council is specific in that at
least a third must be women and overall the members must comprise:
(a) Traditional leaders and members of the traditional community selected by the senior tradi-
tional leader concerned who is an ex officio member and chairperson of the traditional
council, for a term of five years aligned with the term of office of the National House of
Traditional Leaders, in terms of that community’s customs, taking into account the need for
overall compliance with the number of women; and
(b) Other members of the traditional community who are democratically elected for a term of
five years aligned with the term of office of the National House of Traditional Leaders and
who must constitute 40% of the members of the traditional council.
If an insufficient number of women are available, the Premier may determine a lower threshold
for that particular council. The act of recognition is entrusted to the Premier of the province
concerned.
A tribal authority that was established and recognised immediately prior to the commence-
ment of the national Act (24 September 2004), is deemed to be a traditional council as contem-
plated in section 3 from that date.97 Such deemed traditional council had to comply with the
________________________
95 Section 2B of the Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act, No. 41 of 2003.
96 Section 3. The Eastern Cape Traditional Leadership and Governance Act 1 of 2017 sets out the require-
ments in s 6, term of office of members and oath of office in s 7, functions in s 8, designation of chairperson
in s 9, disqualification of members in s 10, vacation of seats and the filling of vacancies in s 11, meetings
and minutes in ss 12 and 13, and staff in s 14. Sch 3 contains the oath, and Sch 4 the affirmation. The (East-
ern Cape) Regulations for the Establishment of Traditional Councils were published in 2008 (PN 48 of 2008
(PG 2012 of 10 November 2008)) and amended in 2014 (PN 52 of 2014 (PG 3292 of 13 October 2014)). Also
see the Free State Provincial and Local Houses of Traditional Leaders Act 7 of 2017, s 31 and Sch 3. For a
discussion on the legal status of traditional councils in the North West province, see De Souza (2014) SA
Crime Quarterly 41–56.
reconstitution requirements as set out in section 3(2) within a period of seven years (not later
than 23 September 2011).98
Section 4B of the Act also provides for the establishment of traditional sub-councils. This
may be done where a traditional community occupies two or more geographical areas within a
province. A sub-council may in that event be established for that section of the community
which is resident outside the area in which the great place is located.99 The traditional sub-
council is part of the main traditional council,100 and similar arrangements as regards its consti-
tution and composition apply as determined in the case of traditional councils.101 A traditional
sub-council performs the functions delegated to it by the related main traditional council.102
10.7.8.5 Establishment and recognition of king-and queenship councils103

In this case, the establishment of a council is entrusted to the President. Once more, at least a
third of the members must be women, provided that if an insufficient number are available, the
Minister may determine a lower threshold. There are elaborate provisions about the composition
and membership of these councils, but the essence is that the membership comprises:
(a) 60% of traditional leaders, including the king or queen who is ex officio member and
chairperson, and members of the traditional community selected by the king or queen terms
of the community’s customs, taking into account the overall compliance of the requirement
that at least a third must be women; and
(b) 40% of the members elected democratically, by an electoral college104 consisting of all
traditional leaders who fall under the king- or queenship.
________________________
98 In Mogale v Maakane [2011] ZANWHC 17 (31 March 2011) had to determine what the governing body of
the tribe was. The court held that the traditional council is a permanent institution, and that its existence
cannot be terminated by a member of that institution. In addition, a traditional leader cannot dismiss mem-
bers of the Traditional Council – membership of the traditional council only terminates where the term of
office of five years expires, on the death of a member, or where a member is or becomes disqualified to
hold office as a member (s 8 of the North West Traditional Leadership and Governance Act, No. 2 of 2005.
The court also found that the institution of the “tribal” council is deemed to be a traditional council, and that
the members of the former “tribal” authority by operation of law are members of the traditional council.
Gender and democratic transformation of the membership of the traditional council must be done within
seven years of the commencement of the Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act 41 of
2003 (23 September 2011). Also see De Souza (2014) SA Crime Quarterly 42–56, where the requirements
for reconstitution are set out, the problems associated with the process in the North West province are dis-
cussed, and uncertainty arising from tensions in the legislation is examined). The 2009 amendments to the
Act validated contracts which traditional councils (consisting of former members of “tribal” authorities)
have made, but do not deal with the validation of an unauthorised act performed by the Premier (and is con-
sequently not retrospective as regards the Premier’s unauthorised acts). As a side note, see Bengwenyama-
ya-Maswazi Community v Genorah Resources (Pty) Ltd 2015 (1) SA 219 (SCA), Bengwenyama-ya-
Maswazi Community v Minister of Mineral Resources 2015 (1) SA 197 (SCA), and Bengwenyama Minerals
(Pty) Ltd v Genorah Resources (Pty) Ltd 2011 (3) BCLR 229 (CC) where the rights of traditional councils
(“tribal councils”) regarding land and mineral resources, as well as representation of communities, were
discussed. Also see Badenhorst and Olivier (2011) De Jure 126–148; Badenhorst, Olivier and Williams
(2012) TSAR 106–129; and Olivier, Williams and Badenhorst (2017) PER 1–34 for discussions on these
cases.)
99 Section 4B(1)(a) of the Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act, No. 41 of 2003.
100 Section 4B(2).
101 Section 4B(3).
102 Section 4B(6).
103 Section 3A.
104 Also see s 84 of the Eastern Cape Traditional Leadership and Governance Act 1 of 2017.
10.7.8.6 Establishment and recognition of principal traditional councils105

The establishment and recognition of these councils are almost identical to those of king- and
queenship councils. The outstanding feature of each one is that 60% are selected by the principal
traditional leader and 40% are elected democratically, and the requirement that at least a third
must be females.
10.7.8.7 Functions of traditional councils

Section 4 of the Act lists 12 functions of traditional councils. Six of these functions enjoin the
councils to contribute towards, participate in and promote development in one form or another.
Most of the functions are aimed at supporting municipalities and other government organs. Only
two are inherent functions, namely:
(a) administering the affairs of the traditional community in accordance with custom and
tradition;106 and
(b) performing the functions conferred by customary law, customs and statutory law consistent
with the Constitution.107
Provincial legislation must regulate the performance of functions by a traditional council by at
least requiring it to keep proper records, have its financial statements audited, disclose the
receipt of gifts, and adhere to the code of conduct.
Section 20 provides a framework for the optional allocation of roles and additional functions
to traditional councils and traditional leaders by national and provincial spheres of government.
See in this regard, 10.7.8.12 below.
10.7.8.8 Functions of king- and queenship councils108

The functions of king- and queenship councils were enacted, for the first time, in 2009, as
follows:
(a) administering the affairs of the king- or queenship in accordance with customs and tradition;
(b) assisting, supporting and guiding senior traditional leaders and traditional councils
falling within the jurisdiction of the king- or queenship concerned in the performance of
their functions;
(c) assisting the king or queen in performing customary functions in relation to the recognition
of senior traditional leaders, where applicable;
(d) mediating in disputes between senior traditional leaderships falling within the jurisdiction
of the king- or queenship;
(e) promoting unity between traditional communities falling under the jurisdiction of the king-
or queenship; and
(f) assisting the king or queen in performing his or her roles and functions conferred upon him
or her by the President in terms of the regulations issued under section 9(5).
________________________
105 Section 3B of the Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act, No. 41 of 2003. The Eastern
Cape Traditional Leadership and Governance Act 1 of 2017 sets out the membership requirements of tradi-
tional councils in s 16, and its functions in s 17.
106 Section 4(1)(a) of the Act.
107 Section 4(1)(l). For court cases dealing with traditional councils, see Pilane v Pilane 2013 (4) BCLR 431
(CC). Also see Monye (2014) SAPL 323–342 and Matlala (2014) SA Crime Quarterly 31–40 for a discus-
sion of the case), as well as The Traditional Authority of the Bapo Ba Mogale Community v Kenoshi [2010]
ZAGPPHC 72 (29 July 2010).
10.7.8.9 Functions of principal traditional councils109

The functions are the same as those of king- or queenship councils discussed at 10.7.8.8 above.
10.7.8.10 Recognition of traditional leadership positions110

There are four leadership positions, namely:
(a) king- or queenship;
(b) principal traditional leadership;
(c) senior traditional leadership;111
(d) headmanship;112
(e) regents;113
(f) acting traditional leaders;114 and
(g) deputy traditional leaders.115
Without exception, the royal family116 must identify the person who qualifies in terms of cus-
tomary law and custom for recognition in the case of (a), (b), (c), (d) and (e) above, and for
appointment in the case of (f) and (g) above.
The royal family is defined in section 1 as:
. . . the core customary institution or structure consisting of immediate relatives of the ruling family within a
traditional community, who have been identified in terms of custom, and includes, where applicable, other
family members who are close relatives of the ruling family.
The actual recognition of kings and queens are done by the President and in the case of principal
and senior traditional leaders, headmen, headwomen and regents,117 by the Premier of the
________________________
109 Section 4C of the Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act, No. 41 of 2003.
110 Section 8. Also see Eastern Cape Traditional Leadership and Governance Act 1 of 2017, ss 21–28.
111 See Baleni v Baleni [2012] ZAECMHC 19 (20 December 2012), where the Eastern Cape High Court
(Mthatha) had to decide on the validity of the appointment of senior traditional leadership of the Amadiba
Traditional Council in Mbizana. Mgombane Royal Council v Kekana [2013] ZAGPPHC 70 (1 March
2013) also dealt with the validity of the recognition of a senior traditional leader (Kgosi). The case, how-
ever, did not deal in detail with the recognition, as condonation was not granted for the late application.
112 See Dudumayo v Dalasile [2011] ZAEMCHC 8 (26 May 2011) where the Eastern Cape High Court
(Mthatha) had to make an order regarding the recognition of the Inkosana of the ama-Tshomane Tribe and
the entitlement to be the headman of Maphuzi Administrative Area 15A (specifically compliance with s 18
of the Eastern Cape Traditional Leadership and Governance Act 4 of 2005, since repealed by the Eastern
Cape Traditional Leadership and Governance Act 1 of 2017, read with ss 21, 22 and 25 of the Traditional
Leadership and Governance Framework Act 41 of 2003. Also see Maeteletja v Maeteletja [2013]
ZAGPPHC 155 (12 June 2013) where the North Gauteng High Court had to decide on the validity of the
appointment of a headman. The rule of male primogeniture was also at issue in this case. In Premier, East-
ern Cape v Ntamo 2015 (6) SA 400 (ECB), the Eastern Cape Local Division of the High Court (Bisho) had
to decide whether the royal family and the MEC complied with s 18 of the Eastern Cape Traditional Lead-
ership and Governance Act 4 of 2005 (since repealed by the Eastern Cape Traditional Leadership and
Governance Act 1 of 2017). The court found that in terms of s 18, the royal family has, with due regard to
applicable customary law, to identify a person who qualifies in terms of customary law to assume the posi-
tion in question. In this instance, the “applicable customary law” required the community to elect the
headman. In addition, a person who “qualifies in terms of customary law” is an individual elected by the
community.
113 Section 13 of the Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act, No. 41 of 2003.
114 Section 14.
115 Section 15.
116 Also see Eastern Cape Traditional Leadership and Governance Act 1 of 2017, s 29, for the roles and
functions of the royal family.
117 In terms of s 1 of the KwaZulu-Natal Traditional Leadership and Governance Act 5 of 2005, a regent is
also referred to as an Ibambabukhosi. In Mngomezulu v The Premier of the Province of KwaZulu-Natal
(continued)
relevant province,118 while an acting traditional leader is appointed by what is termed an appro-
priate authority (by means of the issuance of a certificate of appointment).119 A queen, king or
principal traditional leader, senior traditional leader, headman or headwoman may appoint a
deputy to act in his or her stead.120 This appointment (by means of the issuance of a certificate of
appointment by an appropriate authority) may be made when any one of them:121
(a) becomes a full-time member of a municipal council;122
(b) is elected as a member of a provincial legislature;
(c) is elected as a member of the National Assembly;
(d) is appointed as a permanent delegate in the National Council of Provinces; or
(e) is elected to, or appointed in, a full-time position in any house of traditional leaders.
The remuneration of traditional leaders is regulated by the Remuneration of Public Office
Bearers Act,123 which states in section 5(2) that traditional leaders may not be paid two incomes
when simultaneously holding two public offices.124
________________________
[2011] ZAKZPHC 52 (17 November 2011), the court dealt with the recognition of an Ibambabukhosi in
terms of the KwaZulu-Natal Act and found that there was a lacuna in the KwaZulu-Natal Act. The facts of
the case can be summarised as follows: the Inkosi passed away, and a dispute regarding his successor was
referred to the National Commission of Traditional Leadership Disputes and Claims in 2007. A determina-
tion by the Commission was still outstanding at the date of judgment. One of the contestants for the posi-
tion of Inkosi was, at the time of the High Court case, still a minor. The court stated that in terms of s 30(4)
of the KwaZulu-Natal Act, an Ibambabukhosi must carry out functions on behalf of an Inkosi until such
time as the Inkosi can assume office. An Ibambabukhosi cannot carry out the duties of office on
behalf of an Inkosi if such Inkosi’s right to assume office is in dispute.
118 Sections 9(4)(b), 10A(b), 11(1)(b) and 13(1)(b) of the Act. See Leboho v Premier of Limpopo Province
[2011] ZAGPPHC 22 (28 January 2011), where the court had to consider the validity of the recognition of
a chief or Kgoshi. The judgment sets out the options available to the Premier where there is an allegation
that the identification of a person as a Kgoshi was not in accordance with customary law, customs or pro-
cesses, namely to refer the matter to the Provincial House of Traditional Leaders for recommendations or
refer the matter to the royal family (as a result, the Premier may not resolve the dispute on his or her own)
(p 38 of the judgment).
119 Section 14(2)(a) of the Act.
120 Section 15(1).
121 Section 15(1).
122 See Mathenjwa and Makama (2016) Law, Democracy & Development 200–214, where the author revisits
the participation of traditional leaders in municipal councils. Also see Rautenbach in Fombad and Steytler
(eds) (2019 forthcoming) para 4. Note that the Free State Municipality Standard Rules and Orders (PN 158
of 2016 (PG 48 of 22 July 2016) also apply to traditional leaders participating in the proceedings of a
municipal council and its committees in terms of s 81 of the Local Government: Municipal Structures Act
117 of 1998 (reg 1.4.2). The KwaZulu-Natal Regulations on the Participation and Role of Traditional
Leaders in Municipal Councils and Municipalities, 2015 (PN 146 of 2015, PG 1511 of 2 October 2015)
provides, inter alia, for the role of traditional leaders in a municipality (reg 3), and the relationship
between municipalities and traditional leaders (reg 4), and determines which steps must be followed if a
traditional leader breaches or does not comply with the code of conduct contained in Sch 1 to the Local
Government: Municipal Systems Act 32 of 2000 (reg 5).
123 20 of 1998.
124 Madzhadzhi v President of the Republic of South Africa [2010] ZASCA 57 (1 April 2010). Also see
Mbhashe Traditional Leaders in Municipal Council v Mbhashe Local Municipality [2013] ZAECMHC 27
(26 September 2013) where the court found that, when considering s 81 of the Local Government: Munici-
pal Structures Act 117 of 1998 and s 5 of the Remuneration of Public Office Bearers Act 20 of 1998,
“remuneration” and “allowance” cannot be used to describe “out of pocket” expenses. Also see Eastern
Cape Traditional Leadership and Governance Act 1 of 2017, s 37 (allowances for members of traditional
councils), and 39–47 (financial matters); Free State Provincial and Local Houses of Traditional Leaders
Act 7 of 2017, s 20 (salaries and allowances payable to members of the Houses and status of members).
10.7.8.11 Houses of traditional leaders

In terms of the Constitution, national or provincial legislation may provide for the establishment
of houses of traditional leaders and national legislation may establish a council of traditional
leaders.125
Section 16(1) of the Act provides for national, provincial and local houses of traditional leaders.
The Act has added local houses of traditional leaders.126 Furthermore, the National House of
Traditional Leaders Act127 provides for the establishment and functions of the National House of
Traditional Leaders. The National Council of Traditional Leaders (subsequently renamed as the
National House of Traditional Leaders) was established on 18 April 1997.
National House of Traditional Leaders
The House consists of three senior traditional leaders elected by each provincial house. If there
are an insufficient number of senior traditional leaders in a provincial house, it may elect head-
men or headwomen. Where a provincial house has not been established, the following scenarios
are foreseen:
(a) There may be more than three traditional councils performing functions of a local house.
In that event, the chairpersons of the councils must from among themselves elect three rep-
resentatives to the House.
(b) There may be only three or less traditional councils performing functions of a local house.
In such event, the chairpersons of the traditional councils are ex officio members of the
House.
(c) There may be one or more local houses, in which event the senior traditional leaders in the
province must from among themselves elect three representatives to the House.
At least a third of the members must be women. If there are an insufficient number of women,
the Minister must, after consultation with the Premier concerned, determine a lesser threshold.128
The powers and duties of the House include the following: In terms of section 11(1) it must
(a) . . .cooperate with the provincial houses of traditional leaders, to promote –

(i) the role of traditional leadership within a democratic constitutional dispensation;
(ii) nation building;
(iii) peace, stability and cohesiveness of communities;
(iv) the preservation of the moral fibre and regeneration of society;
(v) the preservation of the culture and traditions of communities;
(vi) socio-economic development and service delivery;
(vii) the social well-being and welfare of communities; and
(viii) the transformation and adaptation of customary law and custom in order to comply with the
provisions of the Bill of Rights in the Constitution, in particular by –
(aa) preventing unfair discrimination;
(bb) promoting equality; and
continued
________________________
125 Section 212(2)(a) of the Act. Also see s 86 of the Eastern Cape Traditional Leadership and Governance
Act 1 of 2017, which provides for immunities and privileges of members of houses of traditional leaders
(as well as the Free State Provincial and Local Houses of Traditional Leaders Act 7 of 2017, s 29).
126 Section 17.
127 22 of 2009. In Maakane v Premier of the North-West Province [2011] ZANWHC 29 (23 June 2011), the
court stated in para [19] that s 25 of the Act did not extend the term of office of Traditional Councils, but
recognised the members of the National House of Traditional Leaders who were elected in terms of the
repealed Act to remain until the expiry of the five-year term (2012).
128 National House of Traditional Leaders Act 22 of 2009, ss 3 and 4.
(cc) seeking to progressively advance gender representation in the succession to traditional

leadership positions; and
(b) to enhance co-operation between the House and the various provincial houses with a view to
addressing matters of common interest.
In addition, in terms of section 11(2), the National House of Traditional Leaders –
(a) must consider Parliamentary Bills referred to it by the Secretary to Parliament in terms of section 18
of the Framework Act [Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act 41 of 2003];
(b) may advise the national government and make recommendations relating to any of the following:
(i) Matters relating to policy and legislation regarding traditional leadership;
(ii) the role of traditional leaders;
(iii) customary law; and
(iv) the customs of communities observing a system of customary law;
(c) may investigate and make available information on traditional leadership, traditional communities,
customary law and customs;
(d) must, at the request of a member of National Cabinet, advise him or her in connection with any
matter referred to in this section;
(e) must be consulted on national government development programmes that affect traditional communities;
(f) must complement and support the work of government at national level;
(g) must form cooperative relations and partnerships with government at national level in development
and service delivery;
(h) may participate in international and national programmes geared towards the development of rural
communities;
(i) may participate in national initiatives meant to monitor, review and evaluate government pro-
grammes in rural communities; and
(j) must perform tasks as may be determined by a member of the national Cabinet or as may be
provided for in national legislation.
Provincial houses of traditional leaders

The Constitution129 makes provision for the optional establishment of provincial houses of
traditional leaders by means of national or provincial legislation. So far, eight provincial houses
of traditional leaders have been established in terms of the following provincial legislation:
• Eastern Cape Traditional Leadership and Governance Act 1 of 2017;130
• Free State Provincial and Local Houses of Traditional Leaders Act;131
• Gauteng: Traditional Leadership and Governance Act;132
• KwaZulu-Natal Traditional Leadership and Governance Act;133
________________________
129 Section 212(2)(a) of the Constitution.

130 Which repealed the Eastern Cape House of Traditional Leaders Act 1 of 1995. See specifically ss 66–83.
The relationship arrangements regarding houses are set out in ss 89–92. Also see the Regulations on the
Election of Members of the Eastern Cape Houses of Traditional Leaders (PN 174 of 2017, PG 3905 of
29 August 2017); Free State Provincial and Local Houses of Traditional Leaders Act 7 of 2017, ss 23–28;
Rules Regulating the Election of Members of the Provincial House of Traditional Leaders in the Northern
Cape Province (GN 83 of 2017, PG 2118 of 4 August 2017). The North West Provincial Languages Act 1
of 2015 applies, among others, to the North West Provincial House of Traditional Leaders (s 3) and gov-
erns the use of provincial official languages in proceedings of the Provincial House (s 5).
131 7 of 2017, which, among others, repealed the Free State: House of Traditional Leaders Act 6 of 1994.
132 4 of 2010.
• Mpumalanga: Mpumalanga Provincial House and Local Houses of Traditional Leaders

Act;134
• Limpopo: Limpopo Traditional Houses of Traditional Leaders Act;135
• North West Houses of Traditional Leaders Act;136 and
• Northern Cape: Northern Cape Traditional Leadership, Governance and Houses of Tradi-
tional Leaders Act.137
The composition of the houses of traditional leaders differs from province to province.
The powers, functions and duties of the various provincial houses differ in detail. The Eastern
Cape legislation is a representative example of what the provincial houses must do. The powers,
functions and duties of the Eastern Cape House of Traditional Leaders are as follows –138
(1) The Provincial House has the roles, powers and functions conferred upon it by this Act and any other
law.
(2) The functions of the Provincial House are –
(a) to work with the National House of Traditional Leaders, to promote –
(i) the role of traditional leadership within a democratic constitutional dispensation;
(ii) nation building;
(iii) peace, stability and cohesiveness of communities;
(iv) the preservation of the moral fibre and regeneration of society;
(v) the preservation of the culture and traditions of communities;
(vi) socio-economic development and service delivery; and
(vii) the social well-being and welfare of communities; and
(b) to enhance co-operation between the Provincial House and various local houses with a view to
address matters of common interest.
(3) The Provincial House –
(a) must consider Bills referred to it by the Speaker of the Provincial Legislature;
(b) may advise the Provincial Government and make recommendations relating but not limited to
the following –
(i) matters relating to policy and legislation impacting on traditional leadership;
(ii) the role of traditional leaders;
(iii) customary law; and
(iv) the customs of communities observing systems of customary law;
(c) may investigate and make available information on traditional leadership, traditional communi-
ties, customary law and customs;
(d) must at the request of a member of the Provincial Executive Council, advise him or her in con-
nection with any matter referred to in this section;
(e) must complement and support the work of the Provincial Government;
(f) must form cooperative relations and partnership with all spheres of government in the develop-
ment of communities and the provision of services to communities;
continued
________________________
133 5 of 2005, which replaced the KwaZulu-Natal: KwaZulu-Natal Act on the House of Traditional Leaders
Act 7 of 1994.
134 6 of 2005.
135 5 of 2005.
136 3 of 2009, which replaced the North West: House of Traditional Leaders for the Province of the North
West Act 12 of 1994.
137 2 of 2007.
138 Eastern Cape Traditional Leadership and Governance Act 1 of 2017, s 75.
(g) may participate in any national and provincial programmes geared towards the development of
rural communities;
(h) may participate in the provincial initiatives meant to monitor, review and evaluate government
programmes in rural communities; and
(i) must perform tasks as may be determined by a member of the Provincial Executive Council, or
as may be provided for in national or provincial legislation.
(4) The Provincial House must provide for mechanisms to maintain oversight of –
(a) local houses; and
(b) traditional councils.
Local houses of traditional leaders

The Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act139 makes provision for the compul-
sory establishment of local houses of traditional leaders within municipal districts in accordance
with provincial legislation. In the areas of jurisdiction of some district municipalities or metro-
politan municipalities there may be more than one senior traditional leader. In such areas, local
houses of traditional leaders must be established.
The number of members of a local house may not be less than five and not more than ten, and
kings, queens and principal traditional leaders may not be elected as members. Where there are
more than 35 traditional councils within an area, the Minister may determine a higher number of
not more than 20. The members must be elected by an electoral college consisting of all the
kings, queens, principal traditional leaders or their representatives residing within the district or
metropolitan municipality.140
The functions of a local house are as follows:141
(a) to advise the district municipality or metropolitan municipality in question on –

(i) matters pertaining to customary law, customs, traditional leadership and the traditional commu-
nities within the district municipality or metropolitan municipality;
(ii) the development of planning frameworks that impact on traditional communities; or
(iii) the development of by-laws that impact on traditional communities;
(b) to participate in local programmes that have the development of rural communities as an object; or
(c) to participate in local initiatives that are aimed at monitoring, reviewing or evaluating government
programmes in rural communities.
In the event that a local house of traditional leaders cannot be established in accordance with
section 17(1)–(2) of the Act, the functions of a local house are performed by the traditional
council within the district municipality or metropolitan municipality concerned.142 The Act
compels Provincial Legislatures to enact a framework providing for the relationship between
local houses and the provincial house concerned.143
________________________
139 41 of 2003, s 17(1)(a). Also see Eastern Cape Traditional Leadership and Governance Act 1 of 2017,
ss 48–65; Free State Provincial and Local Houses of Traditional Leaders Act 7 of 2017, ss 9–15.
140 Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act 41 of 2003, s 17(2)(a)–(b). According to s 17(2)(c),
the electoral college “must seek to elect a sufficient number of women to make the local house of traditional
leaders representative of the traditional leaders within the area of jurisdiction in question”.
142 Section 17(4).
143 Section 17(5).
10.7.8.12 Roles and functions of traditional leaders

The point of departure for the Act was that “in the rural areas the institution of traditional leader-
ship can play a key role in supporting government to improve the quality of life of the people”.144
Traditional leaders more often than not act in consultation with their councils. They do, how-
ever, have roles and functions in their capacity as rulers of their communities. The Act145 recog-
nises this by providing that a traditional leader performs the functions provided for in terms of
customary law and customs of the community concerned, and in applicable legislation. On
account of their interaction with modern government institutions, it is not possible to allocate
carte blanche roles and functions of government to them.
In addition to the prescribed functions of traditional councils (section 4 of the Act – see
10.7.8.7) and of traditional leaders (section 19),146 section 20 of the Act provides a framework
for the optional allocation of roles and additional functions to traditional councils and traditional
leaders by national and provincial spheres of government.
Section 20 of the Act contains guiding principles for the allocation of roles and functions. It
enables the national government and provincial governments to, through legislative or other
measures, provide roles and functions for traditional councils or traditional leaders in respect of
15 areas, such as agriculture, health, and welfare, the management of natural resources, economic
development and tourism.147 There are some procedural directives that must be complied with.
The roles and functions must be allocated with concurrence of the Minister or Member of the
Provincial Executive Committee concerned. The allocation must, moreover, go hand-in-hand
with means to perform the role or function concerned, most importantly resources (which would
include financial resources).148 When an organ of state in the national or provincial sphere
considers allocating a role or function for traditional councils or leaders, it must strive to ensure
that the allocation of such a role or function is accompanied by resources and that appropriate
measures for accounting for such resources are put in place. In addition, the organ of state must
monitor the implementation of the function concerned, as well as ensure that the implementation
is consistent with the Constitution and that the function is being performed.
Any allocation in accordance with section 20 of the Act would entail an extensive investiga-
tion into the capacity of a traditional leader and/or the council, the applicable legislation and the
question whether it would promote the ideals of cooperative governance, integrated development
planning, development and service delivery.149 By January 2018, no such allocation has been
made by any organ of state in the national sphere of government. The implementation of this
section would also require significant training and continuing support to traditional leaders and
traditional councils on account of the fact that the majority of traditional leaders and councils are
currently not sufficiently equipped to fulfil the roles and functions listed in section 20.
Some traditional leaders have raised concerns regarding their functions, as they are of the
opinion that the government has reduced their roles to the preservation of cultural heritage.150 On
the other hand, the Act has also been criticised by community members for providing exaggerated
________________________
144 See the White Paper on Traditional Leadership and Governance 5. Also see Eastern Cape Traditional
Leadership and Governance Act 1 of 2017, ss 30–34.
145 Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act 41 of 2003, s 19.
146 Also see Umndeni (Clan) of Amantungwa v MEC for Housing and Traditional Affairs KwaZulu-Natal
[2011] 2 All SA 548 (SCA).
147 Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act 41 of 2003, s 20(1).
148 Section 20(2) of the Act. Also see s 87 of the Eastern Cape Traditional Leadership and Governance Act 1
of 2017, dealing with support by provincial government to houses of traditional leaders (and also see the
Free State Provincial and Local Houses of Traditional Leaders Act 7 of 2017, s 22).
149 Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act 41 of 2003, s 20(2)(a)–(g).
150 Phago and Netswera (2011) Journal of Public Administration 1023–1038.
powers to traditional leaders, prejudicing women, and reinforcing apartheid-created traditional

community area boundaries (specifically in the former homelands), as well as the fact that
members complaining about disputes relating to “chiefly distortions of customary law” must be
taken up in forums that are not impartial as they are dominated by traditional leaders.151
The establishment of partnerships between municipalities and all categories of traditional
councils, as well as entering into service delivery agreements, is dealt with in section 5 (“Part-
nerships between district and local municipalities and king- and queenship councils, principal
traditional councils and traditional councils”).152 National government and all provincial gov-
ernments must promote such partnerships through legislative or other measures.153 Every part-
nership must be “based on the principles of mutual respect and recognition of the status and
roles of the respective parties” and “guided by and based on the principles of cooperative gov-
ernance”.154 Service delivery agreements may be concluded between a traditional council and a
municipality in accordance with the Local Government: Municipal Systems Act155 and any other
applicable legislation.156
10.7.8.13 Dispute and claim resolution and Commission on Traditional

Leadership Disputes and Claims157
The Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act creates four steps for the resolution
of disputes and claims concerning customary law, customs, other customary institutions or a
matter arising from the implementation of the Act, in the following sequence:158
(a) members of the community and traditional leaders internally and in accordance with customs;
(b) the provincial house of traditional leaders in accordance with its internal rules and procedures;
(c) the Premier of the province, who must consult the parties to the dispute and claim and the
provincial house of traditional leaders concerned; and, finally
(d) the Commission on Traditional Leadership Disputes and Claims (the Commission).
10.7.8.14 Commission
The Commission was established in terms of section 22 of the Act. By its nature there are
extensive rules about the membership and functioning of the Commission.
________________________
151 Similar criticisms have been levied against the Communal Land Rights Act 11 of 2004, which was found
to be unconstitutional in the Constitutional Court case of Tongoane v Minister of Agriculture and Land
Affairs 2010 (6) SA 214 (CC). Also see Gasa (2011) 35 SA Crime Quarterly 23–29; Weeks and Claassens
(2011) Stell LR 834–837. Also see the discussion of traditional courts at ch 11. Further critique includes
that indigenous accountability mechanisms are undermined, customary entitlements are overridden, and
there are inconsistencies with the Bill of Rights. See Claassens in Mostert and Bennett (eds) (2012)
174–209, and Claassens (2011) SAJHR 536.
152 Eastern Cape Traditional Leadership and Governance Act 1 of 2017, s 19.
153 Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act 41 of 2003, s 5(1)–(2).
154 Section 5(3)(a)–(b).
155 32 of 2000.
157 Chapter 6.
158 Section 21.
Membership of Commission159
The Minister must appoint a chairperson and not more than four persons who are knowledgeable
regarding customary law, customs and the institution of traditional leadership.160
Functions of the Commission161
The Commission has authority to investigate and make recommendations on several matters, for
example on:162
(i) a case where there is doubt as to whether a kingship163 or, principal traditional leadership, senior
traditional leadership or headmanship was established in accordance with customary law and customs;
(ii) a case where there is doubt as to whether a principal traditional leadership, senior traditional lead-
ership or headmanship was established in accordance with customary law and customs;
(iii) a traditional leadership position where the title or right of the incumbent is contested;
(iv) claims by communities to be recognised as kingships, queenships, principal traditional communi-
ties, traditional communities, or headmanships;
(v) the legitimacy of the establishment or disestablishment of ‘tribes’ or headmanships;
(vi) disputes resulting from the determination of traditional authority boundaries as a result of merging
or division of ‘tribes’;
(viii) all traditional leadership claims and disputes dating from 1 September 1927 to the coming into
operation of provincial legislation dealing with traditional leadership and governance matters; and
(ix) gender-related disputes relating to traditional leadership positions arising after 27 April 1994.
When considering a dispute or claim, the Commission must consider and apply customary law
and the customs of the relevant traditional community as they applied when the events occurred
that gave rise to the dispute or claim.164 It is further required that the Commission must, in
respect of a:165
(a) king- or queenship, be guided by the criteria as determined in sections 2A(1) and 9(1);166
and
(b) principal traditional leadership, senior traditional leadership or headmanship, be guided by
the customary law and customs and criteria relevant to the establishment of a principal tradi-
tional leadership, senior traditional leadership or headmanship, as the case may be.
________________________
159 Section 23.

160 See Peires (2014) SA Crime Quarterly 7–20, where the author, as one of the commissioners, states that the
Commission imposed its own preferences in the name of custom in certain instances, namely where the
kingships that were called into question, dated back to the pre-colonial period or where colonial interven-
tion was absent (i.e. the case of Western Mpondoland and the Transvaal Ndebele).
161 Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act 41 of 2003, s 25.
162 Section 25(2)(a).
163 See Mamone v Commission of Traditional Leadership Dispute and Claims (260/13) [2014] ZASCA 30 (28
March 2014), where the court had to decide whether the Commission ignored relevant information placed
before it when it made a decision regarding kingship. In Matiwane v President of the Republic [2014] 2 All
SA 419 (ECM) (12 December 2013), the court made a distinction between the original Act (where the
Commission had the power to determine whether a kingship existed and who should be the incumbent) and
the amended Act (where the Commission may only provide advice, and President makes the final determi-
nation) (see para [13]). Also see Ramokoka v Ramokoka (264/13) [2013] ZANWHC 38 (22 March 2013).
164 Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act 41 of 2003, s 25(3)(a). Also see BapediMarota-
Mamone v Commission on Traditional Leadership Disputes and Claims [2014] ZACC 36, where the
Commission was required to establish the relevant customary law as it was when the events that gave rise
to the dispute regarding the rightful king, occurred, and apply same.
165 Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act 41 of 2003, s 25(3)(b).
166 See 10.7.8.2.
Where the Commission investigates disputes resulting from the determination of traditional
council boundaries and the merging or division of traditional communities (referred to as
“tribes” in section 25(3)(c)), it must, before making a recommendation in terms of section 26,
consult with the Municipal Demarcation Board established by section 2 of the Local Govern-
ment: Municipal Demarcation Act167 in cases where the traditional council boundaries straddle
municipal and/or provincial boundaries.168
Furthermore, the Commission:169
(a) may delegate any function (excluding a matter related to king- or queenships) to a provin-
cial committee (section 26A of the Act); and
(b) must coordinate and advise on the work of said provincial committees.
The Commission may adopt rules for the conduct of its business, as well as that of the provincial
committees.170 Provincial legislatures must enact provincial legislation that provides for a
mechanism to deal with disputes and claims related to traditional leadership in the province
concerned. However, such a provincial mechanism may not deal with matters which are dealt
with by the national Commission (and its provincial committees) in accordance with section 25
of the Act.171
Recommendations of the Commission172
In terms of the Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act,173 a recommendation of
the Commission is taken with the support of at least two-thirds of its members. Furthermore, a
recommendation of the Commission must, within two weeks of the recommendation having
been made, be conveyed to:174
(a) the President and the Minister where the position of a king or queen is affected by such a
recommendation; or
(b) the relevant provincial government and any other relevant functionary to which the recom-
mendation of the Commission applies in accordance with applicable provincial legislation
in so far as the consideration of the recommendation does not deal with the recognition or
removal of a king or queen.
The President or the other relevant functionary, as the case may be, to whom the recommenda-
tion has been conveyed must, within a period of 60 days, make a decision.175 If the President or
the relevant functionary takes a decision that differs from the recommendation conveyed to him
or her, the President or the relevant functionary, as the case may be, must provide written rea-
sons for such decision.176
Committees of the Commission
Provincial committees of the National Commission are established in terms of section 26A of
the Act.177 The number of members is determined by the Premier after consultation with the
Minister and the Commission. They are appointed by the Premier after consultation with the
________________________
167 27 of 1998.
168 Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act 41 of 2003, s 25(3)(c).
169 Section 25(6).
170 Section 25(8).
171 Section 25(9).
172 Section 26.
173 Section 26(1).
174 Section 26(2).
175 Section 26(3).
176 Section 26(4).
177 Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act 41 of 2003. Also see Eastern Cape Traditional
Leadership and Governance Act 1 of 2017, ss 35–36.
National Minister responsible for traditional matters and the Commission by notice in the
Provincial Gazette, for a period not exceeding five years.178 The committee members of the
Commission must have the same knowledge as the members of the Commission, namely regard-
ing customary law, customs and the institution of traditional leadership.179 At provincial level, a
committee has the same functions as the Commission.
Each provincial committee must be chaired by a member of the Commission designated by
the Minister responsible for traditional affairs after consultation with the Premier concerned and
the Commission, provided that a member of the Commission may chair more than one commit-
tee.180 A provincial committee may make final recommendations on all matters delegated to it,
but where the committee is of the view that exceptional circumstances exist, it may refer the
matter to the Commission for advice.181
10.7.9 Code of conduct

The Act provides a binding and enforceable national code of conduct for every traditional leader
and traditional council,182 which may be supplemented by provincial legislation.183 Such provin-
cial legislation, if enacted, must at least provide for mechanisms to deal with any breach of the
code of conduct; fines and other penalties for such a breach (but excluding the removal of a
traditional leader); and an acting appointment during the period for which a traditional leader is
suspended (if the provincial legislation concerned provides for such a penalty).184
10.7.10 Other legislation

A number of other pieces of legislation vest a number of powers, functions and duties in tradi-
tional leaders, including, but not limited to, the following:
• In terms of the 2015 amendments185 to the Disaster Management Act,186 the Minister
responsible for the implementation of said Act must establish a National Disaster Manage-
ment Advisory Forum consisting of, among others, representatives of other disaster man-
agement role players designated by him or her, which may include traditional leaders as
recommended by the National House of Traditional Leaders.187 The national disaster man-
agement framework must, inter alia, facilitate the involvement of traditional leaders in dis-
aster management.188
________________________
178 Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act 41 of 2003, s 26A(2)(a).

179 Section 26A(2)(c).
180 Section 26A(3).
181 Section 26A(6) of the Act.
182 Section 27(1) read with the Sch to the Act.
183 See Eastern Cape Traditional Leadership and Governance Act 1 of 2017, s 38 and Sch 1 (code of conduct
for traditional leaders and traditional councils), and Sch 2 (code of conduct for members of houses, tradi-
tional leaders, principal traditional councils and traditional councils), as well as the Free State Provincial
and Local Houses of Traditional Leaders Act 7 of 2017, Sch 1 (code of conduct of members of houses).
185 Disaster Management Amendment Act 16 of 2015.
186 57 of 2002.
187 Section 5(1)(e)(vi). Also see s 37(1)(e)(v) which states that the MEC responsible for disaster management
in a province may establish a provincial disaster management advisory forum consisting of, among others,
representatives of other disaster management role players in the province designated by the MEC, which
may include a traditional leader recommended by the Provincial House of Traditional Leaders. Sec-
tion 51(1)(d)(iv) provides for municipal disaster management advisory forums. The executive mayor or
mayor may designate one traditional leader elected from the traditional council(s) in a municipality recog-
nised by the Premier as a representative of disaster management role players in the municipality.
188 Section 7(2)(f)(i). Also see Nkabane and Nzimakwe (2017) African Journal of Public Affairs 25–40,
dealing with the need for scientific, as well as indigenous knowledge in disaster risk reduction.
• The Eastern Cape Customary Male Initiation Practice Act189 obliges traditional leadership to
take primary responsibility for male initiation within their areas of jurisdiction, in partner-
ship with provincial government and other stakeholders.190 Traditional leaders must be
involved in the district initiation forum, local initiation fora, and the provincial initiation
working committee.191 Various roles, functions and duties are prescribed for traditional
leaders in the Act.192
• The Limpopo Business Registration Regulations, 2015,193 made under the Limpopo Busi-
ness Registration Act,194 provide for recommendations from local authorities.195
• The KwaZulu-Natal Land Administration and Immovable Asset Management Act196 pro-
vides in section 7 for the disposal and transfer of provincial state land, free of charge, by
agreement, to a municipality or the KwaZulu-Natal Royal Household Trust.197 If the Kwa-
Zulu-Natal provincial state land concerned, or a portion thereof, is occupied by a traditional
community, such community must first be consulted.
10.7.11 Traditional Courts Bill, 2017 [B1–2017]

The Traditional Courts Bill198 (replacing the 2012 version of the Bill) was at the time of updat-
ing this chapter, still under consideration by the National Assembly.199 It aims to provide a
uniform legislative framework for the structure and functioning of traditional courts in line with
constitutional imperatives and values. Clause 5 provides that a traditional leader, or person
delegated by the traditional leader, must convene the court.
10.7.12 Traditional and Khoi-San Leadership Bill, 2015 [B23–2015]

The Draft Traditional Affairs Bill, 2013200 aimed, among other things, to provide for the recog-
nition of traditional and Khoi-San communities and leadership positions. This Bill was replaced
by the Traditional and Khoi-San Leadership Bill, 2015.201
The Traditional and Khoi-San Leadership Bill, 2015 was at the time of updating this chapter,
under consideration by the National Council of Provinces.202 If enacted, it will repeal the Tradi-
tional Leadership and Governance Framework Act 41 of 2003 and the National House of Tradi-
tional Leaders Act 22 of 2009.
As is clear from its title, the Bill also deals with the Khoi-San, which is defined in clause 1 as
“any person who lives in accordance with the customs and customary law of the Cape Khoi,
________________________
189 5 of 2016.
190 Section 2(2).
191 Sections 8, 10 and 12.
192 See specifically s 16.
193 GN 99 of 2015 (PG 2492 of 2 April 2015).
194 5 of 2003.
195 For example, “Traditional Authority & Municipality”, when application is made for a business registration
certificate (Form 1), and the transfer thereof (Form 5).
196 2 of 2014.
197 Section 7.
198 [B1–2017].
199 As on 30 October 2018. See ch 11 for a detailed discussion of the Bill.
200 See Kohn (2014) SAPL 343–367 for a discussion of the Bill, with a specific focus on cl 25. Also see
Rautenbach in Fombad and Steytler (eds) (2019 forthcoming) para 3.6 for a discussion of the Bill, includ-
ing some critique.
201 [B23–2015].
202 As on 30 October 2018. The Select Committee on Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs invited
interested people and stakeholders to submit written comments on the Bill which had to be submitted
before/on 19 September 2018.
Griqua, Koranna, Nama or San people, or any subgrouping thereof, and is consequentially a
member of a particular Khoi-San community as contemplated in section 5”.The provisions of the
Bill, if enacted, will not preclude members of traditional or Khoi-San communities from
addressing their leaders by customary designations.203 Traditional and Khoi-San leaders may
acknowledge or recognise seniority levels among themselves in accordance with customs.204
Clause 1(5) states that “[t]he provisions of this Act relating to the recognition of a traditional or
Khoi-San community or leader shall not be construed as bestowing upon such a community or
leader any special indigenous, first nation or any other similar status”.
Clause 2 sets out guiding principles and provides that leadership structures must transform
and adapt customary law and customs relevant to the Bill to comply with the relevant Bill of
Rights principles, particularly by preventing unfair discrimination, promoting equality and
seeking to progressively advance gender representation in succession to leadership positions.
Clause 3 sets out the circumstances under which traditional communities that are grouped
together may be recognised as a king- or queenship. Traditional communities must apply to the
President for recognition as a king- or queenship. The clause also sets out when a community
may be recognised as a traditional community. Such community must apply to the Premier
concerned. It also deals with the recognition of headman- or headwomanships, and applications
to the Premier in this regard.
Clause 4 deals with the withdrawal of recognition of the structures set out in clause 3.
Clause 5 provides for the recognition of Khoi-San communities and branches (requirements and
application procedures), and clause 6 with the withdrawal of recognition of such communities.
Clause 7 deals with the recognition of traditional leadership positions, namely king or queens,
principal traditional leaders, senior traditional leaders, and headmen or -women, as well as Khoi-
San leadership positions, namely senior Khoi-San leaders and branch heads (requirements and
application procedures, as well as resignations).
Clause 8 deals with the recognition of kings, queens, principal traditional leaders, senior tradi-
tional leaders, headmen and headwomen, and clause 9 with the withdrawal of such recognition.
Clause 10 provides for the recognition of senior Khoi-San leaders and branch heads, and
clause 11 with the withdrawal of such recognition.
Clause 12 deals with the recognition of regents, clause 13 with the recognition of acting tradi-
tional and Khoi-San leaders, and clause 14 with the recognition of deputy traditional and Khoi-
San leaders.
Clause 15 deals with the functions and resources of traditional and Khoi-San leaders. King-
and queenship councils, principal traditional councils and traditional councils must be estab-
lished in terms of clause 16, and if enacted, traditional sub-councils in terms of clause 17, and
Khoi-San councils in terms of clause 18.
Clause 19 sets out the functions of king- or queenship councils and principal traditional coun-
cils, and clause 20 the functions of traditional councils, traditional sub-councils, Khoi-San
councils and branches. The election of members of traditional councils, traditional sub-councils
and Khoi-San councils, and the filling of vacancies, will be regulated by clause 21, if enacted.
Clause 22 deals with the administration of king- or queenship councils, principal traditional
councils, traditional councils, traditional sub-councils, and Khoi-San councils, and clause 23
with support to these structures.
________________________
203 The Traditional and Khoi-San Leadership Bill, 2015, cl 1(2).

204 Clause 1(3).
Clause 24 empowers certain structures to enter into partnerships and agreements. If enacted,
clause 25 will empower national or provincial government departments to allocate roles in
respect of any functional area of such departments to certain officially recognised traditional
structures, provided that this may not include decision-making powers.
Chapter 3205 provides for a National House of Traditional and Khoi-San Leaders, provincial
houses of traditional and Khoi-San leaders and local houses of traditional and Khoi-San leaders.
Clause 51, if enacted, will establish the Commission of Khoi-San Matters (which will be regu-
lated by Chapter 4.206
Chapter 5 contains the general provisions, including disputes, regulations, delegations, moni-
toring, and transitional arrangements.
10.8 Conclusion
The preceding discussion is not all-encompassing. The provinces may promulgate their own
legislation, which may not deviate from the principles set out in the Traditional Leadership and
Governance Framework Act. Some of the main features of the Traditional Leadership and
Governance Framework Act (which may be repealed if the Traditional and Khoi-San Leadership
Bill, 2015 is enacted) are:
(a) The use of new terminology to depict traditional institutions. The new terminology is not
merely politically correct designations and descriptions of traditional institutions. Terms
such as king, traditional leader and headman are meant to reflect the traditional position and
status of these offices.
(b) The traditional institutions are restructured to align them with the democratic constitutional
order, including, among others, compliance with the constitutionally enshrined human rights
framework.
(c) The determination of functions of traditional leaders and traditional councils, also as regards
the provision of support to especially local government.
(d) The optional assignment of additional roles and functions to traditional leaders and tradi-
tional councils by the national or provincial spheres of government.207 In view of the fact
that the traditional leaders and councils are not a sphere of government, they have a limited
number of inherent or constitutionally based functions. The Act, however, provides that tra-
ditional leaders and traditional councils may carry out roles and perform functions in sup-
port of the three spheres of government. National and provincial government208 may allocate
national and provincial roles and functions to traditional leaders and traditional councils.
This goes hand-in-hand with the fact that traditional leaders and traditional councils are
organs of state as defined in section 239 of the Constitution,209 and other organs of state are
therefore obliged to seek their co-operation. The principles of co-operative government as
determined in Chapter 3 of the Constitution apply to such co-operation.
(e) The establishment of partnerships between municipalities and traditional councils and
entering into service delivery agreements in terms of a statutory obligation on national gov-
ernment and all provincial governments to promote such partnerships.
________________________
205 The Traditional and Khoi-San Leadership Bill, 2015, cl 26–50.

206 Clauses 51–58.
207 For a discussion on the powers and functions of the Ingonyama Trust vis-à-vis a recognised traditional
community (“tribe”) or traditional council (“traditional authority”), see Ingonyama Trust v Radebe [2012]
2 All SA 212 (KZP).
208 Also see George and Binza (2011) Journal of Public Administration 947–962 and Thornhill and Selepe
(2010) Journal of Public Administration 162–174.
209 Bekker (2003) Speculum Juris 121–124.
(f) The establishment of a national Commission on Traditional Leadership Disputes and Claims
(and provincial committees), as well as provincial mechanisms to deal with matters which
fall outside the jurisdiction of the national Commission.
(g) The recognition of principal traditional leadership as a new category of leadership position.
(h) The emphasis on customary law by means of various references to customary law and
customs.
The Act was dictated by constitutional, political and socio-economic considerations within the
context of the realisation that the supportive co-operation of traditional leaders and traditional
councils with the three spheres of government is a requirement for the development of South
Africa’s traditional communities.
11
Traditional Courts and other
Dispute Resolution Mechanisms
Page
11.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 245
11.2 The constitutional status of traditional courts ......................................................... 246
11.3 Legal framework for traditional courts ................................................................... 248
11.3.1 Official traditional courts .......................................................................... 249
11.3.1.1 Criminal traditional courts ....................................................... 249
11.3.1.2 Civil traditional courts .............................................................. 252
11.3.1.3 Procedure and evidence in civil and criminal
traditional courts ....................................................................... 254
11.3.1.4 Regional authority courts ......................................................... 258
11.3.2 Informal dispute-settlement forums .......................................................... 259
11.3.2.1 Courts of ward heads ................................................................ 259
11.3.2.2 Makgotla (“community courts”) .............................................. 260
11.3.2.3 People’s courts ......................................................................... 260
11.4 The application of customary law in ordinary courts of South Africa ................... 261
11.4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 261
11.4.2 Small Claims Courts.................................................................................. 261
11.4.3 Magistrates’ Courts ................................................................................... 262
11.4.4 Family Courts ............................................................................................ 263
11.4.5 High Courts ............................................................................................... 264
11.4.6 Constitutional Court .................................................................................. 264
11.5 Legal reform............................................................................................................ 264
11.6 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 267
243
Chapter 11: Traditional Courts and other Dispute Resolution Mechanisms 245
11.1 Introduction
Before colonialism, traditional communities were governed in accordance with the customary
law of the various communities under the leadership of their traditional leaders. The chief, as the
executive, legislative and judicial head of the community, performed a number of functions,
including the maintenance of law and order. Together with his or her councillors, they ensured
the maintenance or restoration of social solidarity among community members. Disputes were
dealt with within the community on various levels before it reached the chief’s court (the tradi-
tional court), if at all, to finally resolve the matter.1 The traditional court operated on an inquisi-
torial and reconciliatory basis with the sole purpose to restore the imbalance in the community
caused by the wrongful conduct of one or more of the community members.2 Justice was the
collective responsibility of everyone in the community and was realised when reconciliation was
reached between the wrongdoer and the aggrieved party.3
Both the colonial and post-colonial governments saw the advantages of traditional justice and
the various structures of dispute settlements being retained, although it has been developed (and
also distorted) quite considerably over the years. From 1652 to 1805, the Dutch government was
confronted with the existence of indigenous people on Cape soil whose customs and usages were
totally different from those to which it was accustomed. At first, no account was taken of these
customs and usages because they were seen as “uncivilised”.
It was only after the second British occupation, in 1806, that customary or indigenous law
received some form of recognition. The British followed a policy of non-interference with the
customs and usages of indigenous people, provided that these customs and usages were not
repugnant to public policy and the principles of natural justice. During this time the various
territories (the two British colonies consisting of the former Cape and Natal, the two Boer
Republics consisting of the former Transvaal and Orange Free State, and the various indigenous
kingdoms, among others, the Zulu and Basotho) regulated the application of customary law by
means of their own legislation. In 1927, the various territorial laws were finally consolidated in
the controversial Black Administration Act,4 which consolidated the mass of diverse colonial
legislation governing the recognition and application of indigenous law, including traditional
courts in existence in the rural areas. Although subject to severe criticism, large portions of this
Act, including the section dealing with customary courts, are still in operation. In addition to the
court structures developed by the Black Administration Act, regional legislation in the former
homelands also established regional traditional courts.5
Over the years, other unofficial administrative and legal institutions have been instituted and
developed in urban areas to administer some or other form of justice between inhabitants of the
former townships. The popularity and successes of these institutions varied quite considerably,
but they remain a force to be reckoned with when the administration of justice between African
communities is discussed.6
Nowadays, the administration of justice within traditional communities remains multi-layered,
complex and flexible, varying from area to area and the type of law applicable in a given situation.
________________________
1 Rakate (1997) CILSA 179–182. For a discussion of the customary court structures as alternative dispute
resolution mechanisms, see Rautenbach “Traditional courts as alternative dispute resolution (ADR) –
mechanisms in South Africa” in Dietrich (ed) (2014) 288–329.
2 Rautenbach (2005) SAJHR 332.
3 Rakate (1997) CILSA 181–182.
4 38 of 1927.
5 See the discussion at 11.3.1.4.
6 A discussion of the historical development falls outside the scope of this book. For more information, see
Olivier et al (1989) 580–609; Bekker (1989) 1–40; Bekker “Court structure and procedure” in Joubert, Faris
and Church (eds) LAWSA vol 32 (2009) paras 244–245; Bennett (2004) 135–141.
There are different categories of traditional courts depending on one’s views on the scope and
application of customary law in a mixed pluralistic legal system such as South Africa. The most
prevalent distinction is between formal (official) and informal (unofficial) traditional courts. The
official ones are those established in terms of legislation,7 while the unofficial ones are those
operating within the cadre of living customary law.8 Within these formal and informal structures
are various levels or structures for dispensing justice in some or other form.
This chapter deals firstly with the constitutional status of traditional courts in general and then
focuses more specifically on the institution of official traditional courts, their jurisdiction, their
powers and procedures. Secondly, the situation pertaining to unofficial traditional courts and
other court-like structures is explained briefly. Thirdly, since traditional courts are not the only
ones applying customary law, the imperative to apply customary law in some of the ordinary
courts, is also briefly examined.
Finally, this chapter concludes with the steps the government have taken to rationalise the
traditional court system in South Africa, most notably the Traditional Courts Bill9 which has not
been transformed into legislation yet.
11.2 The constitutional status of traditional courts

Is a traditional court a “court of law”, in other words, as part of the hierarchy of courts in the
judicial system as set out in section 166 of the Constitution?10 In terms of section 166 the courts
are:
(a) the Constitutional Court;
(b) the Supreme Court of Appeal;
(c) the High Courts, including any high court of appeal that may be established by an act of
Parliament to hear appeals from High Courts;
(d) the Magistrates’ Courts; and
(e) any other court established or recognised in terms of an Act of Parliament, including any
court of a status similar to either the High Courts or the Magistrates’ courts.
The expression “traditional courts” is absent from the list of courts specified in section 166 of
the Constitution, but as official traditional courts are established by an act of parliament, namely
in terms of the Black Administration Act, and they thus remain intact. Their continued post-
constitutional existence is furthermore guaranteed by the recognition of traditional leadership by
section 211(1) and (2) of the Constitution, which stipulates:
(1) The institution, status and role of traditional leadership, according to customary law, are recognised,
subject to the Constitution.
(2) A traditional authority that observes a system of customary law may function subject to any applicable
legislation and customs, which includes amendments to, or repeal of, that legislation or those customs.
Traditional courts are also by implication recognised because they are part of the institution of
traditional leadership. Furthermore, sections 12 and 20 that confer civil and criminal jurisdiction
________________________
7 See the discussion at 11.3.1.

8 See the discussion at 11.3.2.
9 See the discussion at 11.5.
10 The main arguments against the contention that they are courts of law are: there is no separation of powers
since the traditional leader fulfils both an executive and judicial function; the traditional leader does not
have to have legal training; and the courts are not courts of record. South African Law Commission Pro-
ject 90: Discussion Paper 82 (1999) 13–15.
upon traditional leaders remain intact post 1994 in terms of item 2 of Schedule 6 of the Constitu-
tion, which stipulates:
(1) All law that was in force when the new Constitution took effect, continues in force, subject to –
(a) any amendment or repeal; and
(b) consistency with the new Constitution.
(2) Old order legislation that continues in force in terms of sub-item (1) –
(a) does not have a wider application, territorially or otherwise, than it had before the previous
Constitution took effect unless subsequently amended to have a wider application; and
(b) continues to be administered by the authorities that administered it when the new Constitution
took effect, subject to the new Constitution.
Additionally, in Ex parte Chairperson of the Constitutional Assembly: In re Certification of the
Constitution of South Africa, 1996,11 the Constitutional Court held that the words “any other
court established or recognised in terms of an Act of Parliament” in section 166(e) read with
section 16(1) of Schedule 6,12 are broad enough to include traditional courts which were estab-
lished in terms of the Black Administration Act and declared:13
Traditional courts functioning according to indigenous law are not entrenched beyond the reach of legisla-
tion. NT 166 does indeed provide for their recognition. Subsection (e) refers to ‘any other court established
or recognized by an Act of Parliament’. This would cover approximately 1 500 traditional courts recognised
in terms of the Black Administration Act 38 of 1927. The qualification ‘which may include any court of a
status similar to either the High Courts or the Magistrates’ Courts’ can best be read as permitting the estab-
lishment of courts at the same level as these two sets of courts. It does not, as the objectors contended, pro-
vide for a closed list. This interpretation is supported by NT 170, which says that ‘[m]agistrates’ courts and
all other courts may decide any matter determined by an Act of Parliament’– it does not say magistrates’
courts or all other courts of a similar status. More directly, NT sch 6 s 16(1) says that ‘[e]very court, includ-
ing courts of traditional leaders . . . continues to function’. In our view, therefore, NT 166 does not preclude
the establishment or continuation of traditional courts.14
The phrase “continues to function and to exercise jurisdiction in terms of legislation applicable
to it” clearly indicates that those traditional courts established in terms of legislation, thus the
official ones, are the ones who continue to exist in the new constitutional dispensation. The con-
tinued existence of official traditional courts as part and parcel of the legal system of South
Africa is thus constitutionally endorsed, but it is evident that their continued existence is subject
to legislative interference consistent with constitutional provisions, most notably those contained
in the Bill of Rights.
The constitutional status of unofficial traditional courts or court-like structures in rural areas is
more problematic. In many rural traditional communities the practice is to take the complaint or
claim to the relevant families to resolve. If the matter cannot be resolved on a family level, it is
taken to the ward head, sub-ward head or headman (depending on the custom of a particular
community) to be disposed of. Only if a resolve on this level is not possible, the matter is taken
on appeal to the chief’s court (the official traditional court). The lower structures are not officially
________________________
11 1996 (4) SA 744 (CC).

12 “Every court, including courts of traditional leaders, existing when the new Constitution took effect, con-
tinues to function and to exercise jurisdiction in terms of the legislation applicable to it, and anyone holding
office as a judicial officer continues to hold office in terms of the legislation applicable to that office, sub-
ject to – (a) any amendment or repeal of that legislation; and (b) consistency with the new Constitution.”
Emphasis added.
13 Ex parte Chairperson of the Constitutional Assembly: In re Certification of the Constitution of South Africa,
1996 1996 (4) SA 744 (CC) para 199. Footnotes omitted.
14 NT refers to the new text of the final Constitution. In Mhlekwa v Head of the Western Tembuland Regional
Authority; Feni v Head of the Western Tembuland Regional Authority 2000 (9) BCLR 979 (Tk) 999 the
court held that this quote is not authority for the view that traditional courts may continue to exist despite
their inconsistency with the provisions of the Constitution. They remain subject to the latter.
recognised in terms of legislation and, although the South African Law Commission15 recom-
mended that, at least, the headman’s court be recognised as an official traditional court with
provision to appeal from the headman’s court to a chief’s court, its recommendation was not
taken up in the legislative reforms.16 Nevertheless, a constitutional argument can be made in
favour of the continued existence and acceptance of these unofficial structures. Although they
are not legally recognised, they form part and parcel of the cultural life of the community which
are protected in terms of sections 30 (the right to participate in the cultural life of one’s choice) and
31 (the right to enjoy one’s culture with other members of the community) of the Constitution.
11.3 Legal framework for traditional courts

The legal framework for traditional courts consists of a patchwork of national and regional
legislation, including written and living customary law. National legislation relevant to tradi-
tional courts includes the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996; the Black Admin-
istration Act 38 of 1927; the Regulations (for Criminal Appeals) R45 of 1961;17 and Chief’s and
Headmen’s Civil Courts Rules R2082 of 1967.18
Regional legislation includes, among others, the Bophuthatswana Traditional Courts Act 29 of
1979 (Bop);19 the Chiefs’ Courts Act (Tk) 6 of 1983;20 the Administrative Authorities Act (Ck)
37 of 1984;21 the KwaNdebele Traditional Hearings of Civil and Criminal Cases by the
Lingwenyama, Amakhosi, Amakhosana and Linduna Act 8 of 1984 (KwaNdebele);22 the Kwa-
Zulu Act on the Code of Zulu Law 16 of 198523 and the Natal Code of Zulu Law of
1987(KZN);24 the KwaZulu Amakhosi and Iziphakanyiswa Act 9 of 1990 (KZN); the QwaQwa
Administration Authorities Act 6 of 1983 (FS); Transkei Authorities Act 4 of 1965 (Tk); Venda
Traditional Leaders Administration Proclamation 29 of 1991; and the Regional Authorities
Courts Act 13 of 1982 (Tk).
Most of the regional statutes have been assigned to the various provinces in which the territo-
ries they applied are now included and most of them stand to be repealed if and when the Tradi-
tional Courts Bill is adopted.
Finally, the customary rules (“living law”) of the various communities are also relevant. These
rules are in general not widely publicised and it would be difficult if not impossible for an
________________________
15 South African Law Commission Project 90: Customary law (2003) 5–6.
16 See discussion at 11.5.
17 GN R45 published in Extraordinary GG 6609 of 13 January 1961.
18 GN R2082 published in Extraordinary GG 1929 of 29 December 1967.
19 In terms of Proc 111 published in GG 15813 of 17 June 1994 (hereafter Proc 111 of 17 June 1914), the
administration of this Act has been assigned to the North West Province.
20 In terms of Proc 111 of 17 June 1994, the administration of this Act has been assigned to the Eastern Cape
Province.
21 In terms of Proc 111 of 17 June 1994, the administration of this Act has also been assigned to the Eastern
Cape Province.
22 The administration of this Act has been assigned to the Mpumalanga Province, but it was repealed by the
Mpumalanga General Laws Repeal and Application Act 13 of 1998. Although the act came into operation
on 1 August 2005, the list of Acts repealed does not include the KwaNdebele Traditional Hearings of Civil
and Criminal Cases by the Lingwenyama, Amakhosi, Amakhosana and Linduna Act 8 of 1984, and it thus
seems to still be in operation.
23 In terms of Proclamation 107 of 17 June 1994 in GG 15813 of 17 June 1994 the Act has been assigned to
the Province of KwaZulu-Natal.
24 Contained in Proclamation R151 of 1987 in GG 10966 of 9 October 1987. In terms of R166 of 1994 in
GG 16049 of 31 October 1994 this code has been assigned to the Province of KwaZulu-Natal. Both Codes
stand to be repealed by s 53(1) of the KwaZulu-Natal Traditional Leadership and Governance Act 5 of
2005, but the date of the repeal has not yet been published.
outsider to know what they entail. However, many traditional communities are realising the
importance of the preservation of one’s customs for future generations through documentation
thereof, and it is envisaged that more and more written accounts of those rules and customs
applicable to their traditional justice systems will come to light.
11.3.1 Official traditional courts

11.3.1.1 Criminal traditional courts
(a) Enabling law
Africans are subject to the same ordinary criminal courts and are tried in the same way for
offences committed by them in those courts.25 They are, however, also subject to the jurisdiction
of traditional courts and may even be tried twice; in the traditional court and the ordinary court,
for the same offence.
Section 20 of the Black Administration Act does not refer to a traditional court as a court as
such, but confers powers on chiefs, headmen and chiefs’ deputies to try certain offences or
crimes committed within their geographical areas. They are nevertheless referred to as courts.
(b) Powers of chiefs, headmen and chiefs’ deputies to try certain offences
Appointment
Section 20(1) and (4) regulate the appointment of traditional leaders to try certain offences. It
provides as follows:
(1) The Minister may –

(a) by writing under his hand confer upon any Black chief or headman jurisdiction to try and to
punish any Black who has committed, in the area under the control of the chief or headman
concerned –
(i) any offence at common law or under Black law and custom other than an offence
referred to in the Third Schedule to this Act; and
(ii) any statutory offence other than an offence referred to in the Third Schedule to this Act,
specified by the Minister:
Provided that if any such offence has been committed by two or more persons any of whom is
not a Black, or in relation to a person who is not a Black or property belonging to any person
who is not a Black other than property, movable or immovable, held in trust for a Black tribe or
a community or aggregation of Blacks or a Black, such offence may not be tried by a Black
chief or headman;
(b) at the request of any chief upon whom jurisdiction has been conferred in terms of paragraph (a),
by writing under his hand confer upon a deputy of such chief jurisdiction to try and to punish
any Black who has committed, in the area under the control of such chief, any offence which
may be tried by such chief.
(4) The Minister may at any time revoke the jurisdiction conferred upon a chief, headman or chief's
deputy under any provision of this Act before or after the commencement of the Black Administra-
tion Amendment Act, 1955.
________________________
25 Also see the discussion at 11.4.

Procedure
Section 20(2) describes the procedure to be followed in the traditional courts. It stipulates:
The procedure at any trial by a chief, headman or chief’s deputy under this section, the punishment, the
manner of execution of any sentence imposed and subject to the provisions of paragraph (b)of subsection (1)
of section nine of the Black Authorities Act, 1951 (Act 68 of 1951), the appropriation of fines shall, save in
so far as the Minister may prescribe otherwise by regulation made under subsection (9), be in accordance
with Black law and custom: Provided that in the exercise of the jurisdiction conferred upon him or her under
subsection (1) a chief, headman or chief’s deputy may not inflict any punishment involving death, mutila-
tion, grievous bodily harm or imprisonment or impose a fine in excess of R100 or two head of large stock or
ten head of small stock or impose corporal punishment. . . .
Default
Section 20(5) describes the consequences of failure to comply with the sentence imposed by a
traditional leader. It reads:
(a) If a Black chief, headman or chief’s deputy fails to recover from a person any fine imposed upon him
in terms of subsection (2), or any portion of such fine, he may arrest such person or cause him to be
arrested by his messengers, and shall within 48 hours after his arrest bring or cause him to be brought
before the magistrates’ court which has jurisdiction in the district in which the trial took place.
(b) A magistrate before whom any person is brought under paragraph (a) may, upon being satisfied that
the fine was duly and lawfully imposed and is still unpaid either wholly or in part, order such person
to pay the fine or the unpaid portion thereof forthwith and, if such person fails to comply forthwith
with such order, sentence him to imprisonment for a period not exceeding three months.
(c) The magistrate shall issue in respect of any person sentenced to imprisonment in terms of this sub-
section a warrant for his detention in a prison.
Appeal
Section 20(6) allows for the appeal against the conviction of a traditional leader, by stipulating:
Any person who has been convicted by a Black chief, headman or chief’s deputy under this section may in
the manner and within the period prescribed by regulation made under subsection (9), appeal against his
conviction and against any sentence which may have been imposed upon him, to the magistrate’s court
which has jurisdiction in the district in which the trial in question took place. . . .
Regulations made in terms of section 20(9) were published in 1961 and are known as the Regu-
lations (for Criminal Appeals) R45 of 1961. Section 20 read with the Regulations provides an
additional framework within which official criminal traditional courts operate.
(c) Jurisdiction
Section 20(1) deals with the important question of jurisdiction of the criminal traditional courts
based on the person, the territory, the type of offence and type of sentence imposed.
Jurisdiction in respect of person: The court has jurisdiction to try and to punish only Africans
(“any Black”). Section 35 of the Black Administration Act defines a black person as “any person
who is a member of any aboriginal race or tribe in Africa”. If, for example, a white person
commits an offence in a rural area, the relevant traditional authorities would have no jurisdiction
to mediate or try such a case. The limitation of access to a court on the grounds of racial factors
could be seen as an infringement of the constitutional guarantee of equal treatment before the
law and should be reconsidered.26
________________________
26 Constitution, s 9.
Jurisdiction in respect of territory: The court may only hear cases in their areas of jurisdiction,
in other words, “in the area under the control of such chief”. In addition to this requirement, it is
also important that the presiding officer be appointed by the relevant minister to try and to
punish offenders within his or her area of jurisdiction. Currently, there is no possibility for a
member of the traditional community to “opt out” or demand to be transferred to a Magistrate’s
court to be tried.
Jurisdiction in respect of offences:27 The court may try and may punish any offence at common
law, customary law or statutory law with the specific exclusion of the following offences:
treason; crimen laesae majestatis; public violence; sedition; murder; culpable homicide; rape;
robbery; assault with intent to do grievous bodily harm; assault with intent to commit murder,
rape or robbery; indecent assault; arson; bigamy; crimen injuria; abortion; abduction; stock
theft; sodomy; bestiality; corruption in terms of the Prevention and Combating of Corrupt
Activities Act 12 of 2004; breaking or entering any premises with intent to commit an offence;
receiving any stolen property knowing that it has been stolen; fraud; forgery or uttering a forged
document knowing it to be forged; illicit possession of or dealing in any precious metals or
precious stones; conveyance, possession or supply of habit-forming drugs or intoxicating liquor;
coinage; perjury; witchcraft; faction fighting; manstealing; incest; extortion; defeating or
obstructing the course of justice; any conspiracy, incitement or attempt to commit any of the
mentioned offences.
Jurisdiction in respect of sentence: The court may not inflict any punishment involving death,
mutilation, grievous bodily harm or imprisonment or impose a fine in excess of R100 or two
head of large stock or ten head of small stock or impose corporal punishment.
The exclusion of certain offences and sentences from the jurisdiction of traditional courts is not
always respected by the traditional leaders. For example, the widely publicised case28 against
King Dalindyebo of the Themba community in the Eastern Cape reveals that he, among others,
has imposed a fine of R1 200 on one of his subjects who allowed his goats to wander into the
king’s land. When the offender defaulted on paying the full amount, the king had his wife and
children kidnapped and his four rondavels29 burnt down. In addition, the defaulter was exiled
from the community. In another incident, he fined another member of the community six cows
for committing the offence of murder. The offender’s plea that he was already convicted and
sentenced in a Magistrate’s Court was ignored and when he refused to pay the fine, his home-
stead was burnt down. In another case, four boys were assaulted for allegedly committing rape,
housebreaking and theft. One of the boys died as a result of the severe beatings.30 The king
received a 15-year sentence for ten crimes that he committed, ranging from arson, culpable
homicide and kidnapping, to defeating the ends of justice and assault with the intent to do
grievous bodily harm. He has appealed against his sentence and the case against him has not yet
reached a final conclusion.
(d) Execution of judgments
Section 20(2) makes provision for the execution of judgments in accordance with the recognised
customs and laws of the community. A traditional leader or headman or a deputy who fails to
recover a fine from a person convicted by him may arrest the convicted person and have him
brought before the magistrate of the district within 48 hours of such arrest.31 The magistrate may
then order such a person to pay the fine imposed by the traditional leader, failing which payment
he may sentence him or her to a term of imprisonment for a period not exceeding three months.32
________________________
27 Schedule 3 of the Black Administration Act 38 of 1927 contains a list of offences.

28 Evans (2013) Mail & Guardian.
29 Traditional round shaped homes made of mud and thatched roofs.
30 For a discussion of the facts of the case, see Weeks (2012) OUCLJ 133–136.
31 Section 20(5)(a) of the Black Administration Act.
In the latter event, he must issue a warrant for detention of the person in a prison.33 Hence it will
be noted that while the enforcement of judgments and orders continues to be in accordance with
the recognised customs and laws of each of the many communities, the actual machinery for
such enforcement is borrowed from that applicable in the Magistrates’ Courts Act.34
11.3.1.2 Civil traditional courts

(a) Enabling law
Section 12 of the Black Administration Act does not create civil courts in the strict sense, but
confers the power to settle civil disputes between members of his or her community. They are
also nevertheless referred to as courts.
(b) Settlement of civil disputes by Black chiefs, headmen and chiefs’ deputies
Appointment
Section 12(1) and (2) regulates the appointment of traditional leaders with authority to settle
disputes between Africans. It reads:
(1) The Minister may —

(a) authorize any Black chief or headman recognized or appointed under subsection (7) or (8) of
section two to hear and determine civil claims arising out of Black law and custom brought be-
fore him by Blacks against Blacks resident within his area of jurisdiction;
(b) at the request of any chief upon whom jurisdiction has been conferred in terms of paragraph (a),
authorize a deputy of such chief to hear and determine civil claims arising out of Black law
and custom brought before him by Blacks against Blacks resident within such chief’s area of
jurisdiction:
Provided that a Black chief, headman or chief’s deputy shall not under this section or any other law
have power to determine any question of nullity, divorce or separation arising out of a marriage.
(2) The Minister may at any time revoke the authority granted to a chief, headman or chief’s deputy
under subsection (1).
Execution
Section 12(3) regulates the procedure for execution of judgments and stipulates:
A judgment given by such chief, headman or chief’s deputy shall be executed in accordance with the proce-
dure prescribed by regulation under subsection (6).
Appeal
Section 12(4) prescribes the procedure where a party to a civil suit wants to appeal against the
judgment of a traditional court. It reads:
Any party to a suit in which a Black chief, headman or chief’s deputy has given judgment may appeal there-
from to any magistrate’s court which would have had jurisdiction had the proceedings in the first instance
been instituted in a magistrate’s court, and if the appellant has noted his appeal in the manner and within the
period prescribed by regulation under subsection (6), the execution of the judgment shall be suspended until
the appeal has been decided (if it was prosecuted at the time and in the manner so prescribed) or until the
expiration of the last-mentioned period if the appeal was not prosecuted within that period, or until the
appeal has been withdrawn or has lapsed: Provided that no such appeal shall lie in any case where the claim
or the value of the matter in dispute is less than R10, unless the court to which the appellant proposes to
appeal, has certified after summary enquiry that the issue involves an important principle of law. . . .
________________________
33 Section 20(5)(c) of the Black Administration Act, No. 38 of 1927.

34 32 of 1944.
Regulations
Section 12(6) empowers the Minister to make regulations prescribing the procedure to be fol-
lowed in the execution of judgments and appeals. Regulations made in terms of section 12(6)
were published in 1967 and are known as the Chief’s and Headmen’s Civil Courts Rules R2082
of 1967.35 The regulations prescribe the practice and procedure to be followed in the civil
traditional court. As of 30 October 2018, they had not been repealed.
(c) Jurisdiction
If a traditional court tries a case without jurisdiction having been conferred on him or her by the
relevant Minister, the judgment of the court is void.36 The minister may, at any time, revoke the
authority of a traditional leader to try civil disputes.37 The minister may also, at the request of a
traditional leader, authorise a deputy of that leader to exercise judicial powers for the settlement
of disputes of this nature.38 Section 12(1) of the Black Administration Act deals with the ques-
tion of jurisdiction of the civil traditional courts based on the person, the territory, the type of
claim and type of judgment which may be handed down.
Jurisdiction in respect of person: Similar to the criminal jurisdiction of the court, it may hear
and determine civil claims only between Africans (“Blacks”). If, for example, a white person
seduces an African girl in a rural area, the relevant traditional authorities would have no jurisdic-
tion to mediate or try such a case.
Jurisdiction in respect of territory: The jurisdiction of traditional courts is strictly territorial,
and they may adjudicate upon a matter only if the defendant is resident in its area of jurisdic-
tion.39 There is no possibility for a member of the traditional community to “opt out” or to
demand a transferal to a Magistrate’s court to hear the case.
Jurisdiction in respect of claims: Traditional courts may determine disputes involving cus-
tomary law (“Black law and custom”) only.40 If the matter involves common law claims, action
should be instituted in the Magistrate’s Court or in the High Court depending on the nature and
the value of the claim. The court has no power to determine any question of nullity, divorce or
separation arising out of a marriage. Customary marriages must now be dissolved by a compe-
tent court, which does not include a traditional leader’s court.41 However, a traditional leader
may, in accordance with customary law, mediate in any dispute or matter arising prior to the
dissolution of a customary marriage by a court.42 The object of the aforementioned provision is
meant to be the recognition of the role played by traditional leaders in any event. The South
African Law Commission refers to this role as follows:43
Although an innovation for common law, this practice [mediation] has always been part of the customary
divorce process. People traditionally prefer to settle their domestic disputes within the family and where
possible to achieve a reconciliation.
Jurisdiction in respect of judgment: The judgment of the court shall be in accordance with
customary law. The question arises as to whether a traditional court may give a punishment for
________________________
35 GN R2082 published in Extraordinary GG 1929 of 29 December 1967.

36 Nkosi v Zwane 1952 NAC 110 (NE).
37 Section 12(1)(b) of the Black Administration Act.
38 Proviso to s 12(1).
39 Zulu v Mbata1937 NAC (N&T) 6; Monete v Setshuba 1948 NAC (C&O) 22.
40 Black Administration Act, s 12. Note that the section refers to “Black law and custom”.
41 Recognition of Customary Marriages Act, s 8. In the past, customary marriages outside KwaZulu-Natal and
the former Transkei were dissolved extra-judicially, while traditional leaders, and especially ward heads,
also played a mediatory role in family disputes.
42 Recognition of Customary Marriages Act, s 8(5).
43 South African Law Commission Project 90: Discussion Paper 93 (2000) 132.
contempt of court. Section 8 of the Natal Code of Zulu Law44 provides that a traditional court in
KwaZulu-Natal may impose a fine not exceeding R50 upon any person guilty of contempt of
court. Apart from this, any traditional court has inherent jurisdiction to punish for contempt
committed in an open court. In R v Vass,45 it was held that the traditional court could punish an
offender for contempt of court even if the latter was not resident in the traditional leader’s area
of jurisdiction.
(d) Execution of judgments
The judgments of the court are binding on the parties and will be given effect by the highest
courts of South Africa.46 The judgment must be executed in accordance with the recognised cus-
toms and laws of the community.47 If the judgment cannot be honoured, the judgment creditor
may apply to the clerk of the court for the enforcement of the judgment, in which event the
enforcement will be the same as that prescribed for the enforcement of judgments of Magis-
trates’ Courts.48 The traditional leader must prepare, or cause to be prepared, a written record of
the proceedings49 and register it with the clerk of the Magistrate’s Court.50
11.3.1.3 Procedure and evidence in civil and criminal traditional courts

(a) General
Since the passing of the Black Administration Act and its regulations, the procedure to be
observed in connection with the hearing of both civil and criminal matters in the traditional
courts has always been in accordance with the laws and customs of the traditional community in
question.
At the level of the unofficial courts, the procedure in connection with the notification of the
date of trial and the execution of judgment is still in accordance with the pre-colonial procedure
of using imisilayenkundla51 (court messengers). In the official courts,52 messengers of the
traditional council (former tribal authorities) are issued with subpoenas to be given to defendants
or accused persons. However, it is impossible to know whether these procedures are still the
same without conducting empirical research.
Since early times, traditional courts have not made a clear distinction between civil and crimi-
nal matters when hearing cases, but deal with all aspects of a case in the same proceedings by
the simple expedient of imposing on the defendant a fine which incorporates the compensation
considered to be due to the plaintiff. The only distinction which seems to be limited to the Cape
Nguni was in regard to the onus of proof in criminal matters when there were very strong
________________________
44 Proclamation R151 of 1987 and s 8 of the KwaZulu Act on the Code of Zulu Law 16 of 1985.
45 1945 GWLD 34.
46 Mdumane v Mtshakule 1948 NAC (C&O) 28 (Bizana).
47 Chief’s and Headmen’s Civil Courts Rules R2082 of 1967, rule 1(1).
48 Rule 8.
49 Rule 6.
50 Rule 7.
51 Umsila literally means a tail. In the Eastern Cape, court messengers used to carry a tiger’s tail (umsi-
lawengwe) as a badge of authority when they went to inform a defendant about the date of trial. It would
seem that what Africans thought to be a tiger was, in fact, a cheetah. See in this connection Mqeke (1982)
Speculum Juris 50.
52 In South African Law Commission Project 90: Customary law (2003) 43, there is a proposal for these
courts to be empowered to punish for contempt of court any person who without lawful excuse disobeys an
order given by a customary court or by any of its members during a sitting of the court or who wilfully dis-
turbs the peace or order of the proceedings in the court.
grounds of suspicion against the accused.53 For example, if, during a house-to-house search for a
stolen animal, some meat was found concealed within the premises of the accused, the onus
would be on him to explain that the meat was not from the missing animal. In the vernacular, it
will be said that the accused must gqithisaumkhondo, that is, explain the spoor.54
(b) Lodgement procedure55
The initiation of legal proceedings in civil and criminal matters differs somewhat. In civil
matters, as soon as a civil wrong has been committed, the plaintiff, accompanied by his or her
kin group, proceeds to the homestead of the wrongdoer to report the matter and open negotia-
tions. This would invariably be the case in seduction and pregnancy matters. A litigant’s failure
to comply with the recognised customary procedure renders his or her evidence suspect.56 The
conclusion of the negotiation stage is seen as being an equivalent of litis contestatio (close of
proceedings).57 If the negotiations do not produce an acceptable outcome, the plaintiff proceeds
at once to institute his or her claim in the next level court, usually the ward court, and from
there, the court of the headman or that of the responsible senior traditional leader. At the level of
the official courts, the procedure would be slightly different, as a traditional leader usually sum-
monses before the court any person who is a defendant in an action or is required to give evi-
dence. The traditional leader can compel the attendance of the defendant and witnesses.
Crimes are regarded as being committed against the traditional leader in his or her capacity as
head of the community even if a crime was committed against another member of the community.
If a fine is imposed, it should be paid to the traditional leader and he may give a portion of the
fine to a person who has been injured by the crime, but is under no obligation to do so.58 If a
crime has been committed, the injured party or any other member of the community may report
it to the responsible person who will arrange for the case to be heard in the traditional court. In
general, the procedure to obtain the presence of an accused differs from community to commu-
nity but they are generally summoned in some or other way to appear before the presiding
officer of the traditional court. Many courts have regular court messengers, but normally any
available man or men can be called upon to summon offenders or witnesses as required by the
court.59
(c) Trial proceedings in civil and criminal matters
General features of the traditional procedure in both civil and criminal matters in accordance
with customary law are as follows:
• The court procedure is court-centred and the court and the members in attendance take a
leading role in conducting the trial. The primary aim of the traditional procedure is to obtain
reconciliation between the parties, hence the use of arbitration.
• The trial takes place in an open court and is informal. This means that there is less emphasis
on the mechanical rules of exclusion. Both parties must be present. The features of the
________________________
53 See Brownlee “Notes by the Gaika Commissioner” GH8/23 19 March 1863. This was a draft of an ordi-
nance to amend and declare the law relating to “natives”. These are handwritten notes which are kept at the
Government Archives in Cape Town. They are quoted in full by Mqeke (2003) 26. The use of the term
“native” is nowadays regarded as offensive.
54 See Kerr (1990) 82. The author states that the phrase “spoor law” came into being because most of the cases
in the 19th century concerned stolen stock. In Kerr’s own words, even in such cases, however, it is not nec-
essary to find evidence of the “spoor”. In the sense of the imprint of a hoof, “other satisfactory evidence,
whether of previous presence of an animal or of other goods, will suffice . . . ”.
55 For a detailed discussion, see Bekker (1989) 12, 19–22.
56 See Bilitani v Kwini 1962 NAC (S) 8.
57 See Mqeke (2003) 116.
58 Schapera (ed) (1959) 208.
59 Schapera (ed) (1959) 213.
traditional court procedure described above are prominent in the proposed Bill.64 The latter
goes further and promotes full participation of all interested parties without discrimination
on grounds of race, sex or gender.
• Legal representation is prohibited. A litigant may, however, be assisted by relatives. Again,
it would seem that this tradition would be continued in the future if the proposed Traditional
Courts Bill becomes law.
• Proceedings are conducted orally in the language most widely spoken in the area of the
court’s jurisdiction.
The ordinary courts are reluctant to interfere with the customary procedures followed in the
traditional courts.60 It is only when the traditional court has ignored the procedures prescribed by
statute that the court proceedings would be set aside.61 The Chief’s and Headmen’s Civil Courts
Rules, prescribe the procedures to be followed in conducting civil trials. They can be summa-
rised as follows:
• Rule 1 confirms that the procedure in connection with civil trials shall be in accordance with
customary law.
• Rule 2 deals with the hearing of the case and the entry of judgment in the absence of parties.
Firstly, if the defendant fails to appear at the time and place fixed for the hearing, the court
may, upon the request of the plaintiff, deliver judgment in favour of the plaintiff. Secondly,
if the plaintiff fails to appear at the time and place fixed for the hearing, the court may, upon
the request of the defendant, dismiss the plaintiff’s claim. Any party to an action in which
default judgment was given may within two months after he or she became aware of the
judgment apply to the court to rescind such judgment, and if the court gives such an order, it
would be possible to re-open the case.
• Rule 3 makes provision for the situation where it is necessary to adjourn a case. The court
may adjourn the hearing under any circumstances which may be required. However, if the
court shall unreasonably delay the hearing or refuse to adjudicate the matter, any of the par-
ties may approach the Magistrate’s Court to either make a compulsory order for the tradi-
tional court to hear the case, or to try the matter in the Magistrate’s Court if it would be in
the interest of justice to do so.
• Rule 4 prevents a traditional leader from adjudicating a matter in which he or she has a
personal interest.
• Rule 5 prohibits legal representation of any of the parties appearing in the traditional court.
This prohibition seems to be in conflict with section 35 of the Constitution which confirms
that everyone has a right to a fair trial which includes the right to be represented by a legal
representative. Nevertheless, there are various arguments in favour of their exclusion from
the traditional court procedures, for example: the traditional leaders are not normally legally
trained; legal representation is costly and most litigants cannot afford them; the cases tried
in the customary courts are generally uncomplicated cases which do not necessitate compli-
cated legal arguments; lawyers are notorious for delaying cases which could have been dis-
posed of very quickly and effectively; and preferred lawyers may not be able to speak the
language of the court which would involve the services of an interpreter.62
• Rule 6 requires the court to keep written records of the proceedings containing, among
others, the following:63
– the name of the plaintiff;
________________________
60 Makapan v Khope 1923 AD 551 561.

61 Masenya v Seleka Tribal Authority 1981 (1) SA 522 (T).
62 Koyana and Bekker (1998) 11; South African Law Commission Project 90: Customary law (2003) 22–23.
63 Chief’s and Headmen’s Civil Courts Rules R2082 of 1967, rule 6.
– the name of the defendant;

– the particulars of the claim;
– the particulars of the defence; and
– the judgment and the date of judgment.
• Rule 7 obliges the traditional court to deliver or post the original of the written record to the
magistrate’s office in the area where the defendant resides to be registered.64 If this is not
done within two months, the judgment shall lapse.
• Rule 8 deals with the procedure in connection with the execution of the court’s judgment. In
terms of this rule, a traditional court may either enforce the judgment in accordance with
customary law or the successful party may institute proceedings in the Magistrate’s Court.
• Rules 9–12 prescribe the appeal procedure from the traditional court to the Magistrate’s
Court having jurisdiction.
• Rule 13 deals with the issue of cost which is either in accordance with customary law or in
terms of the cost structure provided in rule 13(2).
(d) Evidence
General: Evidence in traditional courts is given orally. These courts may also receive documen-
tary evidence. It is not compulsory to take an oath and, as such, no perjury is punishable. How-
ever, it has been observed that in practice, witnesses are required to take an oath in the manner
that it is done in ordinary courts.
Expert evidence: In the Eastern Cape,65 the well-known case of ityalalamawele (a case of twins)
provides precedent regarding the extent to which the Xhosas made use of opinion evidence in
intricate cases on some obscure points of law where no precedent could be found. It seems that
one has to be an old sage of repute before one can be regarded as an expert. Again, in disputed
paternity cases, opinion evidence relating to the degree of physical resemblance of the child to
the alleged father was admitted.
Real evidence: Real evidence, as well as evidence of an eyewitness, is very important. In
Maquta v Sancizi,66 it was held that the custom of taking intlonze (exhibit in the nature of an
article belonging to the wrongdoer from the scene of the crime) was not confined to adultery
cases only and the intlonze could be taken by force from any wrongdoer. In Maquta’s case, the
owner took a thief’s blanket as intlonze when he found the latter stealing from his garden.
Circumstantial evidence: In adultery cases, the court would receive evidence of a “catch”.67 The
former Native Appeal Court later modified the rule relating to a “catch” by holding that “proof
of a catch” which has no connection with any alleged act of intercourse merely shows intimacy
between the wife and the alleged adulterer and as such may be accepted as evidence aliunde in
support of her testimony.68
Merits of traditional courts procedure and evidence: This is a contentious topic, but the
advantages and disadvantages may be stated briefly as follows:
Advantages: Generally speaking, the traditional system is admirably suited to the needs of
African disputes, particularly family disputes. There is no time limit; therefore, the cases are
thoroughly discussed. The procedure is simple and singularly free from those technicalities so
dear to South African civil- or criminal-law procedure. The substance of a case rather than the
________________________
64 Rule 6 read with rule 7.

65 See, e.g., Soga (1932) 42.
66 1936 NAC (C&O) 86.
67 “Catch” refers to situations where a defendant was found in sexually compromising circumstances with the
plaintiff’s wife. Also see examples given in Bekker (1989) 371.
68 Myataza v Macasa 1952 NAC (S) 28.
form in which it is presented is important, whereas a litigant under the common-law system may
lose a perfectly good case by adopting the wrong procedure. The fact that verdicts are usually
unanimous and conciliatory is gratifying to the community. It makes for order and peace.
Disadvantages: In criminal cases, and to a lesser extent in civil cases, too much is attributed to
supernatural elements such as witchcraft and “smelling out”, for example a woman who has
difficulty in giving birth may be believed to have committed adultery. The admissibility of
hearsay evidence can decidedly cause a miscarriage of justice. Furthermore, traditional proce-
dure causes much time to be wasted on trivialities. The fact that witnesses often speak out of
turn results in the facts becoming distorted and confused. These disadvantages must not be over-
emphasised as they seldom give rise to serious wrongs.
11.3.1.4 Regional authority courts

Regional authority courts were special courts established for the nine regional authorities of the
former Transkei.69 The nine regional authorities included the Quakeni, Nyandeni, Tembuland,
Western Tembuland, Gcaleka, Fingoland, Emboland, Maluti and the Umzimkulu regions. There
was one regional authority court for each of the nine regions.
In terms of the Regional Authority Courts Act the regional authority courts had concurrent
jurisdiction with Magistrates’ Courts in civil and criminal cases within its regional authority area
and enjoyed the same powers and functions as that of the Magistrate’s Court. Each court was
presided over by the head of the regional authority and in his or her absence someone else may
be appointed to exercise judicial powers during this time.70
The Regional Authority Courts no longer exist. Shortly after the judgment of Mhlekwa v Head
of Western-Tambuland Regional Authority; Feni v Head of Western Tambuland Regional
Authority71 the Minister of Justice and Constitutional Development, in whose portfolio all courts
at that time fell, directed that the courts be discontinued. Moreover, in the post-1994 constitu-
tional dispensation the regional authorities fell by the wayside. The Transkei Authorities Act72
that brought the regional authorities into being was repealed in terms of Schedule 2 of the
Traditional Leadership and Governance Act (Eastern Cape).73
The constitutionality of these courts was attacked in two cases; Bangindawo v Head of the
Regional Authority74 and Mhlekwa v Head of the Western Tembuland Regional Authority; Feni v
Head of the Western Tembuland Regional Authority.75 The judgments did not touch upon “ordi-
nary” traditional courts, but the judgments are relevant for a number of reasons.
(a) The independence of the presiding officers:76 The applicants contended that the presiding
officers of the regional authority courts lacked independence because they fulfilled judicial,
legislative and executive functions as traditional leaders in terms the Transkei Authorities
Act.77 The court did not agree that a lack of separation of powers or the fact that presiding
________________________
69 In terms of s 2 of the Regional Authority Courts Act 13 of 1982 (Tk). Section 2(1) provided as follows:
“From the date of commencement of this Act there shall be established in every region a court to be known
as the Regional Authority Court, which shall have jurisdiction in the area for which a regional authority has
been established.” Also see the discussion by Okpaluba (2003) Journal for Juridical Science 138–141.
70 Regional Authority Courts Act, s 2(2).
71 2000 (9) BCLR 979 (Tk).
72 4 of 1965.
73 4 of 2005.
74 1998 (3) BCLR 314 (Tk).
75 2000 (9) BCLR 979 (Tk).
76 Mhlekwa v Head of the Western Tembuland Regional Authority; Feni v Head of the Western Tembuland
Regional Authority 2000 (9) BCLR 979 (Tk) 1019–1020.
77 4 of 1965.
officers did not have legal qualifications influenced the independence of the traditional
authority courts. However, the court did come to the conclusion that the appointment of
presiding officers in the regional authority courts infringed upon section 35(3)(c)78 of the
Constitution to the extent that it did not reflect the constitutional value of independence as
contemplated in section 165(2)79 of the Constitution.80
(b) The right to a fair trial: The court found section 7 of the Regional Authority Court Act,
which prevented legal representation, to be inconsistent with section 35(3)(f) and (g), and
thus unconstitutional.81
(c) Unequal justice:82 The court found that the differentiation in the treatment of accused per-
sons within similar circumstances amounted to unfair discrimination; the differentiation
was the result of the absence in the Regional Authority Courts Act of any provision deter-
mining when and in what circumstances an accused person was to be tried by a regional
authority court rather than a Magistrate’s Court. The fact that a complainant chose the
forum, in which an accused should be tried, boils down to an unequal treatment for which
there was no justification in terms of section 16 of the Constitution. The court found this to
be unconstitutional.
It is important to note that the court limited its findings to the constitutionality of certain provi-
sions of the Regional Authority Courts Act in so far as it relates to criminal proceedings and not
to civil proceedings.
11.3.2 Informal dispute-settlement forums

11.3.2.1 Courts of ward heads
In terms of sections 12 and 20 of the Black Administration Act, criminal and civil jurisdiction
may be conferred only on traditional leaders (including headmen) where there are no traditional
leaders. The courts of ward heads within a community are therefore not officially recognised. In
rural (community) areas, they are courts of first instance. Unfortunately, no figures are avail-
able,83 but a large number of cases are heard in these courts – more than in the official courts of
traditional leaders (including headmen). The ward heads owe their position to the fact that every
communal area is divided into wards under the control of a local ward head. The ward head is
formally appointed by the traditional leader or merely recognised because the position is invari-
ably hereditary.84
Among the Tswana, the ward head is assisted by the lekgotla (an informal group of advisors,
consisting of his senior relatives and heads of other family groups in the ward). The ward head is
entrusted with the administration of justice in his area of jurisdiction. In practice, he presides
over a court, but is always assisted by members of the lekgotla. He must refer more serious cases
to the traditional leader’s court. In civil matters, a party that is not satisfied with the decision of
the ward court may take the matter on appeal to the traditional leader’s court.
________________________
78 This provision stipulates: “Every accused person has a right to a fair trial, which includes the right to a
public trial before an ordinary court”.
79 This provision stipulates: “The courts are independent and subject only to the Constitution and the law,
which they must apply impartially and without fear, favour of prejudice”.
80 Mhlekwa v Head of the Western Tembuland Regional Authority: Feni v Head of the Western Tembuland
81 Both provisions entrench the right of an accused to be represented by a legal practitioner of his or her own
choice or at state expense in appropriate circumstances.
82 Mhlekwa v Head of the Western Tembuland Regional Authority; Feni v Head of the Western Tembuland
83 It is estimated that 12 000 of these courts are operating in the areas of traditional authorities.
84 Schapera “Political institutions” in Schapera (ed) (1959) 185.
The ward head usually hears cases involving disputes between ward members only. He has
neither criminal jurisdiction, nor powers to levy a fine or impose corporal or other forms of pun-
ishment, apart from a fine for contempt of his court. All criminal cases will, however, be inves-
tigated by the ward head and his council before being referred to the traditional leader’s court.
The jurisdiction of the ward head is limited to the persons living within his ward. Where a
dispute arises between members of different wards, it is customary for such a case to be heard by
the ward head of the defendant.
11.3.2.2 Makgotla (“community courts”)85

To understand this topic, one must know that over the years, townships – some formal, some
informal – sprang up on the periphery of former white towns and cities. The people were in dire
need of having domestic disputes settled and of combating crime. The official courts did not
meet their needs. It was, and still is, laborious and expensive to institute action in the official
courts, and police protection became increasingly inadequate. The communities responded by
creating informal courts, called makgotla.86 The term “community court” is currently used when
referring to these structures. They apply a mixture of indigenous customary, common and self-
made law.
These “courts” are still in existence. They are unfortunately not well-documented. On the one
hand, they are notoriously unstructured and given to arbitrary, sometimes criminal, shenanigans.
On the other hand, they resemble the courts of traditional leaders. The procedure is informal.
Their aim is to reconcile the parties with each other and with the community at large.
They do not distinguish terminologically between civil and criminal law. A young man who
has raped or seduced a woman may, for example, be ordered to be whipped and to pay compen-
sation to the woman’s father. Corporal punishment is indeed their main sanction. It amounted to
assault. It is difficult to evaluate these courts. They do seem to meet a need, but they are so
unstructured and undisciplined that it is difficult to justify their existence. Yet there is a strong
support from various quarters for their recognition. The South African Law Commission, among
others, recommended that they be recognised and supported by law.87
11.3.2.3 People’s courts88

Another system, the so-called people’s courts, sprang up around 1985. Whereas the makgotla
purported to be an extension of the official courts and police, the people’s courts were set up as
alternative structures. They were politically motivated – constituting a type of alternative politi-
cal structure in the townships.
Whereas the makgotla did not distinguish between civil and criminal matters, the people’s
courts also brought politics into the game. They organised protest marches, detained and pun-
ished opponents and virtually “whipped in” people to toe the line. They attempted to perform
government functions at the level of wards in townships.
The latest information is that even in post-apartheid South Africa, the people’s courts continue
to operate, although not linked to any political movement. The makgotla seem to play second
fiddle in the orchestra. There have been calls to recognise and structure these courts in the name
________________________
85 See generally Ndaki “What is to be said for makgotla?” in Sanders (ed) (1981) 185–200; South African
Law Commission Project 94: Discussion Paper 87 (1999) 35; and Nel (2001) CILSA 87–108.
86 This word is derived from the Sotho word (le)kgotla which has various meanings. It may mean “meeting”,
“court”, “the place of meeting”, or “court session”. It may also refer to the people at such meetings and the
court advisers.
87 South African Law Commission Project 94: Discussion Paper 87 (1999) iv.
88 See Van Niekerk “People’s courts and people’s justice in South Africa – new developments justice” in
Scharf and Nina (eds) (2001) 39; Van Niekerk (1994) De Jure 28–29.
of community courts. This seems to be a good idea as it is quite unlikely that under present
circumstances the formal justice system will ever satisfy the needs of millions of people inhabit-
ing vast sprawling informal townships all over the country.
11.4 The application of customary law in ordinary courts of South Africa

11.4.1 Introduction
A logical way of describing legal pluralism as it manifests itself in the South African legal sys-
tem is to deal with the courts that may apply it. The point of departure is section 211(3) of the
Constitution which provides that:
The courts must apply customary law when that law is applicable, subject to the Constitution and any legis-
lation that specifically deals with customary law.
The question of the constitutionality of indigenous law, thus its application subject to the Consti-
tution, is dealt with in chapters 2 and 3. The phrase “any legislation that specifically deals with
customary law” primarily refers to a variety of laws dealing with customary law, such as the
Recognition of Customary Marriages Act.
There is thus a constitutional mandate on ordinary courts to apply customary law when it is
applicable. The applicability question has been dealt with in chapters 2 and 3 and the discussion
that follows deals only briefly with the question of application in mainstream courts.
11.4.2 Small Claims Courts

The Hoexter Commission89 recommended that small claims courts be established to relieve the
pressure on the Magistrates’ Courts. They are meant to obviate the high cost of lawyers; delays
in bringing cases before the courts; the psychological barriers many litigants experience when
appearing in formal tribunals; and barriers caused by poverty, ignorance and feelings of aliena-
tion. The Commission recommended that small claims courts should operate in an informal
manner, that they should attempt to reconcile the litigating parties and that the presiding officials
should play a more active inquisitorial role. These are also the characteristics of traditional
authority courts.
These courts were established by the Small Claims Courts Act.90 Their jurisdiction is restricted
to the hearing of small claims not exceeding an amount determined by the Minister of Justice
and Constitutional Development from time to time.91 Certain matters are specifically excluded
from their jurisdiction:92 the dissolution of customary-law marriages, actions for damages for
seduction and breach of promise to marry. All such claims must be heard in Magistrates’ Courts,
with the consequent disadvantages of higher costs and more formalities.
Advocates, attorneys or magistrates act as commissioners presiding over these courts.93
Except in the case of minors or other persons lacking locus standi, legal representation is not
permitted.94 The general rules of evidence are not applicable.95 Questioning of witnesses may be
on an inquisitorial basis.96 In terms of the inquisitorial procedure, the court takes an active part
in the proceedings before the court. This is similar to the indigenous court procedure.
________________________
89 Commission of enquiry into the structure and functioning of the courts (1983).
90 61 of 1984.
91 Section 15.
92 Section 16.
93 Section 9.
94 Section 7(2).
95 Section 26(1).
96 Section 26(3).
In view of the fact that any court may take judicial notice of customary law,97 small courts
would be entitled to adjudicate in disputes arising from customary law.
11.4.3 Magistrates’ Courts

As court of first instance
As court of first instance, a magistrate may, within the limits of his or her jurisdiction, hear any
civil dispute arising from customary law. The application of customary law in a Magistrate’s
Court was, however, regulated by section 1 of the Law of Evidence Amendment Act.98 This
provision has not been repealed yet and regulates the application of customary law as follows:
• any court may take judicial notice of customary law insofar as it can be ascertained readily
and with sufficient certainty;
• the relevant rule of customary law must, however, not be opposed to the principles of public
policy and natural justice;
• the custom of lobolo or bogadi or any similar custom may not be declared repugnant to the
principles of public policy and natural justice;
• any party may adduce evidence of the substance of a rule of customary law which is in issue
at the proceedings concerned;
• where the parties do not belong to the same community and have not agreed on the system
of law to be applied, the court must apply the law in operation at the place where the
defendant resides, his/her place of business or where he/she is employed; and
• where two or more systems of law are in operation in an area outside a community area, the
court must apply the law of the community to which the defendant or respondent belongs.
This provision is in fact now redundant because in terms of section 211(3) of the Constitution:
• the courts must apply customary law:
• when that law is applicable;
• subject to the Constitution; and
• subject to any law that specifically deals with customary law.
The fact that Magistrates’ Courts are thus granted jurisdiction to apply customary law does not
mean that the ordinary limitations or their jurisdiction do not apply. They are so-called “crea-
tures of statute”. They can only exercise jurisdiction specifically conferred on them. They may
therefore not make custody awards in accordance with customary law because jurisdiction in
custody disputes has not been conferred on them.99 Custody disputes must be heard in the High
Court. Similarly, if the amount of a claim exceeds the magistrate’s jurisdiction, the claim must
be prosecuted in the High Court.
As court of appeal in civil matters of traditional courts
Any party to a suit in which a traditional leader has given judgment may appeal to the Magis-
trates’ Court which would have had jurisdiction, had the proceedings in the first instance been
instituted in the latter court.
Section 12(4) of the Act which deals with this matter goes on to provide that no appeal shall
lie where the value of the claim or the subject matter in dispute before the traditional leader is
less than R10, unless the magistrate has, after summary inquiry, certified that an important
principle of law is involved. This limitation was instituted to prevent frivolous litigation. On the
________________________
97 Section 1 of the Law of Evidence Amendment Act 45 of 1988.

98 45 of 1988.
99 Sati v Kitsile 1998 (3) SA 602 (EC).
one hand, the amount of R10 is, in terms of the present value of money, ridiculously low. On the
other hand, limitation by any amount is out of sync with the nature and purpose of courts of
traditional leaders. Their aim is more often than not to reconcile conflicting parties – to settle
disputes. The value of the claim is not the predominant factor.
The Magistrate’s Court may confirm, alter or set aside the judgment after hearing such evi-
dence as may be tendered by the parties to the dispute, or as may be deemed desirable by the
court. A confirmation, alteration, or setting aside of a judgment is deemed to be a judgment of
the Magistrate’s Court for the purposes of execution of the judgment. The traditional leader must
furnish his reasons for judgment either in person or by deputy. The traditional leader’s reason
becomes part of the record. If the traditional leader fails to furnish reasons the magistrate may
order him to do so and may, in his discretion, dispense with reasons.100
In Zwane v Myeni,101 it was held that on appeal the court considers a specific claim in the
lower court, a judgment based on that claim, the traditional leader’s reason for the judgment, and
the evidence recorded de novo by the court of appeal. A fresh judgment must be given on the
abovementioned. The court cannot change the cause of action, but supplies what is lacking in the
lower court – namely by recording of the evidence.
As court of appeal in criminal matters of traditional courts
Section 20(6) of the Act provides that any person who has been convicted by a traditional leader
may appeal against the conviction or sentence to the court of the magistrate in whose area the
trial had taken place.102
In hearing the appeal, the magistrate must hear and record such available evidence as may be
relevant to the question at hand. He may thereupon confirm, set aside or vary the conviction and
sentence, or else give such judgment as he thinks the traditional leader should have given in the
first instance.
Procedure on appeal against traditional court orders or convictions
The rules provide that any person who wishes to appeal (known as appellant) must, within 30
days from the date of pronouncement of the judgment, in person give notice of appeal to the
traditional leader who delivered the judgment, to the respondent or complainant and to the clerk
of the Magistrate’s Court.103
The appeal must be conducted and tried as if it were a criminal trial de novo, except that the
appellant is not called upon to plead to the charge. In giving judgment, the court does not con-
vict or acquit the appellant. It either confirms or quashes or varies the conviction and sentence,
as it may think just. If the appellant fails to appear, the court may either postpone the hearing or
dismiss the appeal.
11.4.4 Family Courts

In terms of the Administration Amendment Act104 (amending the Black Administration Act),
provision was made for the establishment of divorce courts for civil marriages contracted by
Africans, by means of proclamation by the President. They obviously did not apply indigenous
law. It was held that they may not even adjudicate on the disposal of lobolo on dissolution of a
civil marriage because it was not a question arising from an action for divorce.105
________________________
100 Regulations 10(1)(d) and 11 of GN R2082 of 1967.

101 1937 NAC (N&T) 73.
102 Criminal Procedure Act 51 of 1977, s 309A.
103 Regulation 2 of the Regulations for Criminal Appeals GN 45 of 1961.
104 9 of 1929.
105 Mtiyane v Mtiyane 1952 NAC (NE) 229.
The Magistrates’ Courts Act106 has since been amended by the Magistrates’ Courts Amend-
ment Act107 to enable the Minister of Justice to establish family divisions of the civil court108 and
to establish a family court for a family division.
Again, they would not ipso facto apply customary law. They do, however, have jurisdiction in
suits for a decree of divorce in a customary marriage.109 As the marriages concerned are “marriages
concluded in accordance with customary law”, the courts would, subject to the provisions of the
Act, have to apply customary law where appropriate.110 Issues such as the following will from
time to time have to be resolved:
(a) the very existence of a customary marriage. Although certain requirements are laid down in
section 3 of the Act, “the marriage must be negotiated and entered into or celebrated in
accordance with customary law”;
(b) in dividing assets, a distinction will have to be drawn between family property and house
property;
(c) in awarding custody of children, their place in an extended family may have to be taken
into account. In communities of European origin, the notion prevails that children must be
with both or one of their biological parents. On the contrary, in African communities:
[parent-child] relationships are characterised by the ‘movement’ of children within or without a
kinship group to be ‘placed’, temporarily or permanently, with someone other than the biological
parent. Sometimes such movement entails a physical change of residence, often it is notional, as in
the case of child’s ritual attachment to a god-parent or ‘allocation’ to a different branch of the family.
These movements are widespread and institutionalised in many societies and the parent-child rela-
tionships they create can aptly be described as social parenthood.
111
(d) in traditional communities, the best interest of a child refers also to ancestral bondage.112
11.4.5 High Courts

The High Court has inherent jurisdiction to try any civil or criminal matter. In the application of
customary law, it is also limited by section 211(3) of the Constitution.
11.4.6 Constitutional Court

It is hardly necessary to say that the Constitutional Court is entitled to apply customary law. It
will, as time goes by, no doubt play an important role in deciding what aspects of customary law
are unconstitutional.
In cases arising from the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act it will have to apply cus-
tomary law. If in a divorce case the father of the bride is cited and an appropriate collateral claim
for the return of lobolo is instituted, the High Court would naturally have jurisdiction.
11.5 Legal reform

In 1996, the South African Law Commission established a committee to perform a project
(Project 90) entitled “The harmonisation of the common and customary law”. In 1997 traditional
courts were also placed on the agenda of the commission and a discussion paper dealing with the
________________________
106 32 of 1944.
107 120 of 1993.
108 Section 2(a).
109 Section 8 read with the definition of “court” in s 1(i) of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act.
111 Nhlapo “Biological and social parenthood in African perspective: The movement of children in Swazi
family law” in Eekelaar and Sarcevic (eds) (1993) 35–36.
112 Vorster (2001) SA Journal of Ethnology 53.
main issues was published in 1999.113 Finally, in 2003, a report was published.114 The report
contained a draft Bill for the regulation of customary courts (renamed traditional courts in the
final Bill) which was presented to the Minister for Justice and Constitutional Development in
2002. The draft Bill was never introduced in parliament, and in 2009 the Department of Justice
and Constitutional Development issued a policy document titled “Policy Framework on the
Traditional Justice System under the Constitution”,115 which culminated in the final Bill. The
Bill is currently being debated in parliament and it is envisaged that it will become law in the
near future.
Himonga and Manjoo116 discuss two factors which, according to them, resulted in the “slow
birth of a regulatory framework for traditional courts”. First, the fact that the reform processes
were duplicated for no apparent reason between the South African Law Commission and the
Department of Justice and Constitutional Development led to unnecessary delays and secondly,
the process of public participation took a considerable amount of time to conclude. Be that as it
may, the processes were completed in 2009, but the Bill still has to be transformed into law and
there is no indication of when that is going to happen.
As already explained, the Bill replaces the provisions of the Black Administration Act dealing
with formal traditional courts. The objects of the Bill, as set out in clause 2, are, first of all, to
confirm the values of a traditional justice system (restorative justice and reconciliation) and,
secondly, to align traditional courts with the Constitution. Additional objects include the need to
create a uniform legislative framework for traditional authority courts and to enhance the “effec-
tiveness, efficiency and integrity of the traditional justice system”. In accordance with contem-
porary legislation and international instruments, the Bill also contains a provision dedicated to
“guiding principles” which should apply in the application of the Bill. The overarching theme of
the guiding principles is the promotion of African values based on restorative justice and recon-
ciliation but within the framework of constitutional guarantees and freedoms.
Clause 4 of the Bill provides for the designation of traditional leaders as presiding officers of
traditional courts for certain areas, and also requires the Director-General of Justice and Consti-
tutional Development to keep a register of all the designated officers. The Director-General also
has the power to revoke or suspend their designation under certain circumstances. A new addi-
tion to the current situation is the fact that it requires from the designated officers to attend
prescribed training programmes and courses. The effect of the attendance requirement is am-
biguous. The mere attendance of a programme or course cannot guarantee the acquisition of the
necessary skills required from a traditional leader presiding in a traditional court.
Clauses 5 and 6 deal with the civil and criminal jurisdiction of traditional courts respectively.
Civil jurisdiction is granted only with regard to disputes arising out of customary law and certain
disputes are excluded from the jurisdiction of the court, such as constitutional matters, divorce
matters, the custody and guardianship of children, the interpretation of wills, claims above a
certain amount which has yet to be determined, and property issues. Criminal jurisdiction is
limited to only certain offences committed (as listed in the schedule to the Bill) in the jurisdic-
tional area of the traditional court and limited to certain sanctions and orders in terms of
clause 10. The procedure to be followed in the court is in terms of customary law, but the Bill
introduces the two principles of natural justice into the procedure, namely audi alteram partem
(hear both sides) and nemo iudex in propria causa (impartiality of the judge).117
________________________
113 South African Law Commission Project 90: Discussion Paper 82 (1999).
114 South African Law Reform Commission Project 90: Customary law (2003).
115 The Framework is accessible at https://www.gov.za/documents/policy-framework-traditional-justice-
system-under-constitution.
116 Himonga and Manjoo (2009) Malawi Law Journal 163–171.
117 Bill, clause 9.
Clause 11 prescribed the procedures to be followed if someone fails to comply with the sanc-
tion of a traditional court. The sanction of a traditional court has the effect of a civil judgment of
a Magistrate’s Court and is enforceable by execution in that Magistrate’s Court. The Magis-
trate’s Court remains thus the final forum of execution of the orders of the traditional courts.
The possibility of an appeal to a Magistrate’s Court is retained in clause 13. This route is
available to a convicted offender or an aggrieved party in a civil case. The Magistrate’s Court
may confirm the order of the traditional court, amend or replace it, or dismiss it. In addition,
clause 14 makes provision for review proceedings to a Magistrate’s Court on the following
grounds: the traditional court acted ultra vires; without jurisdiction; with gross irregularities
regarding the proceedings; or with personal interest, bias or malice. Weeks118 is of the opinion
that all judgments of the traditional courts should be appealable to the Magistrates’ Courts but
recommends that dedicated officers be installed to deal with customary law concerns. As with
the training of traditional leaders, these officers must receive instruction on how to deal with
customary law issues, especially with living customary law. In other words, the integration of
ordinary and traditional courts must be based on a mutual understanding of both systems.
The Bill has not received entirely favourable reviews. Although the intention of the Bill is to
resolve existing problems with the traditional courts, to bring them in line with the Constitution,
and to facilitate the links between them and ordinary courts, some scholars disagree that these
objects have been realised. Weeks127 has at least five concerns regarding the Bill, namely, the
consultation-process did not include ordinary people, including women and the youth, in rural
areas; the Bill does not recognise lower-level or unofficial traditional courts; the wide powers of
the traditional courts pertaining to sanctions increases the scope for abuse, excludes legal repre-
sentation; people do not have an option to choose whether or not they want to fall under a
particular traditional leader’s authority, neither do they have the choice to opt out of the jurisdic-
tion of the traditional court; and, finally, the Bill provides only lip service to gender equality and
does not afford substantive equality to the female members of a traditional community.
The first bone of contention for Holomisa119 is the fact that the Bill centralises power in the
traditional leaders while traditional justice systems are based on layered authority. Additionally,
he is of the opinion that government should leave the traditional courts as they are, to evolve and
adapt to changing circumstances in their own time and in their own way. He also does not agree
with the accusations of gender discrimination voiced by some. According to him these critics do
not understand customary law or the functioning of the courts, and he concludes with a sweeping
statement by saying that the critics of the traditional system are not up to date with the changes
in customary law, “[t]hey are content with rehashing colonial drivel, which presumes that Afri-
can culture is inferior to western culture”.120
Another scholar is particularly critical of the Bill and compares it with pre-constitutional leg-
islation which impaired the dignity of Africans.121 His arguments echo other criticisms of the
Bill’s failure to recognise the multi-layered levels of the traditional justice systems, including the
important links between these layers. He finds the affirmation of authority on the grounds of
jurisdictional boundaries especially problematic and contrary to customary law values, and
declares:122
Some of the provisions of the TCB [Bill] will suffocate the dynamism of those communities defined as
‘traditional communities’, and will impose cultural hegemony at the expense of peaceful coexistence. This
may amount to cultural chauvinism.
________________________
118 Weeks (2011) 35 SA Crime Quarterly 5–8

119 Holomisa (2011) 35 SA Crime Quarterly 18–20.
120 Holomisa (2011) 35 SA Crime Quarterly 20.
121 Gasa (2011) 35 SA Crime Quarterly 24–25.
122 Gasa (2011) 35 SA Crime Quarterly 24–25.
The fact that such communities are not homogeneous, according to him, justifies the inclusion of
a clause enabling people to opt out and choose their own forum for justice.123
Another author defends the institution of traditional courts and argues that the youth in South
Africa should be made aware of the fact that traditional courts have been around for a long time
and that they should accept the fact that they are constitutionally recognised.124
11.6 Conclusion
Despite suffering from the making of such legislative inroads, traditional justice systems have
proven to be surprisingly resilient against Western influences. Nevertheless, the ties between the
ordinary and the traditional judicial systems are unmistakably there, albeit on the lower level of
Magistrates’ Courts. Although empirical research needs to be done to determine the true position
of traditional courts in rural areas, there seems to be a wide gap between law and practice.125
Traditional leaders are unwittingly therapeutic agents – therapeutic jurisprudence is a concept
developed in American literature.126 They attempt, at least theoretically, to foster therapeutic
outcomes for the transgressors who come before them – and strive towards restoring the well-
being of the community. The Traditional Courts Bill strives to infuse values such as ubuntu with
contemporary ideas of restorative justice and therapeutic jurisprudence, though it does not refer
to the latter explicitly. These concepts differ in name, but they have one thing in common; they
call for a more holistic approach that promotes the well-being of all individuals and communities
touched by injustice.127 However, after decades of confusion in relation to the traditional justice
system, one would have hoped that the Bill would finally have brought clarity and the approval
of all. Judged from the divergent opinions of a number of African scholars intimately familiar
with customary law and traditional courts, it appears as if the achievement of clarity and approval
remains a forlorn ideal.
________________________
123 Gasa (2011) 35 SA Crime Quarterly 25.

124 Bogopa 2007 Acta Criminologica 153.
125 The discord between theory and practice becomes apparent in the studies done by anthropologists. See Van
der Waal (2004) Anthropology Southern Africa 111–121.
126 For a discussion of the concept, see Rautenbach (2005) SAJHR 323–335.
127 Rautenbach (2015) 275–304 explores the idea that there are links between ubuntu, therapeutic jurisprudence
and restorative justice in a scholarly article published in 2015.
Part
3
Personal, Religious and Family Law Systems in
South Africa
(Hindu, Jewish and Muslim Personal Law)
12
Hindu Personal Law
Page
12.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 273
12.2 Sources of Hindu law ............................................................................................. 274
12.2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 274
12.2.2 Vedas (Srutis) – the primary sources ...................................................... 275
12.2.3 The secondary sources ............................................................................ 276
12.2.4 Other sources........................................................................................... 277
12.2.5 Conclusion .............................................................................................. 279
12.3 Hindu family law in South Africa.......................................................................... 280
12.3.1 A brief historical context......................................................................... 280
12.3.2 Hindu family law in South Africa ........................................................... 283
12.4 Hindu family law ................................................................................................... 284
12.4.1 Marriages ................................................................................................ 284
12.4.1.1 Prohibited relationships in marriage ..................................... 285
12.4.1.2 Requirements for a valid marriage........................................ 286
12.4.1.3 Forms of marriage ................................................................. 287
12.4.1.4 Consequences of a marriage: status and maintenance .......... 288
12.4.2 Joint family, coparcenary and property................................................... 290
12.4.2.1 Joint family and joint property.............................................. 290
12.4.2.2 Coparcenary .......................................................................... 291
12.4.2.3 Coparceners and the karta (manager) ................................... 292
12.4.2.4 Separate property .................................................................. 292
12.4.2.5 Stridhan (female property).................................................... 293
12.4.2.5.1 General ............................................................ 293
12.4.2.5.2 Dowry .............................................................. 294
12.4.3 Divorce .................................................................................................... 294
12.4.3.1 General .................................................................................. 294
12.4.3.2 Grounds for divorce .............................................................. 295
12.4.3.3 Custody of children on divorce or judicial separation .......... 298
12.5 Law of succession .................................................................................................. 298
12.5.1 General .................................................................................................... 298
271
Page
12.5.2 Survivorship and partition (joint property) ............................................. 298
12.5.2.1 Survivorship .......................................................................... 299
12.5.2.2 Partition ................................................................................. 300
12.5.3 Succession (separate property)................................................................ 301
12.5.3.1 General .................................................................................. 301
12.5.3.2 Freedom of testation ............................................................. 301
12.5.3.3 Intestate succession ............................................................... 301
12.5.3.3.1 Property of a male ........................................... 303
12.5.3.3.2 Property of a female ........................................ 309
12.5.3.4 Distinction between the Hindu and the South African
laws of succession ................................................................. 310
12.6 Status of women in Hindu law............................................................................... 311
Chapter 12: Hindu Personal Law 273
12.1 Introduction
Hindu law is based on Hinduism, the oldest and most varied of all the great religions of the
world.1 Despite being an ancient legal system, Hindu law has survived over the years and has
remained one of the major legal systems of the world.2
Hindu law is holistic in nature. Like customary law, it can be classed as a culture-specific
form of law. Its richness of detail is based on the inter-linking elements of human life. With such
inter-linking of religion, social and moral rules, ethics, justice and the principles of law, Hindu
law can favourably be compared to some of the oldest systems of law known to the world, such
as Roman and Egyptian law.
Like any other legal system in which law subtly and constantly develops and changes with the
changes in society, Hindu law is not precisely what it had been in the past.
In the discussion that follows, the reference to Hindu law and its application refers mainly to
its application in India, where approximately 83% of the population follow Hindu law.3 Hindu
law applies to Hindus in some matters only. Questions regarding succession, marriage and relig-
ious usages and institutions are decided according to classic Hindu law except insofar such law
has been altered by legislation.4 The altering of classic Hindu law by means of legislation prob-
ably also leads to the phenomenon where one finds “living” and “official” versions of Hindu law
in India.5 This chapter focuses mainly on Hindu family law and succession.6
Who is a Hindu?
Prior to codification in India, a large number of persons qualified as Hindus, but nowadays mainly three
categories exist, namely a Hindu by birth, a Hindu by conversion, and anyone who is not a Muslim, Chris-
7
tian, Parsi or Jew and who is not governed by any other law. To date the question “who is a Hindu” has not
come to the fore in South African courts and it is generally a matter of self-identification.
The Hindu worldview is based on the Hindu concept of God. The Rig Veda speaks of one God,
which is omnipresent, omnipotent and omniscient. This God permeates nature in its entirety.
God may also be worshipped through the media of many forms which may be designated as
devas (gods), such as Varuna (the god of the waters) or Indra (the god of the atmosphere). The
Rig Veda states that God is one, but wise people see Him in many forms. This accounts for the
pluralism in the Hindu concept of God. As a sequel to this, the omnipresent God is present in all
beings; therefore, all life is sacred. The Bhagavad Gita states:
8
Sages see with an equal eye, a learned and humble Brahmin, cow, and elephant or even a dog or an outcaste.
In Hinduism, the four purposes or objectives of life are Dharma, Artha, Karma and Moksha. The
root of the word Dharma is dhar, which means to maintain, to keep, to preserve, and to hold. In
this context, law is a branch of Dharma, which includes the duties and rules of conduct enjoined
________________________
1 Gandhi (2008) 1.
2 Menski (2008) 3.
3 This would be around 800 million people.
4 Desai (2010) 92.
5 See ch 2 where the phenomenon of “living” and “official” South African customary law is discussed.
6 Other aspects of Hindu law, such as the law of persons and the position of children were dealt with in the
previous edition in ch 14.
7 Jhabvala (1999) 12–13; Desai (2010) 94–98. Also see s 2 of the Hindu Marriage Act 25 of 1955; Nagpal
(2008) 1–16.
8 Bhagavad Gita ch 5 verse 18. Commenting on this verse, Radhakrishnan (1989) 181 states: “The Eternal is
the same in all, in animals, as in men, in learned Brahmins as in despised outcasts, the light of Brahman
dwells in all bodies and is not affected by the differences in the bodies it illumines”.
by God on the Hindu community to guide all Hindus towards the ultimate goal, namely salvation.
It is a comprehensive concept that refers to acceptable conduct under various circumstances and
incorporates, for example, morality, truth, non-violence, justice, love and religious duties.
Artha refers to the acquisition of wealth and material possessions by legitimate means. These
acquisitions are to be made in accordance with the broad principles of Dharma. Wealth should
not be obtained by, for example, deception, pretence, robbery, injustice and falsehood. Wealth
should also not be hoarded.
The third objective, Karma, relates to the totality of one’s physical pleasures and desires. These
desires should be satisfied during the stage of life called Grihastha Ashram (householders).
Moksha means liberation or salvation. Disease, old age and death are the causes of physical
unhappiness. Jealousy and attachment are the sources of mental unhappiness. Injustice and
tyranny are social ills. The release from the above is the fourth objective of life. It refers to the
release of all kinds of suffering. When a person transcends the cycle of life and death, he or she
attains salvation (moksha).9
10
Karma and reincarnation: The concept of Karma (actions or deeds) is significant in Hinduism. Karma
entails the law of cause and effect; as you sow so shall you reap. In the effect, this means what one is now a
result of one’s past. What one will be in the future is the result of one’s past but modified in the present. The
Hindu law of Karma is not fatalistic. Each human being has control over his or her destiny. Evil deeds will
reap pain and misery and conversely good deeds will reap happiness and contentment.
This law found the basis of motivating people to do good and to abstain from evil. It is therefore the basis
of morality.
According to the Vedas, a human being’s soul is immortal. However, the body of the soul is mortal. Upon
death, the soul enters another body and hence the soul is reborn. With reference to the soul, the Bhagvad
Gita declares: “As a man casts out worn out garments, and takes others that are new, even so, the embodied
11
one, casts off worn out bodies and passes onto others anew”.
Here the embodied one is the soul. In this way, the cycle of birth and death continues until, of course, a
person attains salvation (moksha); that is when he is liberated by transcending both life and death. The form
in which the soul is reborn depends on one’s Karma, which could be either good or bad.
Hindus perform various religious ceremonies, hence the worship of specific deities. Mention is
made of three popular deities, namely Laksmi (the goddess of wealth and prosperity), Ganesha
(the remover of all obstacles) and Saraswathi (the goddess of knowledge and learning). The
various deities represent one omnipresent God.
12.2 Sources of Hindu law

12.2.1 Introduction
Hindu law is one of the oldest personal-law systems in the world and originated in India. Accord-
ing to Hindu literature, its law is approximately 6 000 years old. The oldest, and most important,
sources of Hindu law are the Vedas. They are known as the divine sources and thus primary in
nature and known as the Sruti (that which have been heard). All other scriptures or sources are
secondary in nature and are known as Smritis (what is recollected and remembered).12
________________________
9 See further Prabhavananda (1979) 62.

10 Sen (1984) 1–3.
11 Ch 2 verse 22.
12 Desai (2010) 4–46, 99–108; Kesari and Kesari (1998) 12–24; Jhabvala (1999) 2–9; Mofokeng (2009) 16–17;
Prabhavananda (1979) 25–30.
12.2.2 Vedas (Srutis) – the primary sources

The Vedas stems from the Vedic period (approximately 4000–1000 BC). They are divine in their
origin and make a claim that they are even more divine in character that other sources such as
the Koran and the Bible which owe their authority to delivery of the sacred message through a
messenger from God. This means that Vedic knowledge existed even before the creation of
mankind and the authority of the Vedas does not depend upon anything external.13 They are the
oldest and most important scriptures and are regarded as the source and bedrock of Hindu
civilisation. The Vedas teach the knowledge of God and lay down work as a means to that know-
ledge. Work and knowledge are thus the two subjects of the four parts of the Vedas, which are in
turn subdivided into the knowledge portion (Samhitas, Brahmanas and Aranyakas) and the work
portion known as the Upanisads.
The divisions of the Vedas may be summarised as follows in the table below.14
Samhitas
Work Brahmanas
Rk-Veda Aranyakas
Knowledge Upanisads
Samhitas
Work Brahmanas
Sama-Ved Aranyakas
Knowledge Upanisads
Samhitas
Work Brahmanas
Yajur-Ved Aranyakas
Knowledge Upanisads
Samhitas
Work Brahmanas
Atharva-Ved Aranyakas
Knowledge Upanisads
Samhitas: The Samhitas are collections of mantras (hymns) which sing the praises of one or
more of the Hindu gods. It is important to distinguish between Hindu gods (devas) and God.
God is a supreme being which was not created, whilst the gods, although supernatural, belong
among creatures, for example the rain-god, Indra, is sung of as a god clad in golden armour who
is very strong and descends to the earth where he lives and eats with his adherents and fights
their enemies.15
Brahmanas: In contrast to the Samhitas, the Brahmanas are concerned with everyday practical
things and set out the various religious rites and rituals to be performed by Hindus.16 The Brah-
manas distinguish between public and domestic rites. Public rites will include the rituals per-
formed for specific events or at different times of the year and domestic rites are performed in
the privacy of one’s home. These duties must be performed unselfishly and without expecting
any reward, because they purify the heart.
________________________
13 Prabhavananda (1979) 30–31.

14 Prabhavananda (1979) 31; Prakash (1985) 57.
15 Prabhavananda (1979) 31.
16 Prabhavananda (1979) 31; Prakash (1985) 57.
Aranyakas:17 Like the Brahmanas they deal with rites and ceremonies, but they accept that not
in rites and ceremonies, but in the truths they stand for, lies their real importance. In other
words, the outward appearances of rites and rituals are less important than inner realities, thus
coming closer to Upanisads.
Upanishads: Upanishads make up the knowledge portion of the Vedas. The word Upanishad
has a variety of meanings.18 Firstly, it literally means “sitting near devotedly” and denotes the
faithful scholar learning from his spiritual master. Secondly, it also means secret teaching and,
thirdly, it means the knowledge of God. Since each Veda ends with Upanishads, they are also
called Vedanta, meaning the anta or end of the Vedas. Although there might have existed much
more, only 108 Upanishads remain today, and only 16 were recognised by Samskara as authen-
tic and authoritative.19 It is not known who wrote them or when they were written. In general,
the Upanishads provide a philosophical explanation of the Vedas and are generally in the form
of dialogues. They overlap greatly and often do not have a logical beginning and end.
12.2.3 The secondary sources

Although the Vedas are the primary, ultimate and basic scriptures of Hinduism, they are not the
only writings held sacred by the Hindus.20 In order to make the difficult and abstract readings of
the Vedas more accessible a large body of writings developed alongside them. In contrast to the
Vedas which are regarded as “direct from God” these writings are man-made, and thus only
secondary to the Vedas. The secondary sources are divided into Epics, Smritis Puramas and
Tantras.
Epics: The best known Epics are the Ramayana (the life of Rama)21 and the Mahabharata (the
life of the descendants of King Bharata).22 Together they provide a narrative of the history of
India and Hinduism.
The Mahabharata contains the Bhagvad Gita. It is the crest jewel of Hindu thought and one
of the greatest religious classics of humankind. The Bhagvad Gita is a handbook of 700 verses
containing spiritual truths, religious codes of conduct and moral values that lead to salvation. It
was composed centuries after the Upanishads and it discusses the human being’s worldly duties.
The Bhagvad Gita also upholds the supremacy of human duties and the avoidance of evil activi-
ties that are contrary to the atonement of salvation. It is nowadays regarded as the Bible of
India.23
Smritis: Smritis literally means “that which was remembered” and is regarded as the most
important source of law, although it consists of religious, moral, social and legal duties.24 The
Smritis are the interpretations of the Vedas by the sages and prescribed the duties (dharma) of
each good Hindu.25 They were composed at different periods of time and under different rulers
and are recognised as authoritative statements of law. Smritis should not be confused with Epics
although both deal with historical events. Smritis are formulated to “fix remembrance, for
practical use, the spiritual laws and precepts stated or implied in the Vedas”,26 while Epics
describe historical events in India.
________________________

21 This is regarded as the first poetical work of the author Valmik as the first Indian poet. See Prabhavananda
(1979) 81–87.
22 The author of this source was Vyasa. See Prabhavananda Spiritual heritage of India (1979) 87–94.
23 Prabhavananda (1979) 79, 95–133.
24 Nagpal (2008) 30–33.
25 Desai (2010) 4; Prabhavananda (1979) 79, 134–135.
The rules laid down in the Smritis can be divided into three categories.27 First, is Achar which
is closely related to morality. Second is Vyavahar, which signifies the rules the state applied for
the administration of justice and, third is, Prayashchit, which provided the penalty for the com-
mission of the wrong.
A well-known Smriti scripture is the Code of Manu (called the Manusmriti)28 which contains
a recording of civil laws and social obligations which must be followed to attain the highest
spiritual development.29 According to the orthodox view, Manu was the first man. Legend has it
that Brahma gave him a code of laws which described the duties and principles required by God
to obtain salvation.30 Some of the criticism raised against Manu is that he supported the caste
system. Hence, he supports the superiority and exclusivity of the so-called Brahman class. Fur-
thermore, his code discriminated against women, but this should be seen in the historical context
of the times.
Puranas: The word “purana” literally means ancient and has been applied to certain Hindu
scriptures to denote contemporary interpretations of out-dated customs and usages prescribed by
the Vedas.31 Eighteen Puranas exist; six are devoted to Visnu, six to Brahma and six to Vyasa.
Visnu, Brahma and Vyasa are three divinities who are known as the Trinity of the Hindus and
embody the one true God of the Hindus. The Puranas popularised the abstract teachings of the
Upanisads by means of stories concerning saints, sages and kings.32 After the Bhagvad Gita, the
Bhagavatam purana is regarded by Hindus as the most authoritative of their scriptures.33
Tantras: The Tantras are described as the “scriptures by means of which knowledge is spread in
order to save humanity from ignorance”.34 They are also known as Agamas (revelations in con-
formity with the Vedas). Their authorship is unknown, although legend has it that Siva uttered
them to the Divine Mother, Sakti.35 The original Tantras can be divided into three main groups
according to the deity chosen, namely: Visnu, Siva or Sakti. Thus there are the Visnu Agamas, Siva
Agamas or Sakti Agamas. In turn, each Tantra can be broadly divided into three parts. Firstly, there
is sadhana, which includes spiritual practices and ritualistic forms of worship. Secondly, siddhi
includes attainment from such practices and, lastly, philosophical teachings.36
12.2.4 Other sources

Commentaries and digests (Nibhandas): Various commentaries and digests followed the
Smritis.37 They were written by Hindu lawyers to modify and supplement the Smritis.38 The
commentaries are devoted to one particular Smriti and are intended to explain its text.39 On the
other hand, the digests purport to embrace the whole of the Smritis or a particular branch thereof.40
________________________
27 Nagpal (2008) 31–32.

28 Also referred to as the Corpus Juris of ancient India. See Desai (2010) 27.
29 Prabhavananda (1979) 134; Misra and Kumar (2003) 19–21.
31 Prabhavananda (1979) 135–136; Nagpal (2008) 33.
37 Kesari and Kesari (1996) 16.
38 See Lingat (1973) 107–111; Srinivasan vol I (1969) 54–55.
39 For example, the Manusmriti has been subjected to numerous commentaries such as those of Medhatithi,
Govindraja and Kulluka. Lingat (1973) 111–115.
40 For example, the most ancient digest is the Kalpataru, composed by Laksmidhara. See Lingat (1973) 115–122.
The Commentaries and Nibhandas (digests) supplemented rules in the Smritis, using their
own reasoning and incorporating the relevant customs. Situations where these sources have
played a role are, for example, where the Smritis:
(a) did not cover every aspect of the law;
(b) did not give sufficient detail on specific aspects of the law; and
(c) contained conflicting opinions.
Custom (Sadachar):41 Custom is one of the most important sources of Hindu law. Where a
conflict exists between a custom and the text of the Smritis, the authority of the Vedas will
override the text.42 Although the Vedas and the Smritis are said to contain divine revelation, they
also incorporate many of the customs of their times. The process of legal development, through
the digests and commentaries, further incorporates existing custom. These sources of law there-
fore gave to custom its formal shape. For a Hindu custom to be regarded as legally valid, it must
be remembered that custom is a question of fact which must be proven. The legal requirements
of a custom are that it must be:43
(a) ancient or long-standing;44
(b) continuous;
(c) certain;
(d) uniform;
(c) reasonable;
(d) moral or ethical; and
(f) in accordance with public policy.
Customs are divided into four categories, namely:
• Community or group customs: Customs based on issues of security, food, health and
climate apply to the members of a specific community or caste.
• Local or territorial customs: The local or territorial custom that binds all persons within
the specific geographical area.
• Family customs: The customs that have binding force on a family. Customs of families
have been recognised in Hindu law but, they are outweighed by written law.
• Institutional customs: The customs of religious organisations.
Modern sources of law:45 The modern sources of Hindu law include equity and justice, prece-
dent, legislation and codes. Many of the Smritikars (writers of the Smritis) wrote about the need
to apply Yukti (reason or equity) and Nyaya (natural equity and justice) in a decision. Yukti and
Nyaya are used not merely to fill the gaps that exist in sacred law, but to overrule sacred law
where such law is unreasonable, against good conscience, not contrary to the Vedas and in
accordance with the traditions of the time.46
The main source of Hindu law in India today is legislation. The Indian Constitution has had a
great impact on Hindu law, as well as the Hindu Code of 1955 which is a compilation of various
statutes concerning various aspects of Hindu law.
________________________
41 Nagpal (2008) 37–43.

42 Jhabvala (1999) 6–9.
43 Nagpal (2008) 37–43.
44 Mitter (1989) 40.
45 Kesari and Kesari (1998) 24–28; Jhabvala (1999) 4–9.
46 Bühler (1886) 31.
As far as precedent is concerned, the principle of stare decisis is applied in India and the deci-
sions of the Supreme Court are binding on all lower courts.
The more conservative sectors of the Hindu population believe that legislation cannot be used
to adapt Hindu law. On the other hand, the progressive sectors clamoured for reform to certain
areas of Hindu law by way of legislation. As a result, Hindu law in India has been codified to a
large extent. Today Hindu law in India consists mainly of legislation, for example the Hindu
Women’s Right to Property Act,47 Hindu Marriage Act,48 and the Hindu Succession Act.49 The
present-day Codes in India include the Indian Penal Code; the Criminal Procedure Code; and the
Civil Procedure Code.
12.2.5 Conclusion
Considering the fact that law is a division of Dharma,50 the stages of legal sources may be divided
into two periods, namely:51
(a) the Vedic period or the pre-Sutra period: During this period the emphasis was on the prac-
tice of dharma. Although the Srutis were regarded as the primary sources, they did not con-
tain much which could be regarded as law.
(b) the Dharmashastras (literally meaning the teacher of Dharma and includes the Vedas, the
Smritis and the Puranas), which can be subdivided into the Smriti period, the Sutra period,
and the post-Smriti period.
However, another school of thought is that positive law is man-made and thus distinct from
Dharma.52 Dharma and law may be intertwined but they are separate and separable; thus all the
sources are not sources of law and the other way round. According to this approach, the sources
of Hindu law may be listed as follows: (a) legislation; (b) Dharmashastras (Vedas, the Smritis
and the Puranas); (c) custom (Sadachar); (d) commentaries and digests; (e) precedents (case
law); and (f) principles of justice, equity and good conscience.
The sources of Hindu law are subject to the Constitution of India as confirmed in the Supreme
Court of India case, N Adithayam v Travancore Devaswom Board:53
Any custom or usage irrespective of even any proof of their existence in pre-constitutional days cannot be
countenanced as a source of law to claim any rights when it is found to violate human rights, dignity, social
equality and the specific mandate of the Constitution.
Another important aspect, as pointed out by Nagpal54 is to remember that the Dharmashastras
are ancient sources which have not kept up with modern changes. Therefore, the same interpre-
tation and construction as at their time of origin cannot be given to them; they must be interpreted
in light of modern changes and demands.
________________________
47 18 of 1937.
48 25 of 1955.
49 30 of 1956.
50 Nagpal (2008) 23.
51 Desai (2010) 8–88.
52 Nagpal (2008) 23.
53 AIR 2002 SC 3536 para 18.
54 Nagpal (2008) 34.
55
Schools of law
As a result of different approaches to and methods of interpretation of the commentaries and digests, two
main schools of law developed. These are the Mitakshara and Dayabhaga (or Bengal) law schools. The
former is considered the more conservative and applies in the whole of India, except Bengal and Assam. The
Dayabhaga is applied in Bengal and Assam. The chief differences between the two schools relate to the law
of succession and the joint family system.
The Mitakshara School is based on Vijnaneshwara’s commentary on the digest called the Mitakshara and
the Dayabhaga School is based on the commentary of Jimutavahana on the digest called the Dayabhaga.
The Mitakshara school may be subdivided into four schools, namely the Benares, Mithila, Maharastha
(or Bombay/Mumbai) and Dravida (or Madras) schools. Except for the Maharastha school, the differences
between the various Mitakshara schools are slight and relate mainly to the laws of succession and adoption.
In India, the differences between the two schools were abolished to a great extent by the codification of
Hindu law.
12.3 Hindu family law in South Africa

12.3.1 A brief historical context
Hinduism has developed gradually over a long period in South Africa. The Hindu community
first came to South Africa more than 200 years ago. They have integrated socially into South
African life, but the majority of its members maintain their customs and usages. While their
initial recruitment had been for labour in the sugar plantations in the Colony of Natal, Indian
labour was later distributed to other areas such as the railways, dockyards, coal mines and
municipal services. Under former laws in the Colony of Natal, these immigrants and their
descendants were referred to as “immigrant Indians”.56 The economic successes of the so-called
“immigrant Indians” prompted the entry of so-called “passenger Indians” into South Africa.57
The social statuses of immigrant Indians and passenger Indians were quite different.
58
Social structure of Hindu society: According to the Vedas, Hindu society is divided into classes, depend-
ing on the profession or occupation of persons. A purely logical classification of society according to the
division of labour, however, degenerated into the practice of caste, where one’s position in life was deter-
mined by birth. There was a distinct interval between the revelation of the Vedas and the composition of the
Smritis. It is believed that the fortification of the so-called caste system took place during this period. Histor-
59
ically, Hindu society, particularly in India, was divided into the following four classes or varnas, namely:
(a) Brahmins – priests and religious teachers; (b) Kshatriyas – kings, rulers and warriors; (c) Vaisyas –
merchants, traders and professional persons; and (d) Sudras – servants. Another category of persons referred
to as “untouchables”, carried out the most menial tasks; they were completely outside the caste system.
60
Mahatma Gandhi referred to them as Harijans or “children of God”. He urged compassion towards them.
continued
________________________
55 Desai (2010) 57–61.

56 Section 118 of the Indian Immigration Law, which provided as follows: “The words ‘Indian Immigrant’
shall mean and include all Indians introduced from India to Natal under the provisions of the Laws regulat-
ing such introduction and those descendants of such Indians who may be resident in Natal”.
57 They were immigrants who came to South Africa as businessmen and not to work on the sugar plantations.
58 Sen (1984) 7–10.
59 Desai (2010) 91; Lingat (1973) 29–31; Nanda “Hinduism and human rights” in Nanda and Sinha (eds)
(1996) 240–241; Reitsma and Kleinpenning (1991) 318–320; Gandhi (2008) 8–9.
60 Vedalankar (1991) 147.
However, discrimination against them is still prevalent in India today, although it is outlawed. It is still
perpetuated by many politicians for political purposes to capture votes. Reform movements such as the Arya
Samaj movement have generally argued strongly against the division of society into castes. One of the purposes
of the Hindu Code in India is indeed intended to achieve is the removal of caste as a factor in determining the
law applicable to a Hindu family. The caste system has been abolished in India by the Caste Disabilities
61 62
Removal Act, but it is still practised by Hindus by means of custom.
Immigrant Indians were allowed to register their marriages in the Colony of Natal in terms of
the Indian Immigration Law 25 of 1891,63 and its predecessor64 but the passenger Indians could
not register their marriages in terms of this law. Their marriages were judged in terms of the
general laws of that time and because they were potentially polygynous, they were regarded as
contra bonos mores and thus invalid.
The Indian Immigration Law made provision for the governance of the immigrant Indians
within the Colony irrespective of the religious affiliations of the people. It also regulated mar-
riages and divorces between those Indians.65 For example, it provided for the transformation of a
monogamous Indian marriage into a legally recognised marriage by mere registration of the
marriage.66 The Act did not apply to passenger Indians and if, for some or other reason, a mar-
riage between passenger Indians was erroneously registered in terms of this Act, such a marriage
was ab initio null and void.67 The unfair result of legislation such as this was that the immigrant
Indians could validate their religious marriages by means of registration but any other Indian
________________________
61 21 of 1850.
62 Misra and Kumar (2009) 98.
63 This Act was a territorial act that applied to the Colony of Natal only. It was repealed on 1 January 1964
by the Indians Laws Amendment Act 68 of 1963. The former Act made provision for the recognition of
Indian marriages registered during two periods. The first period was (all marriages registered) between
16 June 1874 and 14 June 1891. In this regard, s 2 read as follows: “All marriages between Indians which
have been registered by the Protector of Indian Immigrants in Natal between the 16th day of June, 1874,
and the 14th day of June, 1890, inclusive, save and except as to any cases where either of the parties to such
marriage has since re-married in this Colony, and save also and except as to any cases where any such reg-
istration has been cancelled during the said period, shall be and the same are hereby declared valid, so far as
this Colony is concerned, and such registration shall hereafter be accepted by all courts, civil or criminal,
within this Colony as conclusive evidence of the fact of the marriages to which the same refers”. Section 3
dealt with the marriages between Indians arriving in the Colony of Natal between 15 June 1890 and 8 Sep-
tember 1891. These marriages were to be recognised if they were documented in the Emigration Lists for
this particular period, except if the parties to such a “listed” marriage had remarried.
64 Its predecessor was the Law to Amend Coolie Law Consolidation Law 12 of 1872. Ss 13 and 14 required
from the former Protector of Immigrants to keep a register of all Indian women in the Colony of Natal. It
was also necessary to indicate whether such a woman was single, married or a concubine. An immigrant
Indian was compelled to inform the Protector of his marriage in order to have the marriage registered. The
registration certificate was prima facie evidence in any court that the marriage existed.
65 Sections 61–89.
66 Section 68. The Law to Amend Coolie Law Consolidation Law allowed for the registration of polygynous
Indian marriages. These marriages continued to be valid in terms of s 65 of the Indian Immigration Law,
but s 66 of the same Act disallowed the future registration of polygynous marriages.
67 Rampatha v Chundervathee 1957 (4) SA 483 (N). In this case, the plaintiff was an Indian man who married
the defendant, an Indian woman, according to the tenets of the Hindu religion in 1946. They had their mar-
riage registered in terms of the Indian Immigration Law. As a result of the defendant’s adultery, the appli-
cant applied for a divorce in the Magistrate’s Court, the forum for Indian divorces at that time. The defend-
ant objected to the jurisdiction of the Magistrate’s Court on the ground that she was not an immigrant
Indian. The applicant withdrew his action and instituted the present action in the former Supreme Court of
Natal. The court held that the Indian Immigration Law did not apply to a marriage where one of the parties
was a descendant of a passenger Indian. As a result, the registration of the marriage between the applicant
and the defendant was invalid and the marriage a nullity. A similar conclusion was reached in Dhanapalan
v Panjalay 1959 (1) SA 622 (N).
could not. The marriages of the others had to be judged in accordance with the general laws of
South Africa at the given time. Public opinion dictated that potentially polygynous marriages
could not be recognised as valid in South Africa, regardless of where the marriage was concluded
and despite the fact that polygyny was recognised by the lex loci celebrationis.68
As a result of historical migration patterns, the largest concentration of Hindus is in KwaZulu-
Natal. There are quite a number of Hindu temples and monasteries in South Africa. The Hindu
population in South Africa is less than 2% of the total population of South Africa69 and this can
largely be attributed to the influx of Indian immigrants from the early 1860s.70
The Hindu community in South Africa is a conglomerate of all the various schools of Hindu
law.71 It would be difficult to determine to what extent Hinduism is still practiced in South
Africa without doing empirical research.72 Diesel and Maxwell73 point out that the relative
isolation that the apartheid system imposed on the Indian community might have been one of the
factors that preserved Hindu custom and usage among Indians.74
Despite being followed by many Hindus, Hindu personal law is not a recognised legal system
in South Africa.75 There are, however, a few examples of where the South African courts came
to the assistance of litigants who experienced difficulties as a result of the application of South
African law. Some of these examples will be discussed in this chapter.76
________________________
68 The locus classicus in this regard is Seedat’s Executors v The Master 1917 AD 302. In this case, the
deceased married his first wife while domiciled in India according to Muslim rites. He then moved to the
former Natal where he obtained a certificate of domicile. While still domiciled in Natal he visited India
where he married a second wife, also in accordance with Muslim rites. The court held that a foreign poly-
gynous marriage will not be recognised as valid in South Africa on the grounds of morality and Christian
religion. A different viewpoint was taken in the former Federal Supreme Court of Southern Rhodesia in
Estate Mehta v Acting Master, High Court 1958 (4) SA 252 (FC). In this case, the deceased married his
wife (at a time when he was still domiciled in the former Bombay) in 1913 or 1914. At that time, the laws
of Bombay allowed polygyny, but the deceased’s marriage remained monogamous till his death in the for-
mer Southern Rhodesia in 1950. The main question was whether or not his wife could be recognised as his
surviving spouse in terms of the Death Duties Act 11 of 1947 that exempted a surviving spouse from suc-
cession duty. The court rejected the viewpoint that had been adopted in Seedat and found that is not contrary
to the policy of the law of Southern Rhodesia to recognise polygynous marriages for certain purposes; in
this case, for the purpose of succession. In Ramalutchmie v Estate Ramiah (1909) 30 NLR 137 149, although
the facts of the case dealt with the unworthiness of a woman (involved in an adulterous relationship with the
deceased) to inherit, the court also voiced its dissatisfaction with the polygynous relationships of Indians.
69 Figures provided electronically by Statistics South Africa on 24 February 2000. It is unlikely that this number
has increased drastically since then.
70 For 2018, Statistics South Africa estimated the mid-year population at 57,73 million people. See
http://www.statssa.gov.za/?p=11341 (accessed 31 October 2018). The statistics regarding religion were pro-
vided by Norah Maake from Statistics South Africa on 9 April 2013.
71 Oosthuizen “Major religions” in Pachai (ed) (1979) 521.
72 For more information, see Oosthuizen “Major religions” in Pachai (ed) (1979) 520–529.
73 Diesel and Maxwell (1993) 82.
74 Other Hindu scholars such as attorney Hassim Seedat (interviewed on 13 August 1996 in Durban) share
their viewpoint. Various Hindu temples and organisations are living proof of a religion that is alive and well
in South Africa. One of the largest Hindu temples was built in 1885 and is located in Umgeni Road in Dur-
ban. Diesel and Maxwell (1993) 19.
75 For a discussion of the practical implications of non-recognition to Hindu women, see Cordier and Rauten-
bach (2009) Obiter 585.
76 In Ratanee v Maharaj 1950 (2) SA 538 (D); M v M 1991 (4) SA 587 (D) and Maharaj v Amichund 1952 (4)
SA 594 (N), the parties concluded marriages according to Hindu custom and usage in all three cases the
court held that an agreement to register the marriage in terms of the common law is binding upon the par-
ties. It appears from the facts of the cases that the Hindu community lives according to Hindu custom and
usage. Also see Ex parte Singh 1956 (4) SA 730 (N); Sanicharee v Madho 1956 (2) SA 94 (N); Angelai v
Padayachee 1948 (4) SA 718 (N); Chetty v Tamil Protective Association 1951 (3) SA 34 (N); Ex parte
Naidoo 1951 (3) SA 797 (N); M v M 1991 (4) SA 587 (D); Logee v Minister of Interior 1951 (2) SA 595 (T);
Singh v Ramparsad 2007 (3) SA 445 (D); and Govender v Ragavayah [2008] JOL 22653 (D).
12.3.2 Hindu family law in South Africa

Hindu family law in South Africa is in a position similar to that of both Muslim and Jewish law.
All these legal systems are currently unrecognised, and the implication is that marriages con-
cluded in terms of Hindu law are not recognised as valid marriages due to their non-compliance
with the Marriage Act77 and their potentially polygamous nature. In practice, a Hindu couple
who wishes to marry concludes two marriages, namely one according to Hindu rites and the
other in terms of the common law.78 Heaton refers to this practice as having “dual validity”.79
If the parties do not comply with the requirements of the Marriage Act, their marriage is invalid
and the wife (or husband) will not be recognised as a legal wife (or husband). The implications
of non-recognition are similar to those of unrecognised Muslim marriages.80
On the other hand, if they do comply with the requirements of the Marriage Act, the implica-
tion is, firstly, that the common law would apply to their marriage, and secondly, that their
estates would be distributed in terms of the South African law of intestate succession.81
The courts have declared, in some cases, that a Hindu marriage is a putative marriage.82 How-
ever, in order to be declared a putative marriage, it must be proved that one or both of the parties
acted in good faith. Although the marriage is void, the children from such a marriage have the
same status as children born from a civil marriage.83 The prohibition of Hindu marriages also
applies to Hindu marriages concluded outside South Africa. Due to its polygamous nature, such
a marriage is not (yet) recognised as a valid marriage in South Africa.84
The non-recognition of unregistered Hindu marriages in South Africa may have dire conse-
quences for Hindu spouses, especially the wife.85 An example is Singh v Ramparsad,86 where the
High Court had to deal with the validity of a Hindu marriage concluded according to the Vedic
tradition.
________________________
77 25 of 1961.
78 In Ratanee v Maharaj 1950 (2) SA 538 (D) 595C, the husband conceded that registration of a Hindu mar-
riage in South Africa was important to women, since it rendered the children legitimate and provided secu-
rity for the wife. Also see Angelai v Padayachee 1948 (4) SA 718 (N).
79 Heaton (2008) Stell LR 453.
80 See 14.2.1 for the position regarding Muslim marriages. Also see, S v Vengetsamy 1972 (4) SA 351 (D)
where the court found that the validity of a Hindu marriage, which was not registered in terms of the com-
mon law, was not required to implement the common law rule that the spouse of an accused is not a com-
pellable witness for the prosecution.
81 That will be the position if they died without a valid will. With regard to Hindu marriages concluded out-
side South Africa and the Law of Evidence Amendment Act 45 of 1988, the position is similar to that of
Muslim marriages.
82 Ex parte Soobiah: In re Estate Pillay 1948 (1) SA 873 (N).
83 At 883.
84 For example, in Logee v Minister of Interior 1951 (2) SA 595 (T), the court held that a second wife of a
Hindu immigrant is not his “wife” as envisaged in terms of s 5(2)(b) of the Immigrants’ Regulation Act 22
of 1913 and as a result permission for her to enter South Africa was refused.
85 For an exposition of the practical implications of non-recognition, see Cordier and Rautenbach (2009)
Obiter 585–606.
86 2007 (3) SA 445 (D).
Singh v Ramparsad: The parties married in 1987, and agreed not to have their marriage registered in terms
87
of the Marriage Act. As a result, the marriage is not regarded as a valid marriage in terms of South African
law. As a result of the breakdown of their marriage, the parties separated in 2000 and have led separate lives
ever since. In terms of Hindu law, the wife could not divorce her husband and she approached the court for
an order declaring, inter alia, that their marriage is a valid marriage in terms of the Marriage Act and conse-
88
quently that she is entitled to seek a divorce in terms of the Divorce Act. She argued that the non-
recognition of their marriage violated her right to equality and dignity in terms of the Constitution. The court
evaluated the relevant provisions of the Constitution and the Marriage Act and came to the conclusion that
the Marriage Act makes provision for secular and religious marriages and that it does not violate the rights
of the wife (the applicant). The fact that the parties nonetheless opted not to register their marriage which
consequently led to the non-recognition of their marriage does not lead to inequality or infringement of
dignity. Consequently, the court refused to declare the Marriage Act and the Divorce Act unconstitutional or
to recognise the validity of the Hindu marriage.
The fact that the Hindu marriage is not recognised as a valid marriage does not mean that the
courts are shy to afford relief to aggrieved litigants. In Govender v Ragavayah,89 the High Court
held that although a Hindu marriage is not regarded as a valid marriage in terms of South Afri-
can law, it can be given some recognition for certain purposes. In this particular case the court
held that a surviving partner to a monogamous Hindu marriage is also a spouse in terms of the
Intestate Succession Act.90 She could thus inherit intestate from her deceased husband, despite
the fact that the marriage was not regarded as a valid one in terms of South African law.
12.4 Hindu family law

12.4.1 Marriages
A Hindu marriage is a Samskara (religious sacrament).91 It is the last of the Ten Sacraments and
is regarded as a divine unification of souls. This public joining together of man and woman as
husband and wife is accomplished by the solemnisation of customary rites and ceremonies by
both parties. A Hindu marriage is also regarded as a civil contract, which takes the form of a gift
(namely the bride). An important part of the marriage ceremony is what is referred to as a
kanyadaan. Such kanyadaan fulfils the requirements of a gift under Hindu law.92
93
According to Hindu custom, betrothal (sagai) precedes the actual ceremony of marriage. Although it is not
94
a necessary part of the nuptial rite, it is a promise to give a girl in marriage and is called vaagdaan. This is
distinguished from the actual giving away of the bride. Legally it is a revocable promise of marriage.
However, in Hindu custom, cancelling a betrothal without good reason is generally not considered proper
behaviour.
A subsequent marriage to another person (in defiance of an earlier betrothal) is valid. However,
where such a breach has occurred, the “innocent” party may institute a claim for damages in
respect of expenses incurred. In addition, where jewels and other gifts have been presented to
either party, these would have to be returned on grounds of justice and good conscience. Where
________________________
87 25 of 1961.
88 70 of 1979.
89 [2009] 1 All SA 371 (D).
90 81 of 1987.
91 Mitter (1989) 195; Singh v Ramparsad 2007 (3) SA 445 (D).
92 Mishra (1994) 127.
93 Sen (1999) 291–292; Mishra (1994) 120.
94 Beri (1989) 7.
a relevant gift has perished, the value thereof may be claimed. But, where the plaintiff bride-
groom dies before legalisation of the suit, his representative may only recover the actual expenses
incurred during the betrothal.
The parents of the prospective bride and bridegroom, with the consent of their children, often
arrange marriages. In some instances, parents persuade their children into consenting. A Hindu
priest chooses a propitious date for the wedding ceremony, which is selected according to the
Hindu calendar.
Monogamy is the approved Hindu norm, though polygyny does exist.95 In India, however,
monogamy is now a statutory requirement for a valid marriage in terms of the Hindu Marriage
Act.96 This Act also substantially modified the institution of marriage as recognised by ancient
Hindu law and has brought about radical changes to the law of marriage.97
12.4.1.1 Prohibited relationships in marriage

At one time, Hindus prohibited marriages within the same gotra,98 pravara99 or sapinda.100
These marriages were forbidden for the following reasons:101
(a) physical degeneracy that could result from marriages between close relatives; and
(b) moral degeneracy and its consequent evil effects on a society built on the edifice of a joint
family system.
Inter-caste102 and inter-religious marriages were also prohibited, although marriages between
males of a higher caste and females of a lower caste were allowed.103 Under modern Hindu law,
gotra or pravara marriages, including inter-caste marriages, are valid. However, sapindas up to
a certain degree are still prohibited to marry, and a Hindu cannot marry a non-Hindu under
Hindu law.104
Today, marriage impediments in India on account of relationship are based on two grounds,
namely sapinda relationship and degrees of prohibited relationship.
Sapinda relationship:105 For purposes of marriage, a sapinda relationship extends up to the fifth
maternal ancestor and up to the seventh paternal ancestor. In determining the sapinda relation-
ship, the line must be traced from the person concerned, and such a person must be counted as
the first person. However, in terms of the Hindu Marriage Act106 that applies in India, the prohi-
bition extends up to the third maternal and the fifth paternal ancestor.
________________________
95 Monogamy means one husband and one wife. Polygamy means more than one spouse regardless of whether
it is more than one wife or husband. There are two forms of polygamy, namely polyandry meaning one wife
and numerous husbands, and polygyny meaning one husband and numerous wives. Mofokeng (2009) 20.
96 25 of 1955.
97 See Jhabvala (1999) 139–163; Kesari and Kesari (1998) 39.
98 Gotra means “family” or “class”. Hindus believe that they are all descendants of sages. All those who trace
their descent from the same sage have a common gotra. Persons belong to the same gotra if they are
descendants in the male line of one of the ancient sages after whose name the gotra is designated.
99 The three lineal male ancestors of the founder of the gotra are referred to as pravara.
100 Sapindas are relatives who have particles of the body of the same ancestor. Sapindas include the blood
relatives of a common ancestor. Also see Jhabvala (1999) 139; Mishra (1994) 49–55.
101 Also see Kesari and Kesari (1998) 34.
102 Jhabvala (1999) 138–139.
103 Jhabvala (1999) 139.
104 In India, a Hindu can conclude a civil marriage with a non-Hindu in terms of the Special Marriage Act 43 of
1954.
105 Jhabvala (1999) 143–145.
106 25 of 1955. See Kesari and Kesari (1998) 39.
Two persons are said to be sapindas of each other if one is a lineal descendant of the other
within the limits of the sapinda relationship described above, or if they have a common lineal
ascendant that is within the limits of the sapinda relationship described above.
The sapinda relationship includes: (a) full- and half-blood relatives; (b) legitimate and extra-
marital blood relatives; and (c) adopted relatives.
Degrees of prohibited relationship:107 Two persons are said to be within the degree of prohib-
ited relationship if: (a) one is a lineal ascendant of the other; (b) one was the wife or husband of
the lineal ascendant or descendant of the other; (c) one was the wife of the brother or the father’s
brother’s wife or grandmother’s brother’s wife; or (d) the two are brother and sister, uncle and
niece, aunt and nephew, or children of a brother or sister, or children of two brothers or two
sisters.
The prohibited relationship also includes: (a) full- and half-blood relatives; (b) legitimate and
extra-marital blood relatives; and (c) adopted relatives.
In India, marriage laws are influenced by diverse customs. Hence, there are exceptions to the
established prohibited degrees of marriage. However, while a well-recognised custom requires
no proof, a family custom set up by a party has to be proved by the said party. Generally, a
custom derogating from the general rules of law is strictly construed.
12.4.1.2 Requirements for a valid marriage

Ancient Hindu law prescribed three conditions for a valid marriage. First, the parties had to be
from the same caste. If the parties did not belong to the same caste, the marriage was invalid,
unless sanctioned by custom. This requirement lost its force in India after the commencement of
the Hindu Marriage Validity Act.108 Secondly, the parties should not be sapindas, except where
custom permits such a marriage. The third requirement relates to the performance of proper
marriage ceremonies. In general, there were two marriage ceremonies, namely:109
(a) vivah homa (invocation before the sacred fire); and
(b) saptapadi (bride and bridegroom take seven steps around the sacred fire).
The parties may deviate from these two marriage ceremonies, if it is allowed in terms of custom.
In terms of classic Hindu law, a Hindu male could marry any number of wives. However, in
terms of the Bombay Prevention of Hindu Bigamous Marriages Act,110 polygyny between Hindus
is prohibited. Parties may enter into a marriage only if they are sane. Classic Hindu law did not
prohibit marriages between minors.
In India today, the minimum age set by the Hindu Marriage Act111 is 18 years for females and
21 years for males. Section 5 of this Act lists the following five requirements for a valid marriage
between two Hindus: (a) monogamy; (b) mental capacity; (c) age; (d) beyond the prohibited
degrees; and (e) beyond sapinda relationship.112
In order for the marriage to be valid, the relevant marriage ceremonies must be performed.
The status of a husband and wife is constituted by the performance of the marriage rites, either
prescribed by the marriage texts and/or by customs. Where the marriage partners are of different
castes or sub-castes, the customary ceremonies of either will be valid. Modern Hindu law thus
prescribes three requirements for a valid marriage, namely: adult consent, the ceremonies and
civil registration.
________________________
107 Jhabvala (1999) 145–146.

108 38 of 1949.
109 Kesari and Kesari (1998) 35.
110 25 of 1946.
111 25 of 1955.
112 For a detailed analysis of these requirements, see Kesari and Kesari (1998) 41–49.
Examples of marriage ceremonies:

113
Kanyadaan: Refers to the “gift of a maiden”. Certain persons are considered competent to perform this
sacred ceremony. In Hindu law, it is generally the duty of the father to give away his daughter in
114
marriage. According to the Mitakshara school, this duty is to be performed in the following order: first
the father, then the paternal grandfather, the brother, paternal relatives of the girl in order of propinquity
(sakulyas), and lastly the mother. In many communities today, both parents perform this duty.
Panigrahana: The bridegroom, taking hold of the bride’s hand, walks around the sacred fire, and the bridal
115
couple utter Vedic chants of benediction.
Shilarohana (treading on a stone): The rock is a symbol of steadfastness. Both the bride and bridegroom
place their feet on a piece of rock and pray that their marriage will weather the storms of life.
Saptapadi: The bridal couple, with a knot tied between one of their garments, takes seven steps around the
sacred fire. A prayer (mantra) accompanies each step. The marriage is complete and irrevocable as soon as
116
the seventh step is taken.
Thali: A sacred yellow thread (Thali) is tied around the neck of the bride. For marriages in certain commu-
nities, particularly in the south of India, the tying of the Thali is imperative. In these instances, the ceremo-
117
nies of kanyadaan and saptapadi are omitted. The tying of the Thali is uncommon in the north of India.
The performance of marriage ceremonies is mandatory for the validity of a marriage within the particular
community. The non-observance of essential ceremonies cannot be overlooked by applying the doctrine
factum valet quod fieri non debuit, unless there is proof that these ceremonies are not required in terms of
the relevant custom. The said proof should indicate that a custom has been continuous and uniformly
observed for a long time and has acquired the force of law.
118
An example of Hindu marriage vows followed in South Africa reads as follows:
With God as guide, let us take,
the first step to nourish each other,
the second step to grow together in strength,
the third step to preserve our wealth,
the fourth step to share our joys and sorrows,
the fifth step to care for our children,
the sixth step to be together forever,
the seventh step to remain lifelong friends’
perfect halves to make a perfect whole.
12.4.1.3 Forms of marriage119

Classic Hindu law recognised eight forms of marriage. The first four forms were approved forms
and the last four were unapproved, namely:
(a) Brahma: When the father or guardian of the bride gives the bride in marriage without
receiving any compensation from the bridegroom, the marriage is referred to as Brahma.
The bride is dressed in costly garments and decked in jewellery and is given to the bride-
groom by her father. The bride is not a contracting party, but rather the subject of a gift.
The distinguishing feature of this form of marriage is that the parents of the bride do not
________________________
113 Beri (1989) 20.

114 Sharma (1993) 20.
115 Sharma (1993) 92.
116 Beri (1989) 23; Mishra (1994) 132.
117 These do not constitute an essential part of the ceremony in most South Indian communities. See Beri
(1989) 26.
118 The vows are prescribed by the Ramakrishna Centre of South Africa. They are a free translation of the
“saptapadi” or seven steps/vows included in the Hindu marriage ceremony.
119 Jhabvala (1999) 137–138.
receive any compensation for their daughter. The bridegroom’s family who goes seeking a
bride for their son chooses the bride. The bridegroom is one who is learned in the Vedas.
(b) Daiva: The father of the bride presents his daughter as a gift. She is presented to a person
who officiated as a priest at a sacrifice performed by the bride’s father in lieu of the
dakshina payable to the priest. It is the second form of marriage in order of merit and was
considered to be inferior to the Brahma.
(c) Arsha: The father of the bride gives away his daughter, after receiving a cow and a bull or
two such pairs of animals from the bridegroom. The cattle constitute a price for the bride
and this gives the marriage a degree of inferiority. This form of marriage indicates the pas-
toral state of earlier Hindu society. Although this was an approved form of marriage, the
acceptance of the animals was contrary to the meaning of kanyadaan (this refers to the gift
of a daughter).
(d) Prajapatya: This form of marriage entails giving a daughter as a gift to the bridegroom, but
the bride’s father has gone in search of a bridegroom for his daughter. It is similar to the
Brahma form of marriage, except that it is not necessary for the bridegroom to be a bachelor.
(e) Asura: If the father of a bride receives compensation from the bridegroom, the marriage is
referred to as Asura. In this form, the bridegroom gives as much wealth as he can afford to
the bride’s father and her paternal family. Such consideration is called sulk or bride price.
This form of marriage is sometimes regarded as the sale of the daughter. Hindu texts have
prohibited such agreements as it is opposed to the Hindu concept of morality. The giving of
small gifts to the bride or to her mother does not render the marriage an Asura marriage.
(f) Gandharva: This form is based solely on the consent of the bride and bridegroom and is
referred to as “a love marriage”. This form is regarded as unapproved because it lacks the
religious ceremonies and rituals.
(g) Rakshasa: This form involved the seizure of a maiden by force from her home in times of
war. The consent of the girl and her family were irrelevant and rape or the abduction of the
girl usually preceded this form of marriage. The relatives of the girl were usually killed or
wounded by the bridegroom during battle. This form has been condemned and is referred to
by author as a “relic of a barbarous age”.
(h) Paishacha: This form of marriage is that which takes place when a man has committed the
crime of ravishing a girl when she was asleep or intoxicated. In such a case, the man was
obliged to marry the girl. This has been regarded as the most reprehensible form of mar-
riage and has been condemned in the Institutes.
Only two forms of marriage are recognised in India today, namely Brahma (approved form) and
Asura (unapproved form).
12.4.1.4 Consequences of a marriage: status and maintenance

A marriage confers the status of husband and wife on the parties. It gives rise to certain rights
and duties between the spouses, as well as against third parties, and confers the status of legiti-
macy on the children of the marriage. The wife follows the domicile of her husband. The hus-
band has the obligation to maintain and support his wife, minor sons and unmarried daughters.
This is a personal obligation and does not depend on the possession of property.
In Hindu law, the duty of maintenance is not merely a legal obligation but also a moral one,120
based on the principles of natural justice. The right and duty of maintenance is based on the con-
cept of a joint family system and the dictates of natural justice supported by the theory of co-
ownership. This duty to maintain others arises from the personal relationship between the
________________________
120 Gupte (1970) 135.

parties, independently of the possession of the property and in other cases on the possession of
the property. Three situations can be distinguished, namely personal liability, liability of a man-
121
ager and liability of an heir.
Personal liability
A Hindu male has a personal obligation to support his wife, aged parents and minor children.
His obligation towards his wife arises from the status of marriage. The obligation towards the
aged parents is based on the parent-child relationship. Ancient Hindu law restricted this obliga-
tion to sons. Also, “parent” did not include step-parents. However, statutory provision in India
now provides that both sons and daughters have an obligation to support parents who are unable
to support themselves. A stepmother is also included under the definition of “parent”. Extra-
marital sons have a claim for maintenance from the natural father.
Hindu texts do not mention maintenance for extra-marital daughters, but in terms of the Hindu
Adoptions and Maintenance Act,122 a daughter is entitled to maintenance from both her parents.
This right to be maintained terminates on majority or marriage (whichever is sooner).
A widow’s right to maintenance stems from her membership of the deceased husband’s family.
In general, a Hindu husband is not entitled to include a provision stipulating that his wife be
excluded from receiving maintenance. A widow of a coparcener has a claim for maintenance
against a husband’s family provided she leads a chaste and virtuous life. Where the widow of a
coparcener sues for maintenance after partition, she can only enforce her rights against those
surviving coparceners who have taken her husband’s share (effectively a lesser right). The
widow, as a mother, is entitled to maintenance from her son, and even more so where the son
has received his father’s share. Where a widow leads an immoral lifestyle, her maintenance may
be discontinued. In Hindu law, if a widowed daughter-in-law is destitute, her father-in-law has a
moral obligation to maintain her out of his separate property. This obligation arises from the
affinity between his daughter-in-law and himself. The position of women with respect to succes-
sion was improved by the commencement of the Hindu Women’s Right to Property Act.123 The
Act did not affect a woman’s right to maintenance. A widow may be reluctant to live in the
family home of her late husband. In Hindu law, she may be permitted to move out and still retain
her claim for maintenance, provided she does not leave for the purpose of leading a disreputable
lifestyle. Sometimes, a deceased husband sets out conditions in his will, to the effect that his
widow’s right to maintenance depends on her residing in the family home. In the event that her
husband’s family cannot support a widow for any reason whatsoever, there is a moral obligation
on a father to support his widowed daughter.124 He may also provide for her maintenance out of
his separate property in the event of his death. A widowed daughter would generally have a right
of maintenance against her father if her attempts to obtain maintenance from her husband’s
family have failed.
A widow’s claim for maintenance is determined according to the specific circumstances of the
case. The maintenance should be such an amount as will enable her to live consistently with the
same degree of comfort and luxury as she reasonably had in her husband’s house. The factors
influencing the amount of maintenance include the: (a) value of the estate; (b) position and
status of the deceased husband and his widow; (c) reasonable wants of the widow; (d) past
relations between the deceased husband and his widow; and (e) stridhan of the widow.125
________________________
121 Kesari and Kesari (1998) 142–158.

122 78 of 1956.
123 18 of 1937.
124 The High Court of Calcutta stated that after her father’s death, such a widowed daughter acquires a legal
right to be maintained by his heirs out of his estate. See Mokhada v Nundo Lall (1901) Cal 278 288. The
Madras High Court has held that a widowed daughter who is without means and whose husband’s family is
unable to support her is entitled to be maintained by her step-mother out of her father’s estate. See Ambu
Bai Ammal v Sani Bai Ammal (1941) Mad 13.
125 Except if it is of a personal nature, such as clothes and jewels.
In India, if the amount received as maintenance is inadequate, the court may order a more
equitable amount. A court of law may also vary the amount of maintenance originally agreed
upon, depending on the circumstances and the extent of change in circumstances.
In Hindu law, a woman forfeits her right to maintenance by remarriage. However, if the heirs
of her husband have settled her claim to maintenance by granting her a specified sum of money
or a specific property, they may not reclaim it from her.
Hindu law permits a wife to claim maintenance and a separate residence under certain circum-
stances, for example, when her husband permits his mistress to live in the matrimonial home,
when cruelty and ill-treatment could endanger her safety, when she has been asked to leave the
matrimonial home, when her husband has deserted the common household, when her husband
suffers from a virulent disease (for example leprosy), when her husband continuously neglects her
and for any other justifiable reason.
Liability of a manager
The obligation of a manager is dependent on possession of the coparcenary property. He is under
a legal obligation to maintain the male members of the family, their wives and their children. On
the death of the male members, he is responsible for maintaining the widow and children of the
deceased.
Liability of an heir
The liabilities of an heir depend on possession of inherited property. An heir is under a legal
obligation to maintain those persons to whom the deceased was morally and legally obliged to
maintain, out of the estate he had inherited.
In India, many of these provisions have been incorporated in the Hindu Married Women’s
126
Right to Separate Maintenance and Residence Act. This Act was repealed by the Hindu Adop-
127
tions and Maintenance Act. However, the wife will not be entitled to the above maintenance if
she leaves the matrimonial home without a valid reason or for the purpose of leading an immoral
lifestyle.
12.4.2 Joint family, coparcenary and property128

The concepts of joint family and coparcenary are extremely important in Hindu family law,
property and succession. The Mitakshara and Dayabhaga schools differ in respect of the law of
the joint family, and for purposes of this discussion, the Mitakshara school of law will be
discussed.
12.4.2.1 Joint family and joint property
The concept of the joint family is a distinctive feature of Hindu society.129 There is a pre-
sumption that a Hindu family is a joint family. Anyone who alleges that the family is not joint,
has to prove this fact. A joint family consists of men and women. The men include the male
descendants of the common male ancestor up to the third degree130 and the women include the
wives of the male descendants and the unmarried daughters born into the family.131
________________________
126 37 of 1946.
127 78 of 1956.
128 Jhabvala (1999) 17–54.
129 For a detailed discussion, see Misra and Kumar (2009) 701–789.
130 It includes the living sons, son’s sons (grandsons) and son’s son’s sons (great-grandsons) of the father of the
joint family. An adopted son is treated as if he is the natural son of the father. All these male members of
the joint family are referred to as the coparceners. Srinivasan vol I (1969) 737.
131 A daughter ceases to be a member of the joint family on her marriage and becomes a member of her hus-
band’s joint family.
Joint family membership may only be acquired by birth or marriage into the family. Upon the
death or marriage into another joint family of a member of the particular joint family, the member-
ship of that particular member ceases to exist. Membership of the joint family therefore depends
on marriage into the joint family or the principle of survivorship.132
A joint family can therefore have an indefinite number of members. The death of the common
ancestors does not terminate the joint family. Although the joint family is recognised as an
institution of Hindu society, it is not recognised as a legal person in the eyes of the law and it
must be distinguished from other legal persons, such as companies and institutions.
12.4.2.2 Coparcenary
Although it is not a prerequisite, the joint family normally possesses joint family property.133
Some of the members of the joint family are entitled to a share in the joint property and the other
members are entitled to maintenance only. The members of the joint family who are entitled to a
share in the joint family property are referred to as the coparceners of the joint family.
All the coparceners in the joint family form a body that is referred to as a coparcenary. The
coparcenary is a restricted body of persons within a joint family and consists of some of the
male members of the joint family, namely the male descendants of the common ancestor up to
the third degree.134 A coparcenary is created by law and not by agreement. The coparcenary has
a community of interest and possession of the joint family property. The most senior male
member of the family is referred to as the “last holder”. The coparcenary is restricted to the “last
holder” and his three male lineal descendants.
The figure below illustrates how the coparceners are identified.
1st degree B C
2nd degree D E F G
3rd degree H I J K
4th degree L
Figure 12.1
A to K are the coparceners. They are all within three degrees from their common ancestor, A.
Together, they form a body of coparceners referred to as the coparcenary. Upon the death of A,
L will automatically become a coparcener, because he will be within three degrees from his
common ancestor, which is B. The joint family property continues to devolve upon the living
________________________
132 Even with the consent of all the joint family members, no outsider may be admitted to the joint family. See
Jhabvala (1999) 19.
133 Also referred to as coparcenary property. It consists of ancestral property (property acquired through
unobstructed devolution of the joint property) and the fruits thereof, property jointly acquired (for example,
joint funds, joint labour and joint business), voluntary shedding of separate property into the joint property
or income from other estates.
134 Such persons are the sons, grandsons, and great-grandsons of the common ancestor. Although a female may
be a member of the joint family, she is not permitted to be a coparcener. See Chadha (1982) 129.
coparceners through the principle of survivorship until one or more of the coparceners claim
partition of the joint family property.
Survivorship and partition are discussed at 12.5.2.
Although it is only the members of the coparcenary who share in the joint property, all the
members of the joint family have some advantages, for example they all share a common meal,
they have use and enjoyment of the joint property and they all worship the same God. It is
impossible to determine the share of a coparcener while the joint family is still in existence.
Their share can only be determined upon partition of the joint family.
12.4.2.3 Coparceners and the karta (manager)135

Property belonging to a joint family is managed by a karta (manager). Generally, the karta is the
most senior male coparcener. In certain instances, age or infirmity has not prevented a senior
coparcener from occupying the above position. Hindu law allows a junior coparcener to occupy
the position of karta if there are no objections from other coparceners. More than one manager
may be appointed if there is a need for such an arrangement. There are divergent views with
respect to a female member being appointed as karta. The progressive view is that there should
be no reason why a woman cannot occupy the position indicated above.
The coparceners are entitled to maintenance paid out of joint family property and have the
right to occupy the position of karta if the position is vacant and other members approve. They
further have the right to enforce partition and are entitled to an increase in their interest in the
joint property by way of survivorship.
The coparcenary is a separate legal entity with legal personality upon whose behalf the
manager of the coparcenary may perform legal acts.136 The coparceners will be bound by the
manager’s alienation of joint property under certain circumstances, for example:
(a) legal necessity;
(b) benefit of the estate; and
(c) legitimate act of management.
The coparceners may challenge certain alienations, for example alienation made without legal
necessity.
12.4.2.4 Separate property137

Coparceners and other members of a joint family may have separate property that does not form
part of the joint family property. The separate property of a male consists of all the property that
does not qualify as joint family property, for example gifts, gains as a result of learning, grants
from the state, property obtained through obstructed inheritance, self-acquired property, property
obtained at partition and joint family property of which he is the only surviving male coparcener.
He may exercise complete control over such property. Hence, he may sell, bequeath or donate
such property.138
In Hindu law, a female may obtain property in various ways, for example by inheritance from
another female or even a male, maintenance paid to her, by partition of the joint property, gifts
and own earnings. Depending on the source from which the various properties were obtained,
________________________
135 Desai (2010) 323–332; Jhabvala (1999) 41–48.

136 Jhabvala (1999) 22–23.
137 Jhabvala (1999) 30–34.
138 Derrett (1963) 372–375; Srinivasan vol III (1969) 1949–2836.
the property in the estate of a female may be divided into property of which the female has
absolute ownership, namely stridhan, and property of which she has limited ownership, namely
the limited woman’s estate. A female has absolute ownership regarding her stridhan and she
may deal with it as she pleases. With regard to the limited woman’s estate, however, the woman
is the owner of the property for as long as she lives, but although she has full and exclusive
ownership of the property during that time, her ownership is restricted in all other respects. She
may not, for example, sell the property, nor give it away or bequeath it in a will. Upon her death,
her ownership comes to an end. The property then returns to where it came from and devolves
upon the beneficiaries of the person from whom she inherited it originally.139
The devolution of separate property occurs through the rules of succession discussed at 12.5.3.
12.4.2.5 Stridhan (female property)140

12.4.2.5.1 General
In Hindu law, a female may obtain property in various ways, for example by inheritance,
maintenance, partition, gifts and earnings. Depending on the source from which the property is
obtained, her status and the school a woman belongs to, the property in the estate of a female
may be divided into property of which she has absolute ownership, namely stridhan, and property
in which she has limited ownership, namely the limited woman’s estate.
Stridhan literally means “women’s property”. In general, stridhan includes all the property a
female obtains by savings, bequests, purchases, maintenance, income from the limited woman’s
estate, gifts, earnings and claims. Property which a female inherits from another male or female,
and shares allotted to her upon partition of the joint family property, are not stridhan and a
different set of rules apply regarding these things.
The following categories are generally accepted as property belonging to the bride:
(a) any gifts made over the nuptial fire, namely those gifts made during the wedding ceremony
– adhyagni;
(b) any gifts made at the bridal procession, that is, when the bride is led in procession from the
residence of her parents to her husband’s house – adhyavihanikam;
(c) gifts given by her friends and relatives at the time of her marriage as a token of love –
pritidhan;
(d) gifts given by her parents and their relatives before, on or after marriage – saudayika;141
(e) gifts given by strangers;
(f) assets purchased by a woman with her earnings;
(g) gifts made to a woman by her husband and his family before, during and after marriage;
(h) marriage fee or sulka;142
(i) purchases made from money given as maintenance;
________________________
139 Derrett (1963) 395–405; Derrett (1957) 232; Srinivasan vol II (1969) 1674–1704, Srinivasan vol III (1969)
2713–2836.
140 The meaning of stridhana differs as the different opinions of each school demand. Literally it means
“woman’s estate”. What follows is a summary of the position in Mitakshara law, except where indicated
otherwise. For further information, see Derrett (1957) 232–237; Jhabvala (1999) 96–100; Kesari and Kesari
(1998) 356–363.
141 Mitter (1989) 631.
142 This has been described as a special gift to the bride to induce her to go cheerfully to the home of her
husband and his family.
(j) property given in lieu of maintenance;

(k) gifts made by a husband to his wife on the occasion of his taking another wife – Adhivedinika;
and
(l) income from the husband’s estate (where the woman is a widow).
According to the Mitakshara school, stridhan is property a woman has absolute control over.
She has complete freedom to dispose of the stridhan as she pleases. However, her husband has a
personal right to it in circumstances of extreme urgency, for example in the case of illness,
famine or imprisonment. Where the husband has had no option but to use her property in an
urgent situation, he has a moral duty to replace it if and when he is in a position to do so. How-
ever, her property cannot be taken or attached by creditors who have an action against him.
The Dayabhaga school divided stridhan into saudayika and non-saudayika. Non-saudayika
covers two categories of gifts, namely those given by strangers and money earned by the wife by
mechanical means, for example payment she generated for spinning and weaving. The husband
has control over the above, even in the absence of urgent circumstances. But this control does
not extend to other members of his family.
12.4.2.5.2 Dowry
Modern-day dowry, particularly in India, has corrupted the ancient Hindu custom of stridhan. A
father’s gift to his daughter which constitutes stridhan was not intended to be given in consid-
eration of the marriage, but was in fact a form of pre-mortem inheritance from her parents before
their death, intended purely for her use and control. Also, in terms of customary Hindu law, the
bridegroom as the prospective son-in-law was given a gift. Quite often, this would be clothing –
in other words, a simple, practical gift.
However, an abuse of custom led to a dowry arrangement, which in certain instances became
a major problem for the prospective bride’s family. The prospective bridegroom’s family
demands a dowry, which could be an amount of money or specific gifts, for marrying the pro-
spective bride. Effectively, this is a type of groom price. Such an arrangement is a stark travesty
of Hindu customary law.
The abuse of this system has increased in India. The Dowry Prohibition Act143 was enacted in
order to curb the abuse of the dowry system in India.144 In terms of the Act, it is an offence to
take or demand dowry from the parents or guardian of a bride or bridegroom. However, as a
result of the absence of a proper and effective enforcement agency, the Act has been a great
failure to date.
The property of females devolves in accordance with specific rules different from those of males. See dis-
cussion at 12.5.3.3.2.
12.4.3 Divorce145
12.4.3.1 General
It is a well-established principle of Hindu law that the marital relationship should be safeguarded
as much as possible, and that the dissolution of a marriage should be allowed only on substantial
________________________
143 28 of 1961.
144 Beri (1989) 576.
145 For a detailed discussion of the classic and modern rules of divorce, see Kesari and Kesari (1998) 94–141;
Mofokeng (2009) 133–135; Desai (2010) 819, 825–826, 882–979; Kohli vols 1 and 2 (2000).
grounds.146 Socially, the dissolution of marriages was frowned upon. In fact, Hindu parents in
India still regard the dissolution of the marriage of a daughter as a family stigma, particularly if
these parents have other unmarried daughters.
147
Does Hindu law permit divorce?
148
The dominant view among scholars is that classical Hindu law did not allow divorce, except where it was
practised as custom in certain communities which were regarded as uncivilised by the Hindu elite. The
modern grounds for divorce, such as a change of religion or loss of caste, adultery, cruelty, leprosy and
149
desertion, did not provide grounds for divorce in classical Hindu law. Menski, however, holds a different
view. He points out that “there is much evidence of the long-established existence of various ancient cus-
150
tomary forms among Hindus”. According to him, customary Hindu divorces are well known and have
151
always been practised, especially among the lower classes and castes. There is a contradiction between
classical Hindu law as found in the Hindu scriptures and Hindu customary law as practised in the social
sphere. In an attempt to resolve the apparent contradiction, Menski’s analysis of ancient Hindu sources leads
him to the conclusion that the aversion to divorce that existed during the ancient period was essentially
idealistic and not a reflection of the true position. While the texts suggest that the concept of divorce did not
exist, there are ample examples of divorce-like actions between traditional Hindus which illustrate that
152
divorce was indeed possible during earlier times.
153
Another leading Hindu scholar, Diwan, claims that the Hindu scriptural texts did not recognise divorce,
but he acknowledges that this did not prevent married couples from obtaining divorces in terms of custom. Very
few formalities were needed to obtain a divorce, and in some communities it could be obtained by mutual
consent or even purchased.
South African case law seems to hold the view that Hindu divorce is not permitted. In Sing v Rampar-
154
sad, Patel J declared:
Akhand Saubhagyavati Bhave (May you always be the one whose husband is alive, may you remain
safe from the curse of widowhood). This is the blessing a Hindu bride who marries according to the
North-Indian tradition receives as soon as the Hindu nuptial ceremony is complete. According to Hin-
duism, marriage is a sacred relationship, a divine covenant and a sacrament. No provision is made in
the scriptures for its dissolution on personal grounds. This is so irrespective of whether the parties are
married according to the two broad traditions extant amongst the descendants of those who came from
the north of India, namely the Sanathan tradition or the Vedic or Vaidik tradition. No evidence was led
as to the customs extant in the South of India. In my view, despite there being differences in ceremo-
nies, it can be accepted that divorce is not sanctioned even if a Hindu marriage is entered into accord-
ing to Dravidian ritual or ceremony.
12.4.3.2 Grounds for divorce

The appearance of Mahatma Gandhi in the struggle for independence from British rule gave rise
to what may be called “The Women’s Movement in India”.155 Women participated in the struggle
for political freedom and, increasingly emphasised the equality of women. One of the major
________________________
146 The ancient sources indicate that divorce was not recognised, except where allowed by custom. See
Jhabvala (1999) 155; Singh v Ramparsad 2007 (3) SA 445 (D).
147 This section is based almost verbatim on Rautenbach (2014) 371–375.
148 Kesari and Kesari (1998) 30–31; Jhabvala (1999) 136–137; Mishra (1994) 127.
149 Desai (2010) 653.
150 Menski (2008) 427.
151 Menski Hindu Law 430.
152 Menski Hindu Law 431–8.
153 Diwan, Paras ‘Divorce Structure of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 and Special Marriages Act, 1954’ in
V Bagga (ed) Studies in the Hindu Marriage and the Special Marriage Acts (NM Tripathi 1978) 15, 15.
154 2007 (3) SA 445 (D) paras 1 and 2.
155 Beri (1989) 10.
demands of women was that the right of divorce be made available to Hindu women statutorily
under specific circumstances. A climate was created for comprehensive changes in the Hindu law
of marriage. Despite furtive resistance from orthodox sectors of Hindu society, the Hindu
156
Marriage Act was passed and came into effect on 1 May 1955. Although this Act does not
favour divorce, it makes provision for 15 grounds of divorce, 11 of which are available to both
spouses and four to the wives only.157 The following 11 grounds of divorce are available to either
spouse:
(a) adultery;158
(b) cruelty;159
(c) desertion;160
(d) conversion;161
(e) leprosy;162
(f) venereal disease;
(g) renouncing the world;163
(h) presumption of death;164
(i) insanity;165
(j) decree of judicial separation;166 and
(k) decree of restitution of conjugal rights.167
The following four grounds of divorce are only available to the wife:
(a) bigamy;168
(b) rape, sodomy or bestiality;
(c) decree of maintenance against husband where the wife was living apart;169 and
(d) repudiation of the marriage.170
In South Africa, it is impossible for a Hindu couple to obtain a divorce if their marriage is not
recognised in terms of South African law. This was confirmed in 2007 in Singh v Ramparsad,171
where the court declined to recognise the validity of a Hindu marriage in order to allow the wife
to obtain a divorce in terms of the Divorce Act 70 of 1979.
________________________
156 25 of 1955.
157 A summary of the grounds for divorce follow hereafter. For a detailed discussion, see Jhabvala (1999)
155–163; Kesari and Kesari (1998) 98.
158 Voluntary sexual intercourse with another person other than his or her spouse.
159 Cruelty includes physical or mental cruelty.
160 The desertion must have been for a period of not less than two years immediately preceding the petition for
a divorce.
161 When one of the spouses converts to another religion.
162 One of the spouses must be suffering from a virulent and incurable form of leprosy.
163 When one of the spouses enters a religious order.
164 When one of the spouses has not been heard of for a period of seven years, it is presumed that such a person
is dead.
165 When one of the spouses has been incurably of unsound mind.
166 When a decree for judicial separation has been given and the parties have not resumed cohabitation for a
period of one year since the passing of the decree.
167 When a decree of restitution of conjugal rights between the spouses has been ignored for a period of at least
one year since the passing of the decree.
168 This ground of divorce is in accordance with the laws that prohibit polygyny between Hindus in India.
169 Provided that since the passing of the decree, cohabitation has not resumed for a period of at least one year.
170 Where the marriage was solemnised before the wife had reached the age of 15, she may decide to repudiate
the marriage after she reaches the age of 15.
171 2007 (3) SA 445 (D). For a discussion of the case, see Heaton (2008) Stell LR 452.
172
Singh v Ramparsad:
In this case, the plaintiff (Singh) and the first defendant (Ramparsad) were married in terms of the Vedic
tradition, a branch of Hinduism. Both the plaintiff and the first defendant knew that their religion did
not allow for the dissolution of their marriage, and that their marriage was not recognised in terms of the
173
Marriage Act. Due to irreconcilable differences, the parties decided to separate in December 2000.
174
The plaintiff approached the High Court to obtain a divorce in terms of the Divorce Act. Seeing that
her marriage was invalid for want of compliance with the provisions of the Marriage Act, in particular
175
section 11(3), she also challenged the constitutionality of this provision and applied for an order declaring
176
the Hindu marriage to be legally valid. In the alternative she claimed that the term “marriage” as used
in the Divorce Act includes religious Hindu marriages. She was thus entitled to seek a decree of divorce in
177
terms of the Divorce Act. The court, however, could not be convinced that the non-recognition of the
applicant’s marriage infringed her constitutional rights and refused to declare the relevant provisions of the
178
Marriage Act or the Divorce Act unconstitutional.
The court refused to grant her a decree of divorce because that would lead to an entanglement in doctrinal
179
issues. The doctrine of non-entanglement is a well-known principle of South African law. This doctrine
180
requires the courts to adopt a position of strict neutrality towards theological questions. The court came to
the conclusion that if it granted the applicant a divorce in circumstances where she elected to practise a faith
that did not approve of divorce, it would entangle itself in theological issues that might cause offence to
181
members of the Hindu community. In addition, the court found that a secular pronouncement of divorce
by a court would not in any way absolve the applicant from her religious vows, especially if she professed to
182
be a devout Hindu.
Although the decision has been criticised on certain grounds, the general consensus is that the final judg-
183
ment was correct. If a Hindu couple decides not to validate their marriage in terms of either the Marriage
Act or the Civil Union Act, their marriage is invalid in terms of South African law and they cannot avail
themselves of the legal protection, rights and remedies available to couples whose marriages have been
legally validated.
________________________
172 This section is largely based on Rautenbach (2014) 371.

173 25 of 1961.
174 70 of 1979.
175 Section 11 of the Marriage Act stipulates:
(1) A marriage may be solemnized by a marriage officer only.
(2) Any marriage officer who purports to solemnize a marriage which he is not authorized under this
Act to solemnize or which to his knowledge is legally prohibited, and any person not being a marriage
officer who purports to solemnize a marriage, shall be guilty of an offence and liable on conviction to a
fine not exceeding four hundred rand or, in default of payment, to imprisonment for a period not
exceeding twelve months, or to both such fine and such imprisonment.
(3) Nothing in subsection (2) contained shall apply to any marriage ceremony solemnized in accord-
ance with the rites or formularies of any religion, if such ceremony does not purport to effect a valid
marriage.
176 In essence, the applicant argued that the non-recognition of a Hindu marriage violated her right to equality
and dignity in terms of the Constitution: see paras 12–18.
177 Para 5.
178 Para 53.
179 Paras 50–53.
180 See Singh v Ramparsad 2007 (3) SA 445 (D) para 50 and the cases referred to. Also see Ryland v Edros
1997 (2) SA 690 (C) 703E; Taylor v Kurtstag [2004] 4 All SA 317 (W) para 39.
181 Paras 50–51.
182 Para 52.
183 Heaton (2008) Stell LR 455–464. She points out that the Marriage Act, contrary to what the court stated,
does not allow for the appointment of a marriage officer of any religious faith but only a closed category
(Christian, Muslim, Jewish or Indian). She is also uncomfortable with the court’s comparisons between cus-
tomary marriages and Hindu marriages.
12.4.3.3 Custody of children on divorce or judicial separation184

The general rule in Hindu law is that the court will refuse to give custody of the minor children
to the guilty party, be it the husband or the wife. However, exceptions are made in favour of the
father. For example, a father who proves that he has discontinued his unfavourable behaviour
will be afforded custody of the children. If he lives a respectable life and has always treated his
children with kindness, the court, while placing minor daughters in the custody of their mother,
may order the minor sons to remain with their father.
In making an order for custody, the courts in India take into account various factors such as
the welfare of the child, the wishes of the parents, the wishes of the child and the age and sex of
the child. Similar factors are taken into consideration regarding access to a child by one of or
both the parents.
12.5 Law of succession

12.5.1 General
The Hindu law of succession recognises two modes of devolution of property, namely survivor-
ship (for joint property) and succession (for separate property and stridhan).185
Under Dyabhaga law, only one mode of devolution is recognised, namely succession. The
difference between the Dyabhaga and Mitakshara schools is largely due to the schools’ different
viewpoints regarding ownership of property. Only the rules of succession under classic
Mitakshara law will be discussed, except where indicated otherwise.
In India today, there is a uniform and comprehensive system of succession and the differences
between the two schools mentioned above are mostly of academic importance.
12.5.2 Survivorship and partition (joint property)

The devolution of joint family property occurs through the concepts of survivorship and parti-
tion.186 These concepts can be explained with reference to Figure 12.2.
1st degree B C
2nd degree D E F G
3rd degree H I J K
4th degree L
Figure 12.2
________________________
184 Jhabvala (1999) 171–172.

185 For a detailed discussion of the principles applicable to both survivorship and succession, see Derrett (1957)
210–266; Derrett (1963) 244–443; Derrett (1970) 225–286; Srinivasan (1969); Pathak (1986) 212–219.
For a detailed discussion of the classic and modern Hindu law of succession, see Desai (2010) 109–437,
1067–1236; Das (2007).
186 See discussion of the joint family and property at 12.4.2.1.
12.5.2.1 Survivorship
A to K are the coparceners. They form the coparcenary. With the death of A, L will automatically
become a coparcener through the concept of survivorship.187 This means that he obtains a share
in the joint family property upon his birth. However, if he dies, his share ceases to exist, and it
accrues to the other living coparceners of the joint family in equal shares. This continuation of
the joint family property upon the living coparceners is referred to as devolution by survivor-
ship.188 The joint family property continues to devolve upon the living coparceners until one or
more of the coparceners claims partition of the joint family property.189
The joint property is divided into unobstructed and obstructed heritage.190 If, with the death of
a coparcener, he leaves one or more descendants up to the third degree, the devolution of the
share of the deceased is unobstructed.191 The descendant acquires an undivided share in the joint
property upon his birth, and because the right to a share in such property is not obstructed by the
existence of other coparceners, it is referred to as unobstructed heritage.192 If the coparcener dies
and there are no other living coparceners upon whom the joint property may devolve, the devo-
lution is referred to as obstructed heritage.193 In the case of obstructed heritage, the property
devolves upon the other beneficiaries of the deceased according to the rules of succession.194
It is impossible to determine the share of a coparcener while the joint family is still in exist-
ence. His share may be determined only upon partition of the joint family.
________________________
187 Membership of the coparcenary is confined to the male descendants of the common ancestor, A, up to the
third degree. Therefore, X will be included as a coparcener.
188 In India, the Hindu Women’s Right to Property Act 18 of 1937 has made a serious inroad into the rule of
survivorship. S 3(2) of the Act lays down that the share of a coparcener devolves upon his widow upon his
death. Although his wife may claim partition, she does not acquire the status of a coparcener and the share
she obtains is declared to be a limited woman’s estate. After her death, the limited woman’s estate must
devolve upon the male descendants of the deceased, who receive it as ancestral property. Under Dyabhaga
law, on the other hand, the concept of survivorship is unknown, and the joint property devolves according
to the rules of succession. See Jhabvala (1999) 11.
189 Since it is clear that the coparcener’s share in the joint property does not fall into the estate of a deceased
coparcener, it is evident why a coparcener may not dispose of his share by means of a will. It is also clear
why the share in the joint property may not devolve upon other beneficiaries through the rules of intestate
succession.
190 See Sen (1984) 127–128 and Kesari and Kesari (1998) 212–214 for a discussion of the difference
between unobstructed and obstructed heritage. The difference is of no importance in the Dyabhaga school
of inheritance.
191 Upon the birth of the coparceners they acquire an undivided share in the joint property. Property acquired
by unobstructed heritage is referred to as ancestral property. Jhabvala (1999) 27–32; Sen (1984) 127.
192 For example, if X inherits property from his father, and a son is born to him, the son becomes a coparcener
with X from the moment of his birth. The existence of X is no obstruction for the son to acquiring an inter-
est in the joint property. Jhabvala (1999) 23.
193 The right to the property accrues to the beneficiary upon the death of the last owner (without leaving any
male descendants), and not upon the birth of the beneficiary as in the case of unobstructed heritage. For
example, if A inherits property from his brother and afterwards has a son, the property is obstructed in the
hands of A and his son does not acquire any rights to it during A’s lifetime. After A’s death, it will devolve
according to the rules of succession. Jhabvala (1999) 23–24.
194 If the testator made a will, it will devolve according to the will, and if he died without a will it will
devolve according to the rules of intestate succession. According to the Dyabhaga school, all heritages are
obstructed. They do not recognise the principle of survivorship and all property devolves through the rules
of succession. See Jhabvala (1999) 24.
12.5.2.2 Partition
The joint family and coparcenary continue to exist until one or more of the coparceners claims
partition.195
196
Partition is the “intentional severance of coparcenary property” by the coparceners of the joint family.
An actual division of the joint property is not necessary and it is enough if the shares of the
coparceners are clearly defined.197 Participation in the joint family is always voluntary and one
or more coparceners of the joint family are free to claim participation if he or they so wish.198 If
a partition takes place, the joint property must be divided between all the coparceners of the joint
family. Each coparcener may then start with a new joint family of which he is the common male
ancestor or father.
199
The Hindu Women’s Right to Property Act has changed the position of women in India. The share of
male coparceners in Mitakshara law devolves, upon their deaths, on their widows.
Upon partition, the share of a coparcener is not determined by the number of members of the
coparcenary, but the number of coparceners in the joint family. In Figure 12.1, A is the common
male ancestor. He and B to K (11 of them) are the coparceners of the joint family. They all have
an equal share in the coparcenary. L is excluded – he falls outside the three degrees cut off.
If one or more of the coparceners were to die or to claim partition, the following situations
may, for example, arise:200
(a) if A dies, he will lose his undivided share of the joint property and it will accrue onto the
undivided shares of his sons, B, C and D.
(b) if A claims partition, his sons B, C and D will each take 1/4 of the joint property upon
partition, and they will continue with their groups with them as common ancestors of their
respective coparcenaries;
(d) if C dies and the coparcenary consists of his three sons (E, F and G) and D only, E, F and G
will each take 1/6 and D 1/2 of the joint property upon partition; or
(e) if C, D, H, I and J die and the coparcenary consists of E, F and G, E, F and G will each
receive 1/3 of the joint property upon partition.
The female members of the joint family are entitled to maintenance only and they have no right
to claim partition of the joint family property. The right to be maintained by the joint family
arises upon the marriage of a female to a coparcener or the birth of a family member and ceases
upon the death of the same particular female or member. It is referred to as maintenance by
survivorship.
________________________
195 Until partition is claimed, the share of a coparcener in the joint family property is a fluctuating one. It
increases upon the death of a coparcener and diminishes upon the birth of another coparcener.
196 Jhabvala (1999) 63.
197 Jhabvala (1999) 64.
198 Under Dyabhaga law, it is not possible to claim partition if the common male ancestor, namely the father, is
still alive. See Derrett (1963) 345–349; Markby (1906) 45.
199 Act 18 of 1937.
200 The share of each coparcener may be determined only upon partition. Before then, the share of each
coparcener fluctuates depending on the birth or death of the coparceners in the joint family. For example, if
the coparcenary consists of A, B, C and D, they each have, in principle, 1/4 of the joint property. If B dies
subsequently without male descendants, the shares of A, C and D will increase to 1/3 each. Upon the birth of
H, the shares of A, C and D will decrease to 1/4 each and H will also receive a share of 1/4, and so on.
12.5.3 Succession (separate property)201

12.5.3.1 General
The separate estate of a Hindu may devolve after his death by means of the provisions in a will
or, if he did not make a will, by means of the rules of intestate succession. A distinction must
further be drawn between succession to a male and succession to a female.
12.5.3.2 Freedom of testation

A Hindu testator is competent to make a will.202 Although wills were unknown in classic Hindu
law, the practice of disposing of separate property by means of a will developed under English
influence. Although in general, no formalities are required in Hindu law to make a legal will,
section 63 of the Indian Succession Act203 prescribes formalities which must be complied with in
the drafting of wills in India. Under Dyabhaga law, the father is the owner of the joint property
and therefore he has, in general, unlimited freedom of testation regarding the joint family prop-
erty and his separate property. The coparcener members of the joint family may also dispose of
their share in the joint property by means of a will.204 However, if the testator belongs to the
Mitakshara school, a distinction must be drawn between the position of males and females. The
male members of the joint family have limited freedom of testation regarding the joint family
property. They may not dispose of the joint family property or their share in the joint family
property by means of a will. A sole surviving coparcener may, however, bequeath the joint
family property by means of a will. However, coparceners are free to dispose of their separate
property by means of a will.205
In principle, a female has freedom of testation regarding her stridhan and she may dispose of
it by means of a will. However, she has no competence to bequeath the joint family property,
stridhan she inherited from another female or property she inherited from a male.
Except for these general restrictions on a testator’s freedom, a Hindu testator may not be-
queath his entire estate by will in order to defeat the claim of his wife and others for mainte-
nance.
12.5.3.3 Intestate succession

The manager of the joint family property must pay the funeral expenses of the deceased. It is
regarded as a “legal necessity”, in other words those expenses which the joint property is
responsible for. Furthermore, the beneficiaries must pay the debts of the deceased in accordance
with the share that they inherited from the separate estate of the deceased.206 Payments out of the
estate of the deceased consist mainly of the payment of legacies, where legacies have been
instituted, the shares of the beneficiaries, and lastly, if none of the first two categories exists, the
estate devolves upon the king if the deceased died without any beneficiaries. The king, at pre-
sent, is the state.
________________________
201 The rules of succession in Hindu law are complex. In India, the rules of succession were simplified to a
great extent by the Hindu Succession Act 30 of 1956.
202 Derrett (1963) 443–492; Derrett (1957) 260–264; Jhabvala (1999) 109–118.
203 Act 39 of 1925.
204 Derrett (1963) 443–492; Derrett (1957) 260–264; Jhabvala (1999) 109–118.
205 In India, the position was changed by the Hindu Succession Act 30 of 1956. The share of the coparcener in the
joint property is deemed to be property that is capable of being disposed of by a will. Jhabvala (1999) 223.
206 Neither the estate of the deceased nor the beneficiaries are personally responsible for the debts of the
deceased. Jhabvala (1999) 83. See Srinivasan vol III (1969) 2306.
In order for succession to take place, the following ground rules must be fulfilled:
(a) the testator must be dead. If the deceased is a missing person, his estate may be distributed
according to his will or, if he died intestate, according to the rules of intestate succession;207
(b) the beneficiary must be alive at the death of the testator. Where two or more persons are
competent to inherit from each other and it is not certain who died first, it shall be pre-
sumed that the younger survived the elder. The rights of the unborn children are dealt with
by using a concept similar to the nasciturus fiction used in South African law. Hence, a
child conceived before the death of the testator who is born alive, has the right to inherit
from the deceased as if he was alive at the death of the testator; and208
(c) the beneficiary must be competent to inherit.
The classic Hindu law of succession recognises six impediments that exclude men and women
from succession; with the exception of a lunatic or an idiot, all other impediments have been
removed by the Hindu Inheritance (Removal of Disabilities) Act209 in India. The latter has been
repealed by the Hindu Succession Act. The impediments discussed here are also applicable to
partition of the joint property. The six forms of impediment are:210
(a) unchastity in females: A female who is unchaste at the time of her husband’s death may not
inherit from him, unless the unchastity was with the involvement and consent of her hus-
band. The rule applies only to a widow and not to other females. According to Dyabhaga
law, the prohibitions apply to all female beneficiaries. Under both Mitakshara and Dyabhaga
law, unchaste females may inherit from other females;
(b) difference of religion and loss of caste: These impediments were abolished by the legis-
lature in India. See the Caste Disabilities Removal Act;211
(c) entrance into religious order: A Hindu who enters into a religious order and withdraws
himself from earthly affairs detaches himself from his family and is excluded from inherit-
ing from his relatives and vice versa;
(d) congenital physical and mental illnesses/disabilities: For example, impotence, blindness,
deafness, dumbness, loss of any limb or organ, lunacy, idiocy and leprosy. In India, the
position was changed by legislation. According to section 2 of the Hindu Inheritance
(Removal of Disabilities) Act,212 the only impediments were congenital lunacy or idiocy. A
Statute of 1939 removed all disqualifications by reason of disease, deformity, physical or
mental defects. Section 28 of the Hindu Succession Act213 rectified the position further and
nowadays congenital lunacy or idiocy is no longer an impediment to succession in India;
(e) homicide: A murderer is disqualified to inherit from the person whom he murdered. He is
regarded as non-existent for the purpose of inheritance and his descendants may therefore
not substitute him;
(f) remarriage of the widow of the deceased: Upon the remarriage of a widow, she forfeits the
interest she took from her husband’s estate and it devolves upon his heirs as if she were
dead. This impediment was abolished by the Hindu Succession Act; and
(g) existence of male descendants of the common male ancestor up to the third generation: If
the common ancestor dies without sons, grandsons or great-grandsons, the joint property
will succeed to the intestate beneficiaries of the deceased. The situation is also referred to
as obstructed heritage.
________________________
207 Derrett (1963) 369.

208 Derrett (1963) 32–33, 407; Jhabvala (1999) 126–130.
209 Act 12 of 1928.
210 Sen (1984) 172; Jhabvala (1999) 131–133; Pathak (1986) 226–227; Srinivasan vol III (1969) 1954–1957.
211 Act 21 of 1850.
212 Act 12 of 1928.
213 Act 30 of 1956.
12.5.3.3.1 Property of a male214

Coparceners and other male members of a joint family may have separate property that does not
form part of the joint family property. Upon the death of the male he may bequeath it by means
of a will and, if he failed to make a will, it will succeed upon his intestate beneficiaries accord-
ing to a special set of rules.
The separate property of a male consists of all the property which does not qualify as joint
family property, for example property obtained through obstructed inheritance, self-acquired
property (which may be obtained with the help of the joint family property or other members of
the joint family, such as gifts from friends, property obtained at partition) and joint family
property of which he is the only surviving male coparcener.215
The rules of succession under Mitakshara law are influenced by a few general principles. In
the first place the closer relative excludes the more remote relative. For example, if a deceased is
survived by his son and son’s son, the former would exclude the latter from inheritance. In the
second place, the doctrine of representation applies only to a limited extent. It applies only to the
male descendants of the deceased up to four degrees. Succession between these descendants
occurs per capita, but if there is more than one grandson and great-grandson, they inherit per
stirpes. Inheritance per capita is the rule and inheritance per stirpes is the exception, while the
latter applies only in the case of the grandsons and great-grandsons.216
B C
D E F G H
Figure 12.3
The following situations may occur:

(a) his sons B and C survive A: B and C inherit per capita and thus 1/2 each. D to I are excluded
from inheritance by B and C;
(b) his son B, grandsons D, E, F, G and H survive A. His son C is predeceased: B inherits 1/2
per capita and F, G and H inherit 1/6 each per stirpes. D, E and I are excluded from inherit-
ance by B;
(c) his grandsons D to H survive A. His sons B and C are predeceased: D and E inherit 1/4 each
per stirpes and F to H inherit 1/6 each per stirpes. I is excluded from inheritance by D; or
(d) his grandsons E to H survive A. His sons B and C and grandson D are predeceased: I
represents the rights of D and inherits 1/4 and E inherits 1/4. F to H inherit 1/6 each per stirpes.
________________________
214 Derrett (1963) 372–375; Srinivasan vol III (1969) 1949–2836.

215 See Jhabvala (1999) 33–34 for further examples of separate property.
216 Pathak (1986) 215.
304 Inttrodductionn to
o Leegal Pluraalissm in
i Sou
S uth A
Africa
CClasssess off beenefficiiariies and d orrdeer ofo su ucccesssion

n
TTherre are
a thrree claassees of o ben
b nefiiciaariess, namn mely y saapinndaas,2217 sam
s mannodaakaas218 annd bandhhus.219
TThe esttatee off thhe dec
d eassed will succ s ceed to thhe claassees inn hhierarchiccal ord o der. Thhe exis
e stennce off
bbeneeficciariies in thee firrst orde
o er w willl exxcluude thee seeconnd andd thhird d claass.. If theere aree noo beenefficiiar-
iees in
i thhe firs
f st cllasss, thhe esta
e ate w willl suucceedd too thee seecond claass and
a d soo onn. Iff th
heree aree no bbeneefi-
ciariies in the
t firsst th hreee cllassses,, thee esstatte of thhe dece w l deevoolvee uppon thee staate..220
d easeed wil
Thhe classsifficaation
n innto three classses off beeneeficiiariies wasw s abboliisheed ini Indi
I ia by t Hinnduu Su
b the uc-
cessionn Act
A andd th he ben
b nefiiciaariess arre divd videed into
i o foour claassees, nam melly cclasss I beeneeficiariies,
a natees aand coggnaates.221 In Inddia,, the ddistrribuution of
classs II beenefficiaariees, agn o thhe prop
p pertty of o a male
m
wwhoo dieed inte
i estaate occ
o curss accorrdin ng to
t thhe rule
r es laaid dow wnn in thee Hiinduu Succ
S cesssionn Act.
A
2
222
F ure 12.4
Figu 1 4 Tab
ble of
o benefficiaariess acccordding to M
Mitakshaara law
l
_______
_______________________
217 Thhe word

w d sappind das origginaates from m thhe offer
o ringg off pinndass (smmalll ball-like thin
t ngs m madde of
o knneadded ricee or
floour) to the
t deaad funerfu rals. A Hin nduu is requuireed to
o offfer pinndass to his patternal aanceestorrs upu too thhe siixth
deggreee. Grad
G duallly thhe wor w rd sapin ndass caamee to inccludee, for
f thet purrpose off suucceessio on, seveen degr
d reess off
aggnatiic reelatiivess (inncluddingg thee deeceaasedd). The
T term m saapinndass is diviidedd furrtheer innto sago
s otra sappinddas and
bhinnaagottra ssapindaas. The T firsst reeferss to all agnnatess coonneectedd too thee deeceased throough males
m s onnly aand the
lattter refeers tto cogn
c nates thhat aare connneccted to the decceassed throough h onne or
o more
m e feemalle. Path
P hak (19 986)
216–2217.
218 Also refer
r rredd to as a aman
a noddakaas.
219 Also refer
r rredd to as a bhinn
b naggotraa sap pinddas.. See Jhhabv
vala (19999) 2222–22 23.
2220 In Inddia, the distributioon of o thhe prop
p pertyy off a m malee who
w diedd inntesttate occcurs acccord dingg to the rulles laid
l
dow wn in thhe HHind du Succ
S cession Actt 30 of 1956.
2221 See Jhhabvvala (19 999) 2222–2223.
v ous classses of bene
2222 In order too exxplain thhe vario b eficciariees, the
t tabl
t e inn Deesai (2010) 1333 wiill bee ussed.
(a) Sapindas:223 The sapindas consist of the deceased’s:

(aa) six male descendants in the male lineage within six degrees, namely the son up to
the son’s son’s son’s son’s son’s son (S1 to S6);
(bb) six male ascendants in the male lineage within six degrees and their wives, namely
his father up to the father’s father’s father’s father’s father’s father’s father and their
wives (F1 to F6);
(cc) Six male descendants in the collateral male lineage within six degrees and their male
ascendants within six degrees, namely:
• brother to brother’s brother’s brother’s brother’s brother’s son (X1 to X6 in the
line of F1);
• paternal uncle to paternal uncle’s paternal uncle’s paternal uncle’s paternal
uncle’s paternal uncle’s son (X1 to X6 in the line of F2);
• paternal grand uncle to paternal grand uncle’s paternal grand uncle’s paternal
grand uncle’s paternal grand uncle’s paternal grand uncle’s son (X1 to X6 in the
line of F3);
• paternal grand-grand uncle to paternal grand-grand uncle’s paternal grand-grand
uncle’s paternal grand-grand uncle’s paternal grand-grand uncle’s paternal grand-
grand uncle’s son (X1 to X6 in the line of F4);
• paternal grand-grand-grand uncle to paternal grand-grand-grand uncle’s paternal
grand-grand-grand uncle’s paternal grand-grand-grand uncle’s paternal grand-
grand-grand uncle’s paternal grand-grand-grand uncle’s son (X1 to X6 in the line
of F5); and
• paternal grand-grand-grand-grand uncle to paternal grand-grand-grand-grand
uncle’s paternal grand-grand-grand-grand uncle’s paternal grand-grand-grand-
grand uncle’s paternal grand-grand-grand-grand uncle’s paternal grand-grand-
grand-grand uncle’s son (X1 to X6 in the line of F6).
Although there are various viewpoints regarding the position of the sapindas, their
general position may be summarised as follows:224
(i) The sons, son’s son225 and the son’s son’s son226 of the deceased:227 The
property of the deceased succeeds per stirpes to his legitimate sons,228 son’s
sons and son’s son’s sons.
________________________
223 See Srinivasan vol III (1969) 1967; Pathak (1986) 216.
224 See Pathak (1986) 219; Srinivasan vol III (1969) 1982.
225 The grandson.
226 The great-grandson.
227 In India, the Hindu Women’s Rights to Property Act 18 of 1937 has afforded the widow of the deceased,
the predeceased son’s widow, and the predeceased son’s predeceased son’s widow the same share as a son.
228 Adopted sons are included as natural sons of the deceased. Illegitimate sons may not inherit, but are entitled
to maintenance. Srinivasan vol III (1969) 1984–1986.
A B C
D E F G
H I J
Figure 12.5
X dies, leaving A (his son), D, E and F (his grandsons) and H, I and J (his
great-grandsons). B, C, and G are predeceased. X’s estate will be divided into
three equal parts, namely:229
• A inherits 1/3 of X’s estate for himself and D;230
• E and F share 1/3 and each receive 1/6 of X’s estate; and231
• H, I and J share 1/3 and each receive 1/9 of X’s estate;232
(ii) the wife (wives) of the deceased: If there are no sons, grandsons or great-grand-
sons of the deceased, the wife (wives) of the deceased inherit all the property
of the deceased jointly;233
(iii) the daughter(s) of the deceased:234 If there are no beneficiaries in the categories
(i) to (ii), they inherit the estate of the deceased jointly in the following order:
unmarried daughters, married daughters who are not provided for, and married
daughters;235
(iv) daughter’s son of the deceased: Although he is a bandhu and not a sapindas,
he inherits from the deceased if there are no beneficiaries in the categories (i)
to (iii). If he inherits from the deceased, he takes the estate of the deceased as
full owner and, upon his death, the estate succeeds to his beneficiaries and not
the beneficiaries of the deceased. If there is more than one daughter’s son, they
inherit per capita.
________________________
229 This is a division per stirpes. To effect a division per capita would be to divide it into six equal parts and to
give to each beneficiary 1/6. Jhabvala (1999) 129–130.
230 The property becomes ancestral property in the hands of A, and D has a right to a share through survivorship.
231 They receive the share of B of 1/3 through representation.
232 They receive the share of C of 1/3 through representation.
233 The right of a widow in the estate of the deceased is limited and is referred to as a limited woman’s estate.
Upon her death, the property succeeds to the next intestate beneficiary of the deceased.
234 Illegitimate daughters are excluded from inheritance from the natural father.
235 The daughter of the deceased takes the estate of the deceased also as a limited woman’s estate. Upon her death,
the estate succeeds to the next intestate beneficiary of the deceased and not to that of the daughter.
B C
D E F G H
Figure 12.6
B and C are the daughters of A. B has two sons, namely D and E. C has three
sons, namely F, G and H. Upon A’s death, he is survived by D, E, F, G and H.
A’s estate will be divided into five shares and they will each receive 1/5 thereof.
(v) mother of the deceased: The mother is preferred to the father of the deceased and
she receives the estate of the deceased as a limited woman’s estate if there are
no other beneficiaries in the categories (i) to (iv).236 Upon her death, the estate
of the deceased succeeds upon the intestate beneficiaries of the deceased and
not that of the mother. Upon the remarriage of the mother, she is considered
dead and the estate of the deceased will succeed to the next intestate benefi-
ciaries of the deceased;
(vi) the father of the deceased: He inherits the entire estate from the deceased if
there are no beneficiaries in the categories (i) to (v) to inherit;
(vii) the brother(s) of the deceased: Three positions may be distinguished, namely:
• full brother(s) of the deceased:237 He/they inherits/inherit from the deceased
if there are no beneficiaries from the categories (i) to (vi);
• consanguine brother(s) of the deceased:238 He/they inherits/inherit from the
deceased if there are no beneficiaries from the categories (i) to (vi) or full
brother(s); or
• uterine brother(s):239 He/they is/are excluded from inheritance from the
deceased;
(viii) the brother’s son(s) of the deceased: If there are no beneficiaries in the catego-
ries (i) to (vii), they will inherit per capita. Full brothers exclude half-brothers
from inheritance;
(ix) the brother’s son’s son(s) of the deceased: If there are no beneficiaries in the
categories (i) to (viii), they will inherit per capita. Full brothers exclude half-
brothers from inheritance;
(x) the father’s mother of the deceased: She inherits before the father’s father of
the deceased if there are no beneficiaries in the categories (i) to (ix);
(xi) the father’s father of the deceased: He inherits if there are no beneficiaries in
the categories (i) to (x);
________________________
236 Under Maharashtra law, the father is preferred above the mother. See Srinivasan vol III (1969) 1991.
237 Brother(s) with the same mother and father as the deceased.
238 Half-brother(s) by the father of the deceased.
239 Half-brother(s) by the mother of the deceased.
(xii) the three descendants of the father’s father of the deceased, namely the
father’s father’s son, father’s father’s son’s son and the father’s father’s son’s
son’s son: They inherit if there are no beneficiaries in the categories (i) to (xi);
and
(xiii) no beneficiaries in the categories (i) to (xii): The estate of the deceased will
succeed to the next categories of beneficiaries in the following order: father’s
father’s mother, father’s father’s father, father’s paternal uncle, father’s pater-
nal uncle’s son, father’s paternal uncle’s son’s son, brother’s son’s son’s son
and the uncle’s son’s son’s son.240
(b) Samanodakas:241 The samanodakas include all the agnates of the deceased from the sev-
enth to the 13th degree. They inherit from the deceased if he has no sapindas to inherit his
estate after his death. The nearer line excludes the more distant, and preference is given to
full blood over half blood;
(c) Bandhus:242 Upon the non-existence of sapindas and samanodakas, the estate of the deceased
devolves upon the bandhus. In general, the bandhus may be divided into three main classes,
namely:243
(aa) Atma bandhus: The father’s sister’s son, mother’s sister’s son and the mother’s brother’s
son;
(bb) Pitri bandhus: The father’s father’s sister’s son, father’s mother’s sister’s son and the
father’s mother’s brother’s son; and
(cc) Matri bandhus: The mother’s father’s sister’s son, mother’s mother’s sister’s son and
the mother’s mother’s brother’s son.
The general principles regarding the position of the bandhus may be summarised as
follows:244
(i) the nearest relative (ancestor or descendant) excludes the more distant relative;
(ii) the ancestors and descendants of the deceased are preferred to the descendants
of his paternal and maternal ancestors;
(iii) if the bandhus are equal in degree, the bandhu who confers greater spiritual
benefit upon the deceased is preferred;
(iv) if the test of religious efficacy fails, the bandhus through the father are pre-
ferred to the bandhus through the mother;
(v) the bandhus between whom and the common ancestor no female intervenes
will be preferred to the bandhus between whom and the common ancestor a
female intervenes; and
(vi) full-blood is preferred to half-blood.
________________________
240 In India, the Hindu Law of Inheritance (Amendment) Act 2 of 1929 placed the son’s daughter, daughter’s
daughter, sister, sister’s son and half-sister’s son before the paternal uncle and they inherit therefore after
the father’s father.
241 Srinivasan vol III (1969) 2022; Pathak (1986) 217.
242 See Srinivasan vol III (1969) 2022; Pathak (1986) 217–218.
243 Although the sister’s son is a bandhu, he inherits together with the sagotra sapindas.
244 Taking the number of beneficiaries in the first and second class into consideration, it is highly unlikely that
the bandhus would inherit from the deceased.
12.5.3.3.2 Property of a female 245

In Hindu law, a female may obtain property in various ways, for example by inheritance from
another female or even a male, by maintenance afforded to her, by partition of the joint property,
gifts and own earnings. Depending on its source,246 the property in the estate of a female may be
divided into property of which the female has absolute ownership, namely stridhan, and property
of which she has limited ownership, namely the limited woman’s estate.
Stridhan:247
As far as succession is concerned, a female has, in principle, unlimited freedom of testation
regarding her stridhan and may bequeath it by gift inter vivos or mortis causa by a will to
whomever she pleases. If she dies intestate, the stridhan will devolve upon her intestate benefi-
ciaries. The rules regarding intestate succession to stridhan differ from the rules of succession to
a male, which have already been discussed. The rules differ substantially depending on the status
of the female, the source of the stridhan and the school the female belongs to.
Under Mitakshara law, the stridhan of an unmarried female devolves upon the following rela-
tives in chronological order:
(a) her uterine brother;
(b) her mother;
(c) her father;
(d) her father’s beneficiaries in order of propinquity; and
(e) her mother’s beneficiaries in order of propinquity.
The stridhan of a married female may be divided into sulka, which is a “gratuity for which a girl
is given in marriage”, and other kinds of stridhan. The sulka of a married female devolves upon
the following relatives in chronological order:
(a) her full brother(s);
(b) her mother;
(c) her father; and
(d) her father’s beneficiaries in order of propinquity.
What is interesting is that the children of the deceased are excluded from inheriting her sulka.
The stridhan of a married female succeeds upon the following relatives of the female in
chronological order:
(a) her unmarried daughter(s);
(b) her married daughter(s) who is/are not provided for or childless;
(c) the rest of her married daughters;
(d) her daughter’s daughter;
(e) her daughter’s son;
(f) her son;
(g) her son’s son;
(h) her husband; and
(i) her husband’s beneficiaries in order of propinquity.
________________________
245 Derrett (1963) 395–405; Derrett (1957) 232; Srinivasan vol II (1969) 1674–1704, vol III (1969) 2713–2836.
246 Other factors, such as the status (married or unmarried) of the female and the school (Mitakshara or
Dyabhaga) she belongs to, must also be taken into consideration.
247 The meaning of stridhana differs according to the different opinions of each school. Literally it means
“woman’s estate”. What follows is a summary of the position in Mitakshara law. For further information,
see Derrett (1957) 232–237; Jhabvala (1999) 96–100; Srinivasan vol II (1969) 1674–1703.
Limited woman’s estate248

When a man inherits property from another man or woman, he becomes the full owner of that
property. However, if a woman inherits property from a man or stridhan from another woman,
she receives only a limited woman’s estate.
The effect of the limited woman’s estate is that the woman is the owner of the property for as
long as she lives, but although she has full and exclusive ownership of the property during that
time, her ownership is restricted in all other respects. For example, she may not sell the property,
give it away or bequeath it in a will. Upon her death, her ownership comes to an end and the
property reverts to where it came from and devolves upon the beneficiaries of the person from
whom she inherited it originally. Shares allotted to a woman upon partition of the joint property
are not her stridhan and fall in the same category as property she inherited from a woman.
Upon the death of the female, the property she inherited from a male or female does not fall
into her estate, but devolves upon other beneficiaries. In the case of property she inherited from a
male, the property devolves upon the next beneficiaries of the male from whom she inherited it.
12.5.3.4 Distinction between the Hindu and the South African laws of succession
As has already been stated, the law of South Africa does not recognise the Hindu law of succes-
sion. If a Hindu dies, his or her estate will devolve according to the South African law of succes-
sion. The latter differs from the Hindu law of succession in material respects. The most obvious
of these differences may be summarised as follows:
(a) under Hindu law, the questions that arise upon the death of the testator depend largely on
the Hindu’s viewpoints on ownership of property and more specifically the joint property
of the family. Under Mitakshara law, the ownership of the joint property vests in the joint
family as a community and not in the individual members of the joint family. Therefore, if
a family breaks up, be it due to the death of the father or any member of the joint family or
upon partition, there is no transfer of ownership to any beneficiaries because the deceased
had no ownership that could be passed on. This concept of ownership is unknown to the
common law of South Africa. The joint family system shows a resemblance to the concept
of family property in existence in the African customary law. Communal land belongs to
the tribe as a whole, but the chief has the right to allot land to individual members of the
tribe. Family property belongs to the family as a whole, but succeeds to the eldest son in the
family at the death of the family head;
(b) under Hindu law, the beneficiaries of the deceased are liable to pay the debts of the estate to
the extent of their benefit. However, under South African law, the debts of the deceased
must be paid out of the estate of the deceased before the estate of the deceased is distributed
among his beneficiaries;
(c) in principle the Hindu testator has freedom of testation regarding his separate property, but
regarding the joint family property, his freedom is limited and he may not bequeath his
share in the joint property to someone else. In South African law, the testator in principle
has unlimited freedom of testation and no distinction is drawn between joint and separate
property as in Hindu law;
(d) the doctrine of representation in Hindu law applies only to the son, grandson and great-
grandson of a deceased. However, in South African law, representation occurs when a bene-
ficiary is predeceased, unworthy to inherit or has repudiated the benefit; and
________________________
248 Derrett (1957) 237–247; Derrett “The rights of inheritance of women: Another opinion of a Hindu lawyer
of the early nineteenth century” in Derrett (ed) vol I (1977) 340–386; Derrett “The testamentary capacity of
a sole surviving coparcener and the rights of widows” in Derrett (ed) vol IV (1977) 242–245; Srinivasan vol
III (1969) 2713–2836. The female’s limited estate has been abolished in India by the Hindu Succession Act
30 of 1956. Also see Derrett (1963) 424–442, 459–461; Jhabvala (1999) 223.
(e) the rules of Hindu intestate succession differ substantially from the rules of South African
intestate succession. The Hindu law of succession draws a distinction between the property
of men and women whilst similar rules apply to the estates of men and women in South
Africa.
The outcome of the South African Law Reform Commission’s investigation into the recognition
of Muslim marriages might have important consequences for Hindus in South Africa. If South
Africa recognises Muslim personal law, it would open the door for Hindus to claim the same
recognition for Hindu law. However, until such recognition is given, the rules of Hindu law of
succession can be applied to the estate of a deceased Hindu only if the will of such a Hindu
provided for the application of such rules. It is therefore recommended that a Hindu who wishes
to bequeath his or her estate according to the Hindu law of succession should do either one of
the following:
(a) he or she should make a general clause in a will requiring that the estate must be distributed
in terms of the Hindu law of succession; or
(b) he or she should create a trust mortis causa, which must be administered in terms of the
Hindu law of succession.
A general clause in a will or a trust mortis causa could solve some of the problems created by
the non-recognition of the Hindu law of succession. It is recommended that the particular school
in terms of which the division must be done, be explicitly mentioned to prevent any uncertain-
ties. There is, however, another situation that is more problematic. Due to the non-recognition of
Hindu marriages in South Africa, the surviving spouse of a deceased Hindu is not recognised as
a legal spouse. Hindus should therefore refrain from using only the words “wife”, “husband” or
“spouse” in their wills. Interpretation of these words might lead to the exclusion of spouses
married in terms of Hindu law only. It is, therefore, recommended that the name of a spouse
should be referred to explicitly in the text of the will, for example “to my wife, Deep-Shika, I
leave my house”.
12.5 Status of women in Hindu law

According to the Vedas, men and women were equal in status. After the Vedic era, however, the
interpretation of Hindu law, particularly by orthodox sectors of the Hindu society, resulted in
inequality of the sexes and the oppression of women.249 A network of traditional Hindu family
laws that dates back many centuries gives males an inordinate amount of power within the family.
This has a detrimental effect on the status of women. Women were seen as members of a group
(or family) with no identity, personality or rights.250 It is also believed that it was expected of
widows to burn themselves alive on the funeral pyre of their dead husbands.251 A woman falls
under the constant guardianship of a man, namely her father, husband, son or brother-in-law.252
From childhood, the girl child is not as privileged as the boy child. For example, in
Mitakshara law, a son becomes a coparcener on birth, but not a daughter. Certain sectors of
Hindu society regard the girl child as a financial burden, their reasoning being that the parents
spend money on a girl’s upbringing, educate her and pay a dowry on her marriage, but eventually,
she is part of the family she marries into. Hence, she is sometimes referred to as paraya dhan –
“somebody else’s wealth”.
________________________
249 Gill (1986) 9; Nanda “Hinduism and human rights” in Nanda and Sinha (eds) (1996) 242; Sugirtharajah
“Hinduism” in Holm and Bowker (eds) (1998) 59–60.
250 Gill (1986) 9–10.
251 Gill (1986) 23–24. Fortunately, in countries such as India, the position of Hindu women has been improved
to a great extent by means of legislation.
252 Steele (1986) 81.
The equality of status and opportunity and the dignity of the individual are included in the
preamble to the Indian Constitution. Undoubtedly, there are many situations where traditional
Hindu law will have to keep pace with the above principles. The caste system still persists.
Women, the functioning heads of households, are effectively marginalised in the family unit by
customary Hindu laws. The notion of ownership of women by their husbands and the resultant
inferior status of women still exists, although this is contradictory to the teachings of the Vedas.
In a landmark decision in 1999, the Hariharan decision,253 the Supreme Court of India affirmed
that a Hindu mother is an equal guardian of her legitimate children. This decision will provide
significant relief to women in India, who, in abusive marriages, are afraid to leave for fear of
losing access to their children. It is hoped that the 1999 Indian Supreme Court decision, granting
women equal status in the guardianship of their legitimate children, will pave the way to enhanc-
ing the position of women in Hindu law.
________________________
253 Githa Hariharan & Anor v Reserve Bank of India & Anor Writ Petition [1999] ICHRL 15 (17 February 1999).
13
Jewish Personal Law
Page
13.1 General background ................................................................................................ 315
13.2 Movements in Judaism ........................................................................................... 317
13.3 Sources of Jewish law ............................................................................................. 318
13.4 Jewish law in South Africa ..................................................................................... 319
13.4.1 General ...................................................................................................... 319
13.4.2 Beth Din (Jewish Ecclesiastical Court) ..................................................... 320
13.4.3 Dina d’malkhuta dina................................................................................ 321
13.5 Jewish family law ................................................................................................... 322
13.5.1 Marriage .................................................................................................... 322
13.5.1.1 Forms and formalities of marriages ......................................... 322
13.5.1.2 Polygyny................................................................................... 323
13.5.1.3 Consequences of marriage ....................................................... 323
13.5.1.4 Levirate marriage ..................................................................... 325
13.5.1.5 Concubinage ............................................................................. 325
13.5.1.6 Sexuality outside the marriage ................................................. 326
13.5.1.7 Same-sex relationships and same-sex marriage ....................... 326
13.5.1.8 Prohibited marriages and legitimacy ........................................ 327
13.5.1.9 Parental obligations towards children ...................................... 327
13.5.1.10 Adoption ................................................................................... 329
13.5.2 Divorce ...................................................................................................... 330
13.5.2.1 Grounds for divorce and the get (letter of divorce).................. 330
13.5.2.2 Agunah (chained woman)......................................................... 332
13.6 Jewish law of succession ........................................................................................ 332
13.6.1 General ...................................................................................................... 332
13.6.2 Rules of Jewish law of intestate succession .............................................. 333
13.6.2.1 Order of payment ..................................................................... 333
13.6.2.2 Impediments to inheritance ...................................................... 334
13.6.2.3 Grounds for qualification as a beneficiary ............................... 334
13.6.2.4 Classes of beneficiaries and order of succession ..................... 336
13.6.2.5 Double portion of the firstborn son .......................................... 336
313
Page
13.6.3 Position of women ..................................................................................... 338
13.6.4 Distinction between the Jewish and the South African laws of
succession .................................................................................................. 341
13.7 Legal position of women in Jewish law .................................................................. 342
Chapter 13: Jewish Personal Law 315
13.1 General background1

The religion of the Jewish people is Judaism, which is seen as the origin and basis of all the
world’s ethical, monotheistic religious civilisations, such as Christianity and Islam. The Jews are
not a race, since in their four millennia, converts of all races have joined. However, Judaism
does confer a nationhood that spiritually and legally binds all Jews (including converts) together
into the Jewish people, regardless of whether they are in the Holy Land promised by the
Almighty to the founding patriarchs (Abraham, Isaac and Jacob and their descendants) or scat-
tered in exile throughout the countries of the diaspora.
Judaism is a set of beliefs and principles, coupled with a legal system that applies those
beliefs and principles to all situations. Jewish law puts Judaism’s faith and philosophy into
action, providing a method for living in accordance with its ideas, and for helping to attain its
goals. Thus, all its laws and rituals are educational devices for the moulding of the individual’s
nature and personality in the divine ethical image, thereby contributing to the well ordering of
society as a whole. In other words, Judaism is kabbalat malchut shamayim (acknowledgement of
the sovereignty of God) and kabbalat mitzvot (acceptance of the commandments ordained by God).
God gives meaning to life and the world. The universe is not seen as a product of chance or
fate, but as something purposely brought into existence by the Creator to provide the one thing
He did not have: an arena in which the physical and the spiritual would be forced to co-exist
and, hopefully, co-operate. A human being is a unique paradox of an eternal divine soul invested
in a mortal animal body. Instead of the two being in constant conflict, the challenge Judaism
uniquely poses is to use its philosophies, laws and customs to add a dimension of spiritual mean-
ing and validity to the inescapable physical functions, thereby forging a working partnership
between them to produce a totally integrated, balanced person.
This necessitates having a body of behavioural guidelines for all aspects of life, resulting in
many sections of law and practice covering areas with which secular, and most other religious
legal systems, do not deal at all.2 For this reason, Judaism is usually called not just by the nar-
rower term of a religion, but a way of life.
The Hebrew name for Jewish law and custom is “Halacha”, which means “the way to go”. By the same
token, sin is “Chayt”, which is any thought, speech or action that is contrary to Judaism’s values, and pre-
vents one from progressing towards its goals. Repentance is called “Teshuva”, meaning a remorseful return
to Jewish faith and observance. At Mount Sinai more than 2 000 years ago, through Moses and the Jewish
people, the Creator revealed to all mankind His ethical will, of which the Ten Commandments are merely the
table of contents or chapter headings.
In order to prepare Jews for their mission to convey the message of ethical monotheism to the
rest of the human race, they were given a wide-ranging detailed programme of 613 command-
ments.3 The 613 commandments (248 dos and 365 don’ts) fall into two categories, those
“between man and God”, and those “between man and his fellowman”. Due to of our varying
natures and moods, God must be served out of both love and fear,4 for love makes us want to
please Him by fulfilling His will, while fear restrains us from rebelling and transgressing. On the
other hand, the dictum “Thou shalt love thy fellowman as thyself ”,5 meaning treat him or her as
________________________
1 For more information, see Elon (ed) (1975) 1–46. Also see the previous edition, ch 13 at 13.1
2 For example dietary laws, marital relations, giving charity, interpersonal relationships, prayer, and observ-
ance of the Sabbath and holy days.
3 Covering all classes of individuals and the nation as a whole, no more than about 80-odd applying to any
one person.
4 For example, Deut 6:4, 2, 24; 10:12, 20.
5 Leviticus 19:18.
you yourself would like to be treated, is regarded as the basic tenet underlying those command-
ments dealing with relations between people. God’s commandments are based on justice, tem-
pered by kindness and mercy. Justice includes: (a) distributive justice (fair dealing between
human being and human being); (b) public justice (the community defines and enforces the
duties and protects the rights of individuals and groups); and (c) integrity of personal character.
The Jewish nation’s task is to encourage all others to adopt at least an irreducible minimum of
seven basic principles of human decency in the name of One God (“the seven Noachide Com-
mandments”), namely: (a) do not worship idols; (b) do not curse God; (c) do not commit adul-
tery; (d) do not eat flesh from a living animal; (e) do not steal; (f) do not murder; and
(g) establish courts of justice. Judaism teaches that upholding these seven principles entitles a
non-Jew to a share in the world to come, just like Jews who fulfil the far more numerous com-
mandments binding upon them. This clearly demonstrates that Judaism is not exclusive and does
not threaten a terrible fate for those who do not embrace it. This is also the main reason why
Judaism does not proselytise. Although Judaism is not a missionary religion, it is open to anyone
who wishes to embrace its beliefs and practices sincerely.
Proclaiming that all people are God’s children and can approach him directly, Judaism sees no
need for a sacrament or for a priestly intermediary. Thus, the rabbi is seen as an ordinary human
with extensive, advanced training in Torah scholarship. He is learned in Jewish law, answering
questions and resolving disputes, in addition to being a preacher, teacher, advisor and counsel-
lor. He is supposed to set an example by his life of faith and piety, Torah study, and moral
integrity. He is not a priest who can administer sacraments or grant absolution. In fact, there is
nothing a rabbi can do that a Jew cannot do for himself, if he has the knowledge and skills.
Judaism is seen as a rational, logical and moral way of life. The religion demands righteous
living, stressing deed even more than faith. It is not enough for a Jew to believe in God and
His Torah. Those beliefs must foster goodness and holiness through observance of His
commandments.
According to Judaism, everyone is important. Each person is purposely brought into this life
by the Creator in order to accomplish specific tasks regarding developing and refining oneself,
and improving and elevating the world. Each person is unique and irreplaceable. This gives rise
to a healthy blend of humility and self-esteem.
Freedom of choice is fundamental to Judaism’s view of the human being. Without it, there
would be no point to God issuing commandments, rewarding virtue or punishing evil. The Torah
states that human beings are created in the spiritual image of God, meaning that a divine spirit
dwells in every individual. Thus, human beings are born pure, predisposed to do good. Sin is the
result of abusing the freedom of choice that each individual has. Each person can determine the
moral quality of his or her life. People can therefore be held responsible, and must accept the
consequences of their choices. Genuine lack of choice in wrongdoing, whether because of
incapacity or coercion, constitutes a major or total mitigation of culpability in Jewish law.
Although life is seen as something good that should be enjoyed, the spiritual dimension of
human beings should be stronger than the physical and they should be the masters and not the
slaves of their natural instincts and desires. Unbridled enjoyment is undesirable in many ways
and necessary limitations and good training in self-discipline are imposed by meticulous
observance of Kashrut laws,6 the family purity laws (regarding marital relations) and the occa-
sional fast days.
As long as it is accomplished legally and ethically, there is no restriction on the accumulation
and enjoyment of wealth. But with wealth must come the acknowledgement that its source is
God’s blessing and a consequent strong sense of obligation to support causes He considers
________________________
6 The Jewish diet of kosher food and drinks.

worthy, and to give or lend to people in need. In Judaism, far more emphasis is placed on action
than belief. Faith in God and His Torah and knowing that we are ultimately accountable to Him are
obviously the underlying motivations for proper behaviour. However, the deed is the main thing.
Since Creation, every seventh day is Sabbath (or Shabbos). The Sabbath is a symbol of the
covenant between God and Israel.7 It is the highlight of the entire week and a source of blessing
for all its days. The social significance of the Sabbath is that it gives freedom to everybody –
everyone has the right to rest after six days of work. The workweek emphasises the dignity of
labour, while the rest on the seventh day establishes the dignity of the person. To ensure that
Sabbath is not just “a day off”, but “a day of rest”, much legislation was introduced. There are
39 principle categories of prohibited activities from which innumerable corollaries and specific
applications flow. All these activities reflect man’s creative abilities in the physical realms,
which can lead to the delusion that man is self-sufficient and independent. Sabbath, which
means cessation from such activities, re-enthrones God as the true Creator, upon Whom we are
totally dependent for all we are, all we have, and all we can do.
Jewish religious authorities recognise the role that Christianity and Islam played in the spread
of monotheistic ethical religion among peoples who were previously pagan polytheists. Despite
the fact that Christianity and Islam have many similarities to Judaism, major theological differ-
ences between all three exist, which makes them mutually exclusive. For example, although
Jesus was a Jew, Judaism could not accept him as the Mashiach (Messiah), nor Muhammad as
the foremost prophet of the one God, nor that the Gospels or the Qur’an supersede the Bible.
13.2 Movements in Judaism

Besides traditional historic Judaism, which in modern times is called Orthodox Judaism, the
19th and 20th centuries saw the emergence of three deviationist movements, namely Reform,
Conservative and Reconstructionist.8 All the movements share the fundamental teachings of
Judaism, the consciousness of mission, and the purity of faith.
Orthodox Judaism
Orthodox Judaism rests entirely on the unequivocal belief that on Mount Sinai God revealed the
Torah to the Jewish people through Moses, which contained His ethical wisdom and will dis-
tilled into laws to guide every aspect of life. The written Torah is primarily the five books of
Moses. The oral Torah, which was also conveyed to Moses on Mount Sinai contains explana-
tions, interpretations and extensions of the written Torah, as well as the authoritative method of
further explaining, interpreting and extending. The words of the Bible are not Torah unless seen
through the prism of the oral Torah, without which the written Torah is impossible to under-
stand correctly. For example, the Ten Commandments contain a prohibition against killing,
which refers only to murder of an innocent person and not self-defence or capital punishment,
and a prohibition against stealing, which refers only to kidnapping and not to stealing of goods
or money that are covered elsewhere. Furthermore, the Lex Talionis (“an eye for an eye”, and
so forth) means financial compensation and not mutilation. Torah law consists of eternal immu-
table principles in evolving forms. Such “changes” must develop only by acknowledged pious
scholars consistently applying those eternal, constant principles to newly arising situations, cir-
cumstances and technologies.
________________________
7 Exodus 31:16–17.
8 See in this regard Brasch (1969) 1–21, 28–58; Katz (1977) 69–72, 99–131; Moore vol II (1927) 1–9,
79–111, 180–197.
Reform Judaism
Reform Judaism does not believe in the divine revelation of Torah at Mount Sinai, but rather a
“Progressive Revelation” throughout the ages that is more akin to inspiration. Consequently, it
does not accept the binding authority of the Bible and the Talmud, nor the rabbinic authority and
Halacha (Jewish law) that flow from them. The logic is that if it is all man-made, it can all be
man-changed by its members in accordance with their wishes and the philosophical and moral
milieu of the moment. Religion is made relevant to the modern generation. Reform Judaism
recognises human elements in the early religious writings and states that it should be interpreted
in the light of the limitations of the time in which it was written. Customs should be upheld only
if they fulfil a religious purpose.
Conservative Judaism
Conservative Judaism developed as a middle road between orthodox and Reform Judaism.
Jewish law is still seen as of divine origin and many of the Orthodox customs are still observed.
They believe, however, that ancient tradition should be adapted to modern times by development
and modifications. These changes should be introduced slowly and in moderation. The aim is to
conserve as much as possible of the tradition. Conservative Judaism was originally intended to
protect traditional Judaism against the ravages of Reform. However, even though it is promoted
as a “middle road” between Orthodox and Reform Judaism, it is in fact theologically identical to
Reform in rejecting divine authorship of Torah, and therefore the binding authority of Halacha.
It does urge retention of more of the traditional observances than Reform, although not as God’s
will and law, but only as the Jewish people’s survival mechanisms.
Reconstructionist
The Reconstructionists view Judaism as an evolving and dynamic religious civilisation, com-
posed of all the elements that make up the life of people. Its aim is to promote a positive ideology
for all Jews to meet and work together and thereby to reconstruct the Jewish religious civilisa-
tion. The belief in God is interpreted in the light of not only the Jewish experience but also the
experience of human beings in general. The Reconstructionists discard any notion of God as a
supernatural being.
13.3 Sources of Jewish law9

Jewish law is based on various main sources, namely the Bible10 and the Talmud, Midrash and
successive updated codifications of Jewish law. The Mishna was the first codification of the
laws of the written and oral Torahs that Moses received on Mount Sinai. Scholars (Tana’im)
meticulously studied, developed and transmitted it orally from generation to generation. It
embodies case law disputes, legal traditions, customs, definitions, usages, enactments and
decrees. It is so concise in style that it often seems largely incomprehensible, and had to be
expounded by the sages of the Gemara (Amora’im). The Gemara is an analytic discussion and
extension of the Mishna that identifies the underlying principles and viewpoints in its disputes
and often decides between them.
The Mishna (mostly in Hebrew) and the Gemara (mostly in Aramaic) together comprise the
Talmud. The Mishna plus the Gemara of the Yeshivot (academies of advanced Torah study) in
the land of Israel is known as the Jerusalem Talmud, while Mishna together with the Gemara of
________________________
9 For more information, see Elon (ed) (1975) 49–146; Brasch (1969) 1–2. The two fundamental sources of
Judaism are the Torah (Bible – Old Testament of the Christian Bible) and the Talmud. Katz (1960) 10–18;
Van Nes (1933) 15–53; Herzog vol I (1965) 2–40.
10 The five books of Moses – Torah of Moses or Pentateuch – plus the 19 books of the Jewish holy scriptures,
which are often referred to by non-Jews as the “Old Testament”.
the Babylonian Yeshivot is called the Babylonian Talmud. The latter is more authoritative
because it was properly edited and sealed (in the year 500 CE).
The Talmud is a vast, wide-ranging work containing millions of words in many huge folio
volumes. It contains Judaism’s theological and philosophical beliefs, historical traditions, moral
views and rules of life. Some 2 000 sages contributed to the Talmud over 20 centuries and it was
accepted as authoritative by the entire Jewish community. It is very concisely and even cryptically
worded with the discussions touching on many different subjects, based on association of ideas.
All this makes the Talmud very difficult to understand. It is imperative to study it in the light of
the recognised authoritative ancient, medieval and modern commentaries.
From 500–1050 CE, the heads of the two major Babylonian Yeshivot were called Ge’onim
(plural of Ga’on). They led the interpretation of the Talmud and functioned as decision makers.
Their advice was sought worldwide and their replies (Responsa) constitute the next major source
of Jewish law.
All subsequent generations of Talmudic scholars have written responsa on every subject of
Halacha. Periodically, various compendia and codes of Jewish law have been published, each
taking into account the responsa written by recognised leading Torah scholars since the last one.
The first such major Codes are known as the Riff, the Rambam and the Tur.
Rabbi Joseph Caro published the Shulchan Aruch in 1565. It arranged all laws and customs
regulating Jewish life since the destruction of the Temple and the Exile, such as daily Sabbath
and festival observances, kosher dietary laws, rules of marriage and divorce, personal status,
charity, mourning and civil and criminal jurisprudence. Although the organisational layout of the
Shulchan Aruch remains the basis for all later codes, Jewish law was certainly not frozen in the
16th century. A tremendous amount of Halachic literature has appeared since then and the
dynamic process of developing and applying Jewish law to contemporary situations and problems
continues to this day.
13.4 Jewish law in South Africa11

13.4.1 General
Jews have been involved in the settlement of the Cape since colonisation.12 Although the Jewish
community has integrated into the general life of South Africa, they have maintained their own
religion and culture.13 Studies conducted during 1978 show that the largest concentration of
Jews in South Africa was situated in Gauteng and its surrounding areas. There are a few syna-
gogues in a north-eastern suburb of Johannesburg, and the South African Beth Din and the
Federation of Synagogues are located in Yeoville. Jews can also be found in Cape Town, Dur-
ban, Pretoria, Port Elizabeth, Bloemfontein and East London.14 In 1984, Hellig15 wrote:
Jewish religious expression, in its varied manifestations, is alive and well in South Africa, Johannesburg
presenting the most obvious outer manifestation of Jewishness, since it has by far the largest concentration
of Jews in the Republic.
________________________
11 For a discussion of other branches of Jewish personal law, such as the law of persons, see the previous
edition, ch 13 at 13.6.
12 For an overview of Jewish settlement in the Cape, see SA Jewish Board of Deputies, Cape “A short history”
accessible at http://www.capebod.org.za/cape-town-jewish-history/a-short-history (accessed 1 August 2014.
13 Saron and Hotz (ed) (1955) xi–xii.
14 Hellig “Religious expression” in Arkin (ed) (1984) 95–96. For a discussion of Jewish history in South Africa
from 1870–1955, see Saron and Hotz (eds) (1955) 1.
15 Hellig “Religious expression” in Arkin (ed) (1984) 95.
The 2001 census shows that the Jewish population in South Africa consists of 75 555 people.16
Their main body of representation is the South African Jewish Board of Deputies. There are
not many South African cases dealing with disputes between Jewish parties.17 One of the
reasons that may be advanced for this phenomenon is the prohibition Jewish law places on
litigation in Gentile courts. The reason is to preserve Jewish judicial autonomy.18 Another reason
is existence of the Beth Din where the disputes between members of the Jewish community are
generally resolved, and finally the concept of dina d’malkhuta dina probably prevents Jews from
seeking resolution of their disputes outside the South African legal system.
13.4.2 Beth Din (Jewish Ecclesiastical Court)19

The Jewish court system was a three-tier system consisting of the great Sanhedrin, lesser San-
hedrin and the Beth Din (Rabbinical Court). The great Sanhedrin consisted of 71 Rabbis and
took, among many other roles, the role of the Supreme Court. It was not an appeals court in the
true sense and generally dealt with matters such as the crowning of the King, authorising wars to
expand the country’s borders, expanding holy sites, and the appointment of lesser courts. The
lesser Sanhedrin of 23 judges was established in each city and they had the power to try capital
cases. The Beth Din was an ordinary tribunal consisting of three judges (or Rabbis) with the
power to adjudicate monetary and family issues.
The Beth Din is nowadays the only ecclesiastical body that has authority in Jewish life. It
rules on questions of Jewish law, and arbitrates disputes in accordance with Halacha, or medi-
ates compromise settlements. It usually also administers matters of personal status (such as
marriage, divorce and conversion) and supervises production of kosher food. There are many
Beth Dins around the world, even in South Africa.20
The case of Taylor v Kurtstag21 is a good example of how the Beth Din operates in a South
African context. The Court had to deal with the contention of the applicant that the cherem
(excommunication order) issued by the Beth Din violated his religious rights and was thus
unconstitutional. Malan J found that Jewish law is a legal system which “provides a system of
substantive and procedural law for the resolution of disputes of all types” such as commercial
transactions, marriage and divorce, and also the obligations of parents towards their children.22
Jewish law also provides for the establishment of a Beth Din which “may be formed on a per-
manent basis by a community or on an ad hoc and temporary basis by agreement between
litigants when a dispute arises”.23 The South African Beth Din was established by the Jewish
community in the 20th century and has been dealing with disputes between Jewish community
members since then. The Beth Din has no power to enforce judgments or awards made by it;24
________________________
16 See the official website of the World Jewish Congress accessible at http://www.worldjewishcongress.org/
en/about/communities/ZA.
17 The available court cases dealing with Jews or Jewish law in some or other respects are: Amar v Amar 1999
(3) SA 604 (W); Levy v Levy 1991 (3) SA 614 (A); Raik v Raik 1993 (2) SA 617 (W); Berkowitz v Berko-
witz 1956 (3) SA 522 (SR); Standard Bank of South Africa Ltd v Betts Brown 1958 (3) SA 713 (N); Aron-
son v Estate Hart 1950 (1) SA 539 (A); In re Denton’s Estate 1951 (4) SA 582 (N); Ex parte Administra-
tors Estate Sandler 1976 (4) SA 930 (C); Commercial Union Assurance Co of SA Ltd v Mirkin 1989 (2) SA
584 (C); Ex parte Robinson 1953 (2) SA 430 (C); Martens v Martens 1952 (3) SA 771 (W); Eilon v Eilon
1965 (1) SA 703 (A); C v Commissioner of Child Welfare Wynberg 1970 (2) SA 76 (C); Dreyer v Lyte-
Mason 1948 (2) SA 245 (W); Taylor v Kurtstag 2005 (1) SA 362 (W).
18 Elon (ed) (1975) 20–21; Elon vol I (1994) 13–18.
19 For more information, see Quint and Hecht vol 1 (1980) 7, 39–74; Amar v Amar 1999 (3) SA 604 (W) 605.
20 For more information, see http://www.uos.co.za/uos/default.aspx.
21 2005 (7) BCLR 705 (W).
22 Paragraph 31.
23 Paragraph 30.
however, since the applicant was a practising member of the Orthodox Jewish community of
Johannesburg, “he is required to comply fully with the dictates of Jewish society and the man-
date of Jewish law and ethics”.25 In addition, he is “required to observe community standards
and ethics” and one such obligation includes “submission to the jurisdiction of the Beth Din”
and compliance with the cherem issued by it.26
In other words, if an adherent to a religion voluntarily practices a religion in association with
others, he or she is also bound by the reasonable and justifiable precepts of that religion. In the
Taylor case, the applicant was obliged to accept the jurisdiction of the Beth Din and the conse-
quences of the cherem. The cherem did not prevent the applicant from exercising his religious
associational rights but only limited them. This limitation, according to Malan J, was reasonable
and justifiable in the circumstances,27
because a failure to do so will have the result that the Jewish faith and community will not be able to protect
the integrity of Jewish law and custom in this case by ensuring conformity therewith. Moreover, it will be
offensive to observant Orthodox Jews to be forced to associate with a person seen by them as deliberately
and provocatively flouting Jewish law, custom and authority.
Furthermore, the court agreed that the Beth Din is not a court of law but a religious tribunal that
is subject to review in terms of South African common law, but did not agree with the conten-
tion of the applicant that the imposition of the cherem was unfair.28 Malan J reviewed the actions
of the Beth Din and came to the conclusion that its decision to impose the cherem was fair under
the circumstances.29
13.4.3 Dina d’malkhuta dina

The concept of dina d’malkhuta dina in Jewish law means that the law of the land is applicable
to all Jews living in it. This means that if there were a conflict between Jewish law and the law
of the land, the latter would prevail.30 The rule, however, applies only to matters of law and not
to matters of ritual.31 It is sometimes difficult to determine whether a rule is a rule of law or a
rule of religion. For example, a man and woman have to conclude a valid Jewish marriage in
terms of certain Jewish rituals. The deliverance and acceptance of a get can dissolve the mar-
riage. The Jewish community, however, accepts that the marriage must also be concluded in
terms of the requirements of the law of land. Therefore, the practice has developed to conclude a
Jewish marriage in terms of the law of the land, as well as in terms of Jewish law. Similarly,
both the law of the land and Jewish law can dissolve the marriage.
There is nothing in South African law which prohibits Jews from resolving their disputes in
their ecclesiastical tribunals (the Beth Din). However, the findings of such tribunals are only
binding inter partes, and dissatisfied parties would be unable to approach the South African
courts to enforce the findings of the Beth Din.32
________________________
25 Paragraph 35.
26 Paragraph 35.
27 Paragraph 58.
28 Paragraph 42.
30 Grunfeld (1987) 17; Elon vol I (1994) 64–74; Katz (1960) LLD thesis UP 19–20; Shilo (1978) Jewish Law
Annual 146–148.
31 Katz (1960) LLD thesis UP 19.
32 Katz (1960) 20; confirmed in Taylor v Kurtstag 2005 (7) BCLR 705 (W).
13.5 Jewish family law33

13.5.1 Marriage
Right at the beginning of the Torah, the “first fly in the ointment of creation” is seen to be
human loneliness.34 Judaism thus recognises the deep-felt need for human companionship. The
primary form of relationship that is sanctioned in Jewish tradition is that of marriage.
A leading halakhist in the 14th century, Rabbi Jacob Ben Asher (the Tur), begins his descrip-
tion of the marital laws with the following blessing: “Blessed be God who desires the welfare of
His creatures and who, knowing that it is not good for man to be alone, made him a helpmeet”.35
The purpose of marriage in Judaism is thus seen to involve companionship in the context of
commitment to another individual. Marriage is also seen as important for the completion of a
person and their happiness: it is said that “whoever lives without a wife lives without well-
being”.36 The third purpose of marriage mentioned by the Tur is procreation and, finally, mar-
riage provides the main forum for the legitimate expression of sexuality in Jewish tradition
without which a person spends their days “in thoughts of sin”.37
This paragraph shall describe some of the legal facets of the Jewish institution of marriage
and the attitude of Judaism towards other forms of intimate relationships. As with the law of per-
sons, the “gender revolution” is causing a re-evaluation in many quarters of some of the tradi-
tional Jewish laws relating to marriage. These challenges come particularly from the feminist
movement which seeks to remove the patriarchal elements in marriage, and the homosexual and
lesbian movement which seeks to remove the heterosexist elements of Jewish marriage. This
chapter will thus situate the discussion of marriage within these broad changes that are occurring
within the tradition.
13.5.1.1 Forms and formalities of marriages

Marriage in Jewish tradition consists of two separate parts: kiddushin (betrothal) and nissuin
(completion of marriage). There are three ways of effecting kiddushin: through money, a deed or
cohabitation.38 Effecting kiddushin through money involves the bridegroom transferring to his
bride, in front of two competent witnesses, money or property – usually a ring – to a certain
specified value and making a declaration to the following effect: “You are consecrated to me by
this ring according to the law of Moses and Israel”. Effecting kiddushin through a deed involves
the transfer of a deed to the bride (who must accept it) in front of two competent witnesses, in
which the bridegroom expresses his intention to be betrothed to the bride with the above-
mentioned declaration. Kiddushin may also be effected through the above-mentioned declaration
being made in front of two competent witnesses followed by sexual intercourse between the
bridegroom and his wife. Practically, the last two methods of kiddushin have become obsolete,
and most betrothals today take place through the transfer of property.39
Kiddushin involves an act of acquisition in which a man sets a woman aside for himself
alone.40 It brings into being a form of personal tie between husband and wife which can be
dissolved only on death or divorce. She is regarded as exclusively his. Kiddushin does
not, however, bring into effect the mutual rights and duties between husband and wife and, in
________________________
33 For a discussion of the Jewish law of persons, see the previous edition, ch 13 at 13.6.
34 Greenberg (2004) 50.
35 Tur Even Haezer para 1. Also see Genesis 2:18.
36 Tur Even Haezer para 1.
37 Kiddushin 29b.
38 Kiddushin 2a.
39 Encyclopaedia Judaica (2005) under “Marriage”.
40 Biale (1995) 48.
particular, cohabitation between them are prohibited at this point. The husband is also not liable
for paying maintenance for his wife until nissuin is complete. Recognising the inherently
unequal notion whereby a man “acquires a woman” and the problems of rooting marriage in the
notion of acquisition, some Jewish reformers suggest that a more equal Jewish legal notion is
required. Rachel Adler has, for instance, proposed substituting the idea of a “covenant of love
and partnership” for traditional kiddushin.41 This finds Jewish legal confirmation for the mar-
riage bond in the law relating to the formation of a partnership which is an equal bond between
two parties. The latter notion is being developed and used by individual couples, but is yet to be
more widely accepted.
The nissuin involves the bride being brought to the bridegroom under the huppah (wedding
canopy), where, in front of two competent witnesses, they are married. Where the betrothal
merely sets aside the couple for each other, the nissuin brings into effect full mutual rights and
duties between the parties.
In a traditional Jewish marriage ceremony today, both kiddushin and nissuin are performed in
one ceremony. The kiddushin takes place with the exchange of rings (in rigid Orthodoxy, only
the husband places a ring on the bride’s finger). The groom is then required to give a marriage
document (the ketubbah) to the bride. This document essentially details the obligations of the
husband to the wife and her obligations towards him. It was instituted largely for purposes of
protecting the woman and making divorce conditional upon payment of a large sum mentioned
in the ketubbah. This was designed to deter divorce.42 After the ketubbah is read out, the nissuin
takes place and seven blessings are said (or sung) to the bride and groom. At the end of the
ceremony, a glass is broken to remind the parties of the destruction of the Jewish temple. This is
often interpreted today to mean that one’s happiness cannot be complete until all those who are
suffering and marginalised are also able to share in one’s joy. There is usually a reception after
the marriage at which there is plenty of food, drink and dancing to celebrate the joyfulness of the
marriage.
13.5.1.2 Polygyny
The Torah and Talmud allow a man to have more than one wife, though a woman may have
only one husband.43 A man may have as many wives as he wishes, as long as he performs his
marital and sexual obligations towards them. It was thought that this would prevent a man from
having more than four wives. However, polygyny was generally not favoured in Jewish society,
and this eventually culminated in the famous ruling attributed to Rabbi Gershom Me’or Hagolah
that a man is forbidden from marrying two wives.44 This ruling was, however, accepted only by
Ashkenazic Jews who lived mainly in Northern Europe and Russia) and not by Sephardic Jews,
who lived mainly in the Muslim countries of North Africa and parts of Southern Europe. It is
also not absolute, and in extreme cases where a man is bound to a woman that he cannot live
with or divorce, the ban may be lifted so that the man may marry a second wife. This exception
is not, however, available to a woman, unless her husband divorces her or he dies, since, unlike
polygyny, the Halacha never permitted polyandry.45
13.5.1.3 Consequences of marriage

Marriage brings into being certain rights and duties between spouses. In pre-modern times, these
obligations were specified as follows: a husband had ten obligations toward his wife (or her
________________________
41 Adler (1998) 169–208.

42 Biale (1995) 80.
43 Horowitz (1953) 256.
44 Horowitz (1953) 50.
45 Meaning one wife and more than one husband. Horowitz (1973) 52.
descendants) and four rights in respect of her. Essentially, the duty of the husband was as bread-
winner, provider and protector. In return, the wife was expected to bear children and look after
the home. Nowadays, the obligations of the husband are as follows:
(a) to provide his wife with sustenance or maintenance;
(b) to supply his wife with clothing and lodging;
(c) to have sexual intercourse with his wife and to satisfy her sexually;
(d) to provide the ketubbah (the sum fixed for the wife by law);
(e) to procure medical attention and care during his wife’s illnesses;
(f) to ransom his wife if she is taken captive;
(g) to provide suitable burial upon his wife’s death;
(h) to provide for her support after his death and ensure her right to live in his house as long as
she remains a widow;
(i) to provide for the support of the daughters of the marriage from his estate after his death,
until they become betrothed or reach the age of maturity; and
(j) to ensure that the sons of their marriage inherit their mother’s ketubbah, in addition to their
rightful portion of the estate of their father shared with his sons by other wives.
The husband’s rights are those entitling him:
(a) the benefit of his wife’s handiwork she performs at home;
(b) his wife’s chance gains or finds;
(c) the usufruct of his wife’s property; and
(d) to inherit his wife’s estate.46
These rights and duties both derive from the law and not from mere agreement between the
parties: “a man, by marrying a woman, becomes obligated to her in ten matters and acquires
rights against her in four matters, even if they have not been taken down in writing”.47
Given the advent of equality between the sexes, this traditional conception of marriage rights
and obligations has been challenged. Reform Judaism, for example, involves the assumption of
mutual obligations of the couple towards one another and the writing of a marriage document (a
ketubbah) that embodies these equal obligations.48
Sexual intercourse is an important part of marriage in Judaism. Men are obligated to satisfy
their wives sexually in marriage.49 This is called the obligation of onah: there must be physical
intimacy, appropriate surroundings and regularity.50 The enjoyment of sexual intercourse is not
regarded as solely for purposes of procreation in Jewish tradition.51 However, having children is
an important commandment that married couples are required to fulfil: the very first command-
ment addressed to Adam and Eve was to “be fruitful and multiply and fill the Earth and have
________________________
46 This is taken from the Encyclopaedia Judaica (2005) “Husband and wife”. The traditional sources are
Mishneh Torah (Ishut) 12:1–4; Shulchan Arukh (Even Ha’Ezer) 69:1–3.
47 Yad, Ishut 12:5; Sh Ar, EH 69:1.
48 Central Conference for American Rabbis (2005) 237.
49 See Feldman (1974) 60.
50 Nachmanides on Exodus 21:11. The Talmud allows the frequency of sexual relations to vary with the de-
mands of a man’s profession: people of “independent means” are required to have sex once a day, labourers
must have sex twice a week, and sailors only have to have sex with their wives once every six months
(Ketubot 61b). In these prescriptions, if we understand them less literally, it becomes evident that the Tal-
mud indicates sensitivity to people’s individual circumstances as to when they are required to have sex.
51 Biale (1995) 136 and Feldman (1974) 65.
dominion over it”.52 These differing aspects of sexuality have led to differing attitudes towards
contraception in Jewish society: in general, even within many sects of Orthodox Judaism,
contraception is today permitted to couples.
One of the advanced features of Jewish law is the prohibition on marital rape, a relatively
recent development in Western societies: “a man is forbidden to compel his wife to the mitzvah
of onah”.53 This is confirmed by later authorities like Maimonides who prohibits intercourse
against the wife’s will, “but rather let him do it with her consent and in mutual arousal and
joy”.54
According to Orthodox Judaism, there is one major restriction on sexual intercourse during
marriage and this is that sex between husband and wife is forbidden during a woman’s menstru-
ation. In biblical times, this was regarded as being a seven-day period, but later Halacha regards
a woman as impure for up to fourteen days. Thereafter, a woman is required to attend a ritual
bath (mikveh) before sexual intercourse is once again permitted.
Menstruation was regarded as a period of impurity, and the laws relating to niddah seem to
have been designed to keep women away from the Temple and sacred objects. These laws were
also probably related to taboos common not only to Jewish society, but also in the ancient Near
East on having contact with menstruating women.55 Menstruation was not understood properly
and the flow of blood was related to impurity.56 Although some have tried to give the niddah
period creative meanings (for example, by trying to show the value of a period of abstinence in a
marriage), this concept is, in general, regarded by progressive Jews as outdated and these laws
are not observed in conservative and reform marriages.
13.5.1.4 Levirate marriage

The brother of a deceased man who was married and died without having children is obliged to
marry the widow of his brother and have children with her. This is known as a levirate marriage
(yibbum), and was designed to ensure the continuance of the name of the deceased person to the
next generation. Should the brother not wish to marry the deceased’s wife, he is required to
perform the ceremony of Halitza: she takes off his shoe and spits on the ground and makes a
declaration that this is what should be done to the person who does not want to build up his
brother’s house. If the brother ignored the ritual of Halitza and thus did not release her from the
obligation to marry him, the woman could be placed in the position of an agunah (chained
woman).57 This situation can arise but, in general, in more modern Jewish communities, the
notion of the levirate marriage is of little import and provides an interesting insight into ancient
Jewish society and its customs.
13.5.1.5 Concubinage
A concubine is a woman who dedicates herself to a particular man outside of marriage without
kiddushin or a ketubbah.58 There is a division among halachic authorities as to whether a man
may take a concubine or not. In more recent times, the taking of a concubine has generally been
regarded as prohibited. A concubine is not entitled to the pecuniary rights of marriage, such as
maintenance, nor is a concubine required to obtain a get should she wish to marry another man.
This relationship is severed by mutual consent.
________________________
52 Genesis 1:28.
53 Eruvin 100b.
54 Mishneh Torah, Hilkhot Ishut 15:17.
55 Biale (1995) 147.
56 Blood is a source of impurity in Jewish tradition and kosher meat, e.g., has to be drained of as much blood
as possible.
57 Encylopaedia Judaica (2005) “Levirate marriage”.
58 Sanhedrin 21a.
13.5.1.6 Sexuality outside the marriage

Biblical law did not restrict a man from having sexual relations with an unmarried woman
outside of marriage. The Talmud tried to restrict this freedom and communities censured such
actions, but the offence was of a lesser magnitude than a sexual transgression. An unmarried
woman may also have sexual relations with one or more men without violating any explicit
sexual prohibition. Sexual relations among unmarried persons outside of marriage are not
considered to be adulterous and a child born of such relations is not regarded as illegitimate.
Since there is no specific transgression involved in sexual relations outside of marriage, the
rabbis have tried to combat this in two main ways. Firstly, by ruling that, in general, it is
presumed that if people cohabit they do so for purposes of getting married. Secondly, the rabbis
prohibited men and women from spending time together in privacy when they were not
married.59
13.5.1.7 Same-sex relationships and same-sex marriage

The foregoing discussion has focused upon traditional sources that generally assume that loving
relationships occur between members of the opposite sex. There seems to be no consideration of
same-sex relationships. In modern times, same-sex relationships are often recognised by the
state and in some countries same-sex marriages are solemnised. What then are the views of
Jewish tradition concerning same-sex relationships? Traditionally, when dealing with the subject
of male homosexuality, Orthodox sources begin with the prohibition in Leviticus that reads:
“and with a male you shall not lie down in the manner of lying with a woman”.60 The argument
is that male homosexual relations are condemned by this verse and thus Jewish tradition cannot
recognise same-sex relationships or same-sex marriage.
This line of reasoning is heavily contested today within Reform and Conservative Judaism,
and even within Orthodoxy people are questioning whether in fact the verse in Leviticus sought
to prohibit same-sex relationships.61 There are several approaches, only two of which are men-
tioned here. Some argue that the verse only prohibits a particular form of homosexual sexual
expression, namely anal sex.62 Others argue that the verse in Leviticus is in fact a prohibition
against degrading forms of sexual intercourse between men that involve violence and humilia-
tion (through a close reading of the verse in light of history and other Jewish sources).63 It is
interesting to note that lesbianism is not mentioned in the written Torah at all. If relationships
between members of the same sex were meant to be prohibited, this is a strange omission. In the
Talmud, lesbianism is regarded as a minor sexual transgression and later authorities in the
Middle Ages also prohibited lesbianism.64
It is clear that the approach towards homosexuality adopted by the ancient sources, for exam-
ple, never recognised the existence of a distinct sexual orientation: the idea was that a person
had gay sex as a deviant form of heterosexual desire. In the last 100 years, however, scientific
investigation of human sexuality has revealed the existence of a “sexual orientation”: a fixed
aspect of the self (whether as a result of genetic or environmental factors) that determines to
whom individuals are attracted and with whom they seek intimate relationships. Conservatively,
five percent of the human species have a gay sexual orientation which is inseparable from other
aspects of that individual’s make-up. When recognising that in fact there is such a thing as a
sexual orientation whereby some people are predominantly gay and some “straight”, this opens
________________________
59 Biale (1995) 191–192.

60 Leviticus 18:22.
61 See, e.g., the excellent discussion of this verse in Greenberg (2004).
62 Greenberg (2004) 80 concerning the Talmudic prohibition.
63 Greenberg (2004) 192–214.
64 See Biale (1995) 192–197.
up the possibility that the whole discussion on homosexuality in ancient sources was based upon
incorrect empirical premises. This opens up a range of halachic possibilities, including, for
example, that the halachic prohibitions apply only to those who are heterosexual but not to those
who are homosexual.
As a result of reasoning such as this, there is a greater acceptance of same-sex relationship
within Jewish society. The Reform movement now accepts that there is no prohibition on homo-
sexuality. It no longer allows for any discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation and or-
dains gay rabbis. It now also allows rabbis to conduct same-sex marriages and to officially bless
same-sex relationships. The Conservative movement is currently in a state of flux relating to the
full and equal recognition of same-sex relationships and this issue is even receiving anxious con-
sideration within liberal streams of Orthodoxy. This is an issue which is at the cutting edge of
discussion in Jewish law and further developments in this area are likely, given the intensity of
debate within Jewish society on this issue.
13.5.1.8 Prohibited marriages and legitimacy

Judaism forbids incest and thus any marriages between familial relations. This prohibition
extends to a man’s aunts, sisters-in-law, stepsisters, mother-in-law, step-daughters, daughters of
a sister-in-law, daughters-in-law and granddaughters. Judaism also forbids a marriage between a
man and a married woman. Any children born of an incestuous or adulterous sexual union are
regarded as illegitimate (mamzer). It is important to stress that a child born from a man and
woman outside of wedlock is not regarded as illegitimate in Jewish tradition.
Being a mamzer has one major legal impact upon a child and that is that he or she is not
allowed to marry any Jew who is legitimate. A mamzer may only marry another mamzer or a
convert.65 Many have commented on the unfairness of punishing the children of an incestuous or
adulterous union rather than the parents. Reform Judaism, for example, has thus abandoned the
concept of the mamzer and considers all Jewish children marriageable with one another provided
that they are not related to each other.66
Jews are not permitted to marry non-Jews. Such marriages are not regarded as binding and
entail no legal consequences. No maintenance rights come into being, nor do any inheritance
rights follow. However, children born of such marriages are not illegitimate; rather, they are
considered as having been born out of wedlock. A non-Jew may convert to Judaism, in which
case a valid marriage can be entered into after the conversion.
13.5.1.9 Parental obligations towards children

In traditional Jewish law, legal obligations of maintenance towards children rest upon the
father.67 These obligations exist irrespective of whether the child was born out of wedlock or
not. These obligations include the following:
(a) providing for all the child’s needs;
(b) educating the child; and
(c) ensuring that the child learns a profession.
The standard of maintenance for a child is according to their needs and not according to the
financial status of the father.68 Initially, the obligation of maintenance only existed until the child
was six years old. However, a recent rabbinic ruling has increased this until 15 years.69
________________________
65 Deuteronomy 23:3 and Shulchan Arukh EH 4:22–24.

66 Central Conference of American Rabbis (2005) 225.
67 See Schaffer (1983) Fall Journal of Halacha and Contemporary Society 36.
68 Shulchan Arukh EH 73:6.
The rules relating to custody focus on parental duty and the best interests of the child. It was
thought that both boys and girls below the age of six should be in the custody of the mother.
Above the age of six, boys should be placed in the custody of their father and girls in the custody
of their mother.70 These rules may be varied if they are not in the best interests of the child.71 In
Jewish law, the rules relating to custody are independent of those relating to maintenance: the
fact that a child is with the mother does not relieve the father of his obligation to maintain the
child. Both parents have rights of access to their child/children, though these may be curtailed if
harmful to the child/children.
In respect of guardianship, the default position is that the father has guardianship over his
minor children. A mother generally does not have legal standing over her children unless specif-
ically appointed by a Jewish court. In general, these matters are today regulated by secular
courts outside of Israel. In Israel, the Jewish law often applies but has been modified to provide
for equality between men and women: both parents are now regarded as being natural guardians
of their children.
In respect of a child’s duties to his or her parents, a child is commanded to “honour your
father and your mother”.72 The obligations implied by this commandment were enumerated by
later authorities: they involve not sitting in the place of a parent, providing food and drink,
clothing and shoes and assisting the parent where necessary.
The obligations of parents towards their child/children in Jewish law have led to an important
case in South African law that upholds the rights of Jewish tribunals to use traditional methods
of sanction in the Jewish community to enforce a maintenance order. In Taylor v Kurtstag,73 –
already touched upon above – Mr and Mrs Taylor agreed as part of their divorce settlement to
submit to the jurisdiction of the Johannesburg Beth Din (the Orthodox Jewish Ecclesiastical
Court in South Africa) in order to determine disputes relating to financial, maintenance and
custody issues. Mr Taylor failed to comply with the provisions of a court order and the Beth Din
made a determination that he was required to pay maintenance in the amount of R6 000 per
month as well as R250 000 for arrear maintenance. When Mr Taylor defaulted on paying these
amounts, the Beth Din, after a series of intervening events, eventually issued a cherem against
him. A cherem is an order by the Beth Din which seeks to ensure that the recalcitrant person
complies with the ruling of a Beth Din through adopting “shunning measures” against the person
in question (it is often referred to as an order of excommunication). In this case, the order was to
deprive Mr Taylor of his right to belong to an Orthodox Jewish congregation, prevent him from
being counted as part of a prayer quorum, prevent him from exercising certain honours in Jewish
communal life, prevent him from having a Jewish burial or being buried in a Jewish cemetery
and disqualify him as a witness in Jewish matters before the Beth Din. Mr Taylor then chal-
lenged this ruling, seeking to prevent the Beth Din from imposing the cherem upon him or
publishing it anywhere in the community. His main ground for doing so involved challenging
the constitutionality of the actions of the Beth Din as infringements of his freedom of religion
and dignity. The case raised important questions concerning the power of a Beth Din to enforce
its orders and the limits of such a power in a secular state.
In a High Court judgment, Malan J found that the actions of the Beth Din were not unconstitu-
tional. The rights of Mr Taylor were infringed given that there were certain restrictions imposed
on his religious freedom and his personality rights through the communal shunning. However,
the learned judge found that the power to issue a cherem was an important matter as it provided
________________________
69 Encyclopaedia Judaica (2005) “Parent and Child”.

70 Schaffer (1983) Fall Journal of Halacha and Contemporary Society 37. Also see Broyde (1999) Spring
Journal of Halacha and Contemporary Society 28.
71 Rema EH 82:7.
72 Exodus 20:12.
73 2005 (1) SA 362 (W).
the only way in which the Beth Din could enforce its rulings. “Freedom of religion also involves
the autonomy in setting guidelines for the admission of members and their discipline”.74 This
meant that the religious rights (in particular, section 31(1) of the Constitution) of members of the
Orthodox Jewish community were also implicated in their seeking through the practice of
cherem to protect the integrity of Jewish law and custom and ensure compliance therewith. The
right to freedom of association (section 18 of the Constitution) of such members would also be
infringed by forcing them to associate with Mr Taylor who was deliberately contravening an
order of the Beth Din (and thus Jewish law). A margin of discretion had to be allowed to the
Beth Din to impose the terms of the cherem it deemed appropriate (as this was a matter of
Jewish and not secular law) and the terms of the order were not so harsh such that the court
should intervene. Consequently, Malan J upheld the right of the Beth Din to impose the cherem
in question and dismissed the application.
This is an important case for several reasons. First, in the context of the current chapter, it
shows the seriousness with which the Beth Din dealt with a case of a father defaulting on paying
maintenance for his children after divorcing their mother. This indicates the importance of an
obligation to pay maintenance in Jewish law and that breaching it is seen to breach a central
norm in the Jewish community. In light of the serious problem in South Africa of large numbers
of maintenance defaulters, the Beth Din’s approach is an important moral statement that this is
unacceptable in the Jewish community. Secondly, the case recognises effectively that there are
several legal systems operating in South Africa. Whilst the orders of any such court do not have
the force of secular state behind them, the courts will uphold the right of religious (and other)
courts to enforce their orders through their own means where these do not unjustifiably infringe
constitutional rights. Finally, the case also upholds the view that the orders of a religious court
are reviewable and, in a suitable case, can be interfered with where they violate constitutional
rights. The court effectively engaged in a proportionality enquiry, balancing the nature and
extent of the limitation of the rights of Mr Taylor in this case against the religious rights of
members of the Orthodox Jewish Community to have orders of the Beth Din enforced. The tech-
nical approach of the judge may be questioned75 and fuller reasoning has been desirable: never-
theless, it is clear that the power of religious (and other) courts is circumscribed by the rights in
the Constitution and in an appropriate case, these orders may be overturned. This is of great
importance given that the exercising of religious power can at times serve to insulate communi-
ties from the effects of the Constitution and, in some cases, to perpetuate arbitrary discrimination
against such groups as women and homosexuals.
13.5.1.10 Adoption
In general, Jewish law did not know the institution of adoption. The relationship between parents
and children was established through natural birth. Jewish law, however, devised means of
establishing consequences similar to adoption through legal means. This could be achieved in
the following ways. The adopter could be appointed as a guardian of the child with exclusive
authority to care for the child’s welfare and education and by entrusting the administration of the
child’s property to the adopter. Natural parents, however, continue to be liable for maintenance
of the child to the extent that the needs of the child are not met by the adoptive parent. Intestate
succession would also only provide natural parents with rights to inherit from the child. This
would have to be dealt with through the testamentary disposition of property.76
________________________
74 Paragraph 56.
75 It is debatable whether the analysis should have been conducted under s 36(1) or at the first stage of the
constitutional enquiry in that it involved balancing competing rights.
76 Encyclopaedia Judaica (2005) “Adoption”.
13.5.2 Divorce
13.5.2.1 Grounds for divorce and the get (letter of divorce)
Jewish law, as it has developed, allows for divorce. However, there is no systematic or detailed
legislation in the written Torah concerning divorce. While divorce is allowed, it is not encour-
aged or taken lightly. It is stated that “when a man divorces his first wife even the altar sheds
tears”.77 Priests are forbidden to marry divorcees.78 The marriage document (ketubbah) also
provides a deterrent to divorce, as it requires the husband to pay a considerable amount of
money to the divorcee.
What are the grounds for divorce? The Talmud contains a fascinating debate concerning what
would constitute adequate grounds for divorce.79 One school of thought (the school of Shammai)
holds that the wife must have committed a sexual transgression and only this would be adequate
grounds for divorce. Another school of thought (that of Hillel) holds that a man may divorce his
wife for any reason through which she is distasteful to him – “even if she has merely spoiled his
food”. A final school of thought (that of Akiva) is even more permissive and allows divorce
simply if he finds another woman more beautiful than his wife, as long as “she finds no favour
in his eyes”. The actual law was decided in favour of the house of Hillel and thus the grounds for
divorce are open-ended in Jewish law: they are subjective and thus a matter for individual
discretion and judgment.
There are numerous consequences to a divorce: the parties are free to remarry, and the wife is
entitled to a return of her property. The wife is also entitled to payment of the sum of money
mentioned in the ketubbah except where she, for example, forfeits this as a result of adultery.
Divorce also terminates a husband’s duty to maintain his wife, though, for charitable reasons,
tradition suggests that he should continue to maintain her above the level of those who are
generally poor.80
The Talmudic rabbis developed a procedure by which a divorce was to be effected: a valid
divorce required the man to hand the woman a bill of divorce which is known as a get. Divorce
generally requires a detailed and technical procedure to be performed, suggesting the societal
disapproval of divorce. Initially, a man could divorce his wife by handing her this document and
there was no requirement that she consent to this divorce. However, in the Middle Ages, Rabbi
Gershom issued a major halachic ruling which prohibited a man from divorcing his wife without
her consent: in other words, he must give her the get and she must consent to receiving it.
It may be thought that this ruling placed a woman on an equal footing with a man as it gave
her the power to refuse a get and thus prevent her husband from remarrying. However, it is
important to understand that he still retains greater power than she does in the divorce proceed-
ings. The reason for this relates to the fact that polygyny is only prohibited by a medieval rab-
binic proclamation rather than by Talmudic law: such a proclamation only entails that the com-
munity would shun a person who violated it but lacks any further legal force. This means that a
man may still marry another woman without committing adultery or creating illegitimate chil-
dren. In the case of a woman, however, she cannot remarry without committing adultery or
creating illegitimate children. An illegitimate child generally cannot marry another Jew and is
stigmatised within Jewish society. Consequently, a woman who is refused a get by her husband
is in a very serious position and is effectively barred from remarrying, whereas if a husband is
refused a get, he can still remarry without drastic consequences.
________________________
77 Gittin 90a.
78 Leviticus 21:14.
79 Gittin 90a–b.
80 Encyclopaedia Judaica (2005) “Divorce”.
This situation has led to major inequity, as a husband could thereby effectively prevent a wife
from remarrying for purposes of revenge or blackmail. The situation arises as a result of the fact
that in Jewish law, Jewish tribunals do not grant divorces: a divorce occurs through a man
issuing his wife a get and her receiving it. In such circumstances, there is usually an attempt by
the court to mediate the dispute so as to encourage the husband to grant the get. Should this not
succeed, the Halacha lists certain limited circumstances in which Jewish tribunals could compel
a husband to give a get, namely:
(a) when the husband suffers from physical ailments that cannot be endured by the wife;
(b) where the husband violates or neglects his marital obligations to his wife (maintenance and
sexual obligations); and
(c) when there is sexual incompatibility between husband and wife.81
The Halachic validity of a get given under compulsion is dubious given the requirement that a
get must be given willingly.82 Moreover, the trouble is that, in many cases, the man does not
succumb to compulsion. In Israel, for example, some men have been jailed for failing to give a
get and yet they still refuse to do so.
83
To get or not to get a get, that is the question
The attempt to ensure that a woman is able to gain a get has led to the intervention of the secular states in
84
several countries, and in South Africa, section 5A of the Divorce Act allows the South African courts to
prevent a Jewish husband from gaining a secular divorce without also providing a woman with a religious
85
divorce. This is meant to ensure that a woman will automatically be granted a get if a secular divorce is
granted. This, of course, can also lead to inequity if the man refuses to grant a religious divorce, which then
prevents a secular divorce as well. As a result, the section provides judges with discretion to make any order
86
that they find just. In Amar v Amar, Goldstein J ordered a husband to pay a set monthly amount of mainte-
nance until he gives his wife a get.
As can be seen from this analysis, the traditional law relating to divorce is strongly based upon
patriarchal assumptions: the man generally gives the woman a get whereas she is effectively
passive in the process.87 More egalitarian branches of Judaism will not accept these inequalities
and are concerned that both parties are placed on equal terms in marriage and divorce.
As such, Reform Judaism, for example, has moved away from the traditional laws and no
longer considered divorce a religious matter, rather a civil one. Reform Judaism uses the Tal-
mudic principle of dina d’malkhuta dina (see 13.4.3). Traditionally, this principle had been
applied to business transactions and not personal matters such as marriage or divorce. However,
the Reform community has used this principle as a method of remedying the inequities of the
religious system of divorce. Thus, Reform congregations regard civil divorce as completely
dissolving the marriage.88
The alternative approach which is followed by more traditional branches of Judaism leads to a
woman having to remain married to a hated husband against her will or be abandoned by her
________________________
81 See, e.g., Ketubbot 77a.

82 See, e.g., the article by Rabbi Gartner (1985 Spring Journal of Halacha and Contemporary Society
118–119. The article is an example of religious writing that embodies a telling lack of legal imagination and
proceeds to justify a very grave injustice.
83 Based on the amusing title of the article written by Blackbeard (1994) THRHR 641.
84 70 of 1979.
85 For an account of the history of this law and what gave rise to it, see Harris (1999) Summer Justice 32–37.
86 1999 (3) SA 604 (W).
87 See Hellig (2000) Jewish Affairs 38–44.
88 See Marmur (2000) Winter Justice 20–22 and Central Conference of American Rabbis (2005) 244–245.
husband and never be able to remarry. “Her fate is not in her hands because she can only be a
passive recipient of a divorce, never its initiator”.89 This leads to a further major problem: what
is termed the Agunah or “chained woman”.
13.5.2.2 Agunah (chained woman)

The agunah is a woman “whose marriage is in fact ended or suspended, but who legally remains
a married woman, unable to remarry”.90 There are a range of circumstances in which a woman
can become an agunah, the most common of which are described below: first, in a situation
where a husband deserts his wife and disappears; secondly, where the husband dies but there is
no valid testimony concerning his death; thirdly, where the marriage is untenable but the hus-
band refuses to divorce his wife despite threats and punitive measures adopted by the religious
courts, and finally, where the marriage is untenable but the husband is legally incompetent to
grant a divorce (usually on grounds of insanity).
In these circumstances, a woman is unable to acquire a get as the husband cannot or will not
give her a get. As such, a woman cannot remarry. If she does, she is regarded as committing
adultery. Any children that are born of the later union are regarded as illegitimate children
(mamzerim). As such, they are not permitted to marry another Jew.
The agunah problem also shows that there is no presumption of death in Jewish tradition.
Death has to be established through the direct testimony of witnesses. This is not always possi-
ble and can thus lead to many women remaining chained to their dead husbands.
The Conservative movement in America has attempted to deal with the problem of the agunah
through a number of technical legal solutions. One idea was for the couple to agree in the mar-
riage document (ketubbah) to the authority of a Jewish court to dissolve a marriage in certain
instances. Another method of solving this problem has been for the couple to enter into an ante-
nuptial agreement (this could be placed in the ketubbah) whereby the marriage rests upon a
condition that certain circumstances exist: for example, the husband being present or that he
supports his wife. Where these circumstances no longer exist, the marriage is automatically dis-
solved. These suggestions have, unfortunately, generally not been adopted by Orthodox Judaism.
13.6 Jewish law of succession

13.6.1 General
The Jewish law of succession or inheritance prescribes the rules of succession that must be
applied after the death of a Jew. The primary purpose of the rules is to preserve the basic unit of
Jewish life, namely the family.91 The basic source for the classic Jewish law of succession can
be found in the book of Numbers 27:8–10, which read as follows:
Say to the Israelites, If a man dies and leaves no son, turn his inheritance over to his daughter. If he has
no daughter, give his inheritance to his brothers. If he has no brothers, give his inheritance to his father’s
brothers. If his father had no brothers, give his inheritance to the nearest relative in his clan, that he may
possess it. This is to be a legal requirement for the Israelites, as the Lord commanded Moses.
Polygyny, although an exception, is prevalent in certain Jewish communities. The rules of
succession are the same, regardless of whether the testator was involved in a monogamous or
polygamous relationship.92
________________________
89 Biale (1995) 69.

90 Biale (1995) 102.
91 Meiselman (1978) 88.
92 Except for the position of the sons of a deceased wife involved in a polygamous relationship. The first-born
son is in a more favourable position than the other sons.
A Jewish testator’s freedom of testation was restricted, and the concept of wills was
unknown in Jewish law. It was, however, possible for a testator to dispose of his or her property
during his or her lifetime by means of a contract. There were three different forms of contract
that can be used, namely:93
(a) Mattenat bari (gift by a healthy person);
(b) Mattenat shekhiv me-ra (gift by a critically ill person);94 and
(c) Mezavveh mehamat mitah (gift in contemplation of death).95
A husband could not make provisions to exclude a wife’s or a daughter’s right to be maintained
by the estate. If the testator died without a valid will, his estate devolved upon his intestate
beneficiaries according to the set rules.96
In order for succession to take place, the following ground rules had to be fulfilled:
(a) the testator must be dead;97
(b) the beneficiary must be alive upon the death of the testator;98 and
(c) the beneficiary must be competent to inherit.99
The drawing up of wills developed later in Jewish law,100 and testator nowadays has the right to
dispose of his entire estate by means of a will.
The answer to the question whether the rule, dina d’malkhuta dina, also applies to the Jewish
law of succession is uncertain. The general viewpoint is that the answer must be in the nega-
tive.101 The classic law of succession, which is national in character, must therefore be applied to
all Jews, regardless of where they live. Although this is true, one has to remember that the
classic law of succession has been altered in various countries by means of legislation.
13.6.2 Rules of Jewish law of intestate succession

13.6.2.1 Order of payment
An estate devolves upon the beneficiaries after the debts of the deceased have been paid. The
deceased’s estate does not devolve upon the surviving wife and daughters. Their position may be
compared to the position of preferential creditors. They have a lien on the property of the
deceased upon his death. Payment out of the estate of the deceased will therefore take place in
the following order:102
(a) funeral costs to bury the deceased;
(b) administration costs to administer the estate;
________________________
93 Meiselman (1978) 87.

94 Also see Grunfeld (1987) 47.
95 This may be compared to a donatio mortis causa in South African law. See Van der Merwe, Rowland and
Cronjé (1990) 586; De Waal and Schoeman-Malan (2008) 218; Rautenbach (1994) LLM thesis NWU
59–60.
96 See 13.6.3.
97 In some circumstances, a presumption of death, similar to the situation in South Africa, might be enough to
accept that the testator has died. Where relatives have died together, the rule is that the “persons who were
certain heirs took to the exclusion of those who were doubtful heirs”. For examples of the application of
this rule, see Horowitz (1973) 379.
98 Representation of a predeceased beneficiary is not possible. Horowitz (1973) 379.
99 In order to be competent to inherit, a beneficiary must be a blood relative of the deceased in the descending
or ascending male line. Horowitz (1973) 381.
100 Horowitz (1973) 402.
101 Grunfeld (1987) 17.
102 Chigier (1985) Jewish Law Annual 49.
(c) maintenance towards the surviving wife;

(d) maintenance towards the unmarried daughters;
(e) other creditors, including the payment of the wife’s ketubbah;
(f) descendants; and
(g) rest of the relatives.
13.6.2.2 Impediments to inheritance

Contrary to most other religious legal systems, the conduct of a beneficiary does not have an
effect on his or her right to inherit. Conversion to another religion also has no effect on the bene-
ficiary’s right to inherit.103
13.6.2.3 Grounds for qualification as a beneficiary

(a) Blood relatives through the male line: A beneficiary’s right to inherit is always traced
through the paternal side, firstly descending and then ascending.104
Father’s Mother’s
father father
Father Mother
Brother Deceased Sister
Brother's son
Figure 13.1
Only the father of the deceased will inherit. The mother of the deceased and her relatives do
not inherit.105 The brother of the deceased cannot be traced in the descending or ascending
paternal line, and is therefore excluded from inheritance if there are relatives in the
descending or ascending paternal line.
________________________
103 In Aronson v Estate Hart 1959 (2) SA 539 (A), the court held that a condition in a will providing for a for-
feiture of all benefits bequeathed to such beneficiary if he or she should marry a person not born in the Jew-
ish faith, or should forsake the Jewish faith is not against public policy, and is therefore valid. Horowitz
(1973) 383 points out that Jewish tribunals withheld these inheritances in later years in order to discourage
conversion to other religions. If the converter returned to the Jewish faith, his or her inheritance was
restored. If, however, the converter died an apostate, his or her estate would devolve upon his or her benefi-
ciaries. Also see Elman (1958) 79.
104 Shilo “Succession” in Elon (ed) (1975) 446. The result is that members of the mother’s family are not
regarded as blood relatives. She does not inherit from her children, nor do her brothers or other relatives.
Horowitz (1973) 381; Elman (1958) 78; Grunfeld (1987) 10–11.
105 Horowitz (1973) 381.
(b) Males are preferred to females: Males exclude females in the same degree. Therefore, upon
the death of the deceased, his sons inherit the entire estate in equal shares.106
Deceased Wife
Son 1 Son 2 Daughter
Sons’ son
Figure 13.2
Son 1 and Son 2 of the deceased inherit the whole of the estate in equal shares. The wife
and the daughter have a lien for maintenance against the estate.107
(c) Representation: A deceased’s descendants represent a predeceased beneficiary.108 The
implication of such a rule is that a granddaughter may be in the position to inherit her
father’s inheritance, while on the other hand, the daughter of a deceased is excluded from
the inheritance.
Deceased Wife
Predeceased Daughter
Son
Son
Sons’ daughter
Figure 13.3
The beneficiaries of the deceased are his son and his son’s daughter. The wife and daughter
have a lien for maintenance against the estate. The son’s daughter represents her father,
who is predeceased. If, however, a daughter and a son survive the predeceased son, the son
would exclude his sister and would inherit his father’s portion from the deceased’s estate.109
(d) Extra-marital children: There is no distinction between the legitimate and extra-marital
children of a deceased. They inherit the same.110
(e) Posthumous children: A child who has already been conceived at the death of his father
inherits the same as living children. The only requirement is that the child must have been
born alive.111
________________________
106 Elman (1958) 78–79; Shilo “Succession” in Elon (ed) (1975) 446; Grunfeld (1987) 10.
107 Horowitz (1973) 382.
108 Shilo “Succession” in Elon (ed) (1975) 446–447.
109 Horowitz (1973) 382; Elman (1958) 79.
110 For exceptions to the rule, see Horowitz (1973) 382; Elman (1958) 79; Shilo “Succession” in Elon (ed)
(1975) 446.
111 Horowitz (1973) 382–383. This situation may be compared to the nasciturus fiction in South African law.
(f) The nearer degree excludes the more distant: The implication of this rule is that the son of
a deceased would exclude his grandfather, a father would exclude the brother of the
deceased and the brother would exclude the grandfather.112
(g) Full blood and half-blood: Under conditions of polygyny or successive marriages, children
are equal to one another if they have the same father. It is irrelevant whether they were born
of different mothers or if they are the children of a concubine. The rules of succession
apply to them in the same way as to their full blood brothers and sisters.
13.6.2.4 Classes of beneficiaries and order of succession

The beneficiaries and their order of succession may be summarised as follows:113
(a) the sons of the deceased and their descendants if they are predeceased;
(b) if there are no beneficiaries from the first category, the daughters of the deceased and their
descendants if they are predeceased;
(c) if there are no beneficiaries from the first two categories, the father of the deceased;
(d) if there are no beneficiaries from the first three categories, the brothers of the deceased and
their descendants if they are predeceased;
(e) if there are no beneficiaries from the first four categories, the sisters of the deceased and
their descendants if they are predeceased;
(f) if there are no beneficiaries from the first five categories, the grandfather (father’s father) of
the deceased;
(g) if there are no beneficiaries from the first six categories, the uncles (father’s brothers) of the
deceased and their descendants if they are predeceased;
(h) if there are no beneficiaries from the first seven categories, the aunts (father’s sisters) of the
deceased and their descendants if they are predeceased;
(i) if there are no beneficiaries from the first eight categories, the great-grandfather (father’s
father’s father) of the deceased;
(j) if there are no beneficiaries from the first nine categories, the brothers of the great-grand-
father’s (father’s father’s father) of the deceased and their descendants, and so on; and
(k) if the deceased died without any relatives, the estate devolves upon the state.
13.6.2.5 Double portion of the firstborn son

In terms of Deuteronomy 21:15–17, the firstborn son of a father inherits a double portion. This
rule of primogeniture applies only to the firstborn son of a father and not to the firstborn son of a
mother. If a man marries more than one wife, his firstborn son will thus be the first son of his
first wife. It is irrelevant whether the firstborn son is extra-marital or not. However, the rule does
not apply if the firstborn son is posthumous or one of twins. His descendants represent a first-
born son. The double portion of the firstborn son is calculated as if he constitutes two beneficiar-
ies. The following situations may occur:114
________________________
112 Elman (1958) 78; Shilo “Succession” in Elon (ed) (1975) 446.
113 Epstein (1927) 123.
114 Elman (1958) 79; Shilo “Succession” in Elon (ed) (1975) 447; Schereschewsky “Firstborn” in Elon (ed)
(1975) 434.
(a) Living sons and no posthumous son or sons survive the testator:
Deceased Wife
Son 1 Son 2 Son 3 Son 4 Son 5
33% 16,5% 16,5% 16,5% 16,5%
Figure 13.4
The estate of the deceased is divided into six equal portions. Son 1 (the firstborn son)
inherits 2/6 (1/3). Sons 2, 3, 4 and 5 inherit 1/6 each.
(b) The testator is survived by living sons, predeceased sons and no posthumous son:
Deceased Wife
Predeceased Son 2 Son 3 Son 4 Son 5

son 1
16,5% 16,5% 16,5% 16,5%
Son’s son
33%
Figure 13.5
The estate of the deceased is divided into six equal portions. The predeceased son’s son
represents his firstborn father and inherits a double share, therefore 2/6 (or 1/3) of the
estate. Son 2, Son 3, Son 4, and Son 5 each inherit 1/6 of the estate.115
(c) Living sons and posthumous son survive the testator: The extra share of the firstborn is
calculated upon the death of the testator. In the case of a posthumous son, this share is not
affected – his share of primogeniture is fixed. The extra share is set aside for the firstborn
son and the residue of the estate is divided between the firstborn son and other sons, includ-
ing the posthumous son.
Deceased Wife
Son 1 Son 2 Son 3 Son 4 Son 5 Posthumous son 6
30% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14%
Figure 13.6
________________________
115 Horowitz (1973) 384–385.

The estate of the deceased is divided into six equal shares. The six equal shares consist of
the shares of the sons, excluding the posthumous son, but including the double share of the
firstborn son. His share of 1/6 is set aside as his share of primogeniture. The rest of 5/6 is then
divided between all the brothers (Son 1 to Son 6). Son 1 inherits 11/36 (1/6 + 5/36), son 2, 3, 4, 5
and 6 each inherit 5/36.
13.6.3 Position of women

In general the legal position of women and men are equal in Jewish law. Genesis 1:27 reads as
follows:
So God created human beings in his own image. In the image of God he created them; male and female he
116
created them.
Genesis 1:27 is supplemented by other verses such as Exodus 21:1, which reads: “These are the
laws you are to set before them.”117
The word “them” has been interpreted to include both men and women. In spite of the Bibli-
cal references that afford men and women equality in terms of Jewish law, the sources reveal
that a woman’s position is far from equal to that of a man.118 The discriminatory rules were
introduced either in favour of or against women. For example, the disqualification of women as
witnesses was initially introduced to protect women. On the other hand, the rule that permits
men to have more than one wife and women only one husband was against women. Other
discriminations against women were introduced in terms of the law of succession.
The property of a married woman may consist of three main categories, namely:119
(a) M’lug: This is private property that belongs to the wife.120 At first, she had full freedom to
dispose of her own property and to deal with it without her husband’s consent. However,
various restrictions were developed due to the fact that a husband is the sole heir to a wom-
an’s estate, and the husband was afforded a right to usufruct on the property of his wife.121
Property in this category includes property the wife obtained before her marriage, dowry
(nedunyah)122 that has not been recorded in the ketubbah, wedding gifts from the husband
(not recorded in the ketubbah), property acquired through inheritance after the marriage,
damages recovered from a third party (excluding the husband);
(b) Côn Barzel (guaranteed property): This is property that the wife has brought into the
marriage or that the husband has set aside for his wife. The husband has accepted responsi-
bility for the amount reflected in the ketubbah and he is responsible for its full monetary
value, regardless of whether he loses it or not. Property in this category includes the nedun-
yah that has been recorded in the ketubbah; and 123
(c) Personal property: This is property of the wife over which the husband has no control or
in which he has no interest. Property in this category includes gifts from the husband during
________________________
116 Own emphasis.

117 Own emphasis.
118 Cohn (1984) 167–177.
119 Katz (1960) 121–123, 126–127. The respective proprietary rights of the spouses could be varied by means
of a contract between the parties.
120 Epstein (1927) 107.
121 Epstein (1927) 108–120.
122 It is customary for the father of a bride to give dowry to his daughter at her marriage. In later writings, the
word used for dowry is nedunyah. See Epstein (1927) 89.
123 The husband is responsible for the full monetary value of the dowry valuated in the ketubbah. He is entitled
to any profit accruing to such property. Katz (1960) 122, 136–137.
marriage,124 gifts from third parties with the condition that her husband must have no rights
on the property and that she can do as she pleases with the gift, damages paid by the
husband.125
It is the duty of a Jewish wife to do certain handiwork.126 The proceeds of her handiwork belong
to her husband. An exception to this rule is if the wife excuses her husband from maintaining
her. In such a case, she would be entitled to keep the proceeds of her handiwork. A woman who
earns an income in the labour force is also entitled to keep the income she earns. However, any
property found by a woman belongs to her husband.127
In terms of the classic law of succession, the husband inherited the whole of his wife’s estate
when she dies.128 Due to the unjust results of this rule, the position was changed during later
years.129 One of the first changes was where the wife died leaving sons and a husband. In such a
case, the sons of the deceased mother were entitled to receive the value of their mother’s ketubbah
from their father’s estate after he died.130 Other changes followed. In some communities, the
sons of the deceased wife, or her relatives from her father’s side, shared her nedunyah131 with
her husband.132 In other communities the nedunyah had to be returned to the sons of the
deceased mother, or to her relatives from her father’s side.133 A predeceased husband was not
represented by his beneficiaries. In such a case, the widow’s estate would devolve upon her
beneficiaries who are traced through her father’s family.134
The wife’s estate consists of the private property of the widow. It may be property that she
acquired by way of gifts, bequests and res nullius she has found. However, any income she
derives from labour or handiwork belongs to the beneficiaries who are supposed to support her.135
Notwithstanding her important role in the family,136 the wife of a testator does not inherit
from her husband, nor does she inherit from her sons.137 Widows are, however, maintained by
the estate of the testator.138 A lien is created against the estate in favour of the widow of the
deceased. A portion of the estate that is sufficient to support the widow of the deceased until her
________________________
124 She may, however, not dispose of the gifts during their marriage, and upon her death her husband inherits
them. Katz (1960) 125.
125 Katz (1960) 107, 125.
126 For example, baking, washing, cooking, attending children, cleaning and spinning wool.
127 Katz (1960) 97–105.
128 Elman (1958) 81; Elon vol II (1994) 573; Chigier (1985) Jewish Law Annual 45; Cohn (1984) 173; Shilo
“Succession” in Elon (ed) (1975) 447; Berkovits (1990) 23.
129 The argument was that the father of a bride provides for the bulk of a wife’s estate and therefore it would be
more just if her estate is to be returned to her father’s family. See Horowitz (1973) 387; Shilo “Succession”
in Elon (ed) (1975) 447.
130 Elman (1958) 81–82. Also see Shilo “Succession” in Elon (ed) (1975) 448; Bulka (1986) 24–25.
131 Nedunyha refers to the grant (dowry) that a father makes towards his daughter’s marriage. The grant was
considered to be a gift to his daughter. During their marriage the husband was allowed to use it, but upon
the dissolution of the marriage he had to return it. It is customary to refer to the nedunyah in the ketubbah
deed. Chigier (1985) Jewish Law Annual 48–49; Schereschewsky “Dowry” in Elon (ed) (1975) 390–391.
132 Chigier (1985) Jewish Law Annual 45; Shilo “Succession” in Elon (ed) (1975) 448.
133 Chigier (1985) Jewish Law Annual 45; Shilo “Succession” in Elon (ed) (1975) 448. This rule was enacted
to prevent the half-brothers of the sons of a deceased wife involved in a polygamous relationship to share in
the property of their mother. See Elon vol II (1994) 576.
134 Elman (1958) 82.
135 Horowitz (1973) 391.
136 The focus of traditional Jewish life is the family, with the woman as the creator and guardian of the home. It
is the primary task of a mother to teach the principles of Jewish law to her children. See Meiselman (1978)
16–17.
137 Shilo “Succession” in Elon (ed) (1975) 446, 448; Elon vol II (1994) 573; Cohn (1984) 173; Epstein (1927)
175; Genesis 15:3.
138 Shilo “Succession” in Elon (ed) (1975) 449; Elon vol II (1994) 573.
death is set aside for her maintenance. The surviving wife has the option between a lump-sum
settlement and continuing support from the estate of the deceased. Her right to be maintained by
the estate of the deceased ceases when she chooses payment of the lump sum, or when she
remarries.139 Only after a widow’s needs have been satisfied, will the remainder of his estate
devolve according to the rules of succession.140
In addition to maintenance, the widow enjoys another right, namely the right to her ketubbah.
A widow’s right to maintenance and her right to ketubbah upon the death of her husband do not
run concurrently. A claim for ketubbah cancels a widow’s right to claim maintenance from her
husband’s estate. However, a claim for maintenance does not cancel her claim for ketubbah.141
There seems to be a difference of opinion as to whether a widow has the option to choose
between maintenance and ketubbah. The position varies according to the custom of each
community.142
A testator may leave his entire estate to his wife. It is, however, such a deeply rooted principle
that a widow should not inherit, that the will was to be interpreted that the widow must take the
estate as executor to administer the estate on behalf of the beneficiaries. If the intention of the
testator clearly indicates that she should be a beneficiary and not the executor of the estate, she
would lose her claim to her ketubbah.143
In addition to a right to maintenance and ketubbah, a widow also has the right of occupation
of the family home.144 Her right to occupy the family home is independent of her claim to
maintenance or ketubbah. She may even claim the home from a third party to whom it was sold
by the other beneficiaries of the deceased.145
The mother of the deceased is excluded as a beneficiary. She does not inherit from her
deceased son. The father of the deceased, however, inherits from the latter if he dies without
any descendants. It seems, therefore, that the mother’s position is unequal to that of her male
counterpart.
Succession in Jewish law is based historically on the idea of tribal ownership of land. Heirs
are, therefore, those who must take the place of the deceased in the tribe. Since daughters had no
“tribal personality”, they did not inherit from a deceased. Before marriage, their fathers owned
them, and, after marriage, their husbands owned them.146 During Biblical times, the position of
daughters changed somewhat. As already stated, daughters of a deceased inherited only if a
deceased had no surviving sons.147 They were, however, also entitled to be maintained by the
estate of the deceased until they reach maturity or marry, upon which date they receive a lump sum
from the estate.148 Married daughters receive no maintenance from the estate of the deceased.149
________________________
139 Meiselman (1978) 84. The surviving wife has the right to sell property from the estate and to claim property
from certain third parties. See Horowitz (1973) 390–391.
140 Meiselman (1978) 84; Horowitz (1973) 379, 389–392.
141 Cohn (1984) 173.
143 Cohn (1984) 174.
144 That is the house where she and her husband lived together. Chigier (1985) Jewish Law Annual 51;
Meiselman (1978) 84, 88.
146 Epstein (1927) 121, 175.
147 Also see Goitein (1980) Jewish Law Annual 76; Cohn (1984) 173; Shilo “Succession” in Elon (ed) (1975)
450; Elon vol II (1994) 574–575; Meiselman (1978) 88; Epstein (1927) 121; Numbers 27:8.
148 The daughters receive a “lien” on the property of the deceased together with the widow. Meiselman (1978)
84, 88.
149 Meiselman (1978) 90; Horowitz (1973) 392; Elman (1958) 83; Cohn (1984) 174; Shilo “Succession” in
Elon (ed) (1975) 450.
The unmarried daughters of the deceased are also entitled to nedunyah estimated in accordance
with their status and the wealth of their deceased father. If the exact amount to be paid cannot be
determined, it is fixed at 1/10 of the estate of the deceased. The nedunyah of the daughters must
be paid before the shares of the rest of the beneficiaries are determined.150
As may initially appear, the effect of treating the wife and daughters as preferential creditors
of the estate is more favourable to them. Although they do not share equally as beneficiaries in a
very large estate, they do benefit if an estate is very small. In such a case, the wife and daughters
are provided for and the sons are the ones who have to go out to earn a living. It is assumed that
a daughter must be supported, but that a son is in a better position to support himself. Further-
more, the daughters are considered to be creditors rather than beneficiaries of the estate. Their
support is guaranteed before the estate is dissolved between the creditors and other beneficiaries
of the estate.151
The sisters of the deceased are beneficiaries if there are no beneficiaries from the first four
categories, namely the sons, daughters, father and brothers of the deceased. The granddaughter
can be either the daughter of a son or the daughter of a daughter of the deceased. If she is a
daughter of a son, she inherits by means of representation if her father is predeceased. If she is a
daughter of a daughter, she inherits by means of representation if her mother is deceased. The
grandmother of the deceased is excluded from inheritance. On the other hand, the grandfather of
the deceased inherits from the deceased if there are no beneficiaries from the first five catego-
ries, namely the sons, daughters, father, brothers or sisters. It seems, therefore, that the position
of sisters, daughters of a son and grandmothers are unequal to those of their male counterparts.
13.6.4 Distinction between the Jewish and the South African laws of succession
The South African law does not recognise the Jewish law of succession. If a South African Jew
dies, the deceased estate will devolve in terms of the South African law of succession. The South
African law of succession differs substantially from the Jewish law of succession. The major
points of difference may be summarised as follows:
(a) In South Africa, there has been a long debate regarding the ownership of the estate of the
deceased after his or her death.152 The Jewish law of succession has no such problems. In
Jewish law, the ownership vests in the beneficiary. Upon the death of the testator, the own-
ership terminates immediately and passes automatically to the beneficiaries through the
operation of law. There is no intervention of an executor as in South African law. The
implication in the Jewish law of succession is that the beneficiaries do not have the option
to adiate or repudiate their inheritance. The reason for this is that in Jewish law, a person
cannot waive something that already belongs to him or her. In South African law, the bene-
ficiaries always have the choice to adiate or repudiate their inheritance.
(b) Another difference between the Jewish and South African law of succession is the order of
payment. In terms of the Jewish law of succession, the maintenance claims of a surviving
wife and unmarried daughters have preference over the claim of the creditors. In terms of
South African law, the claims of the creditors must be met before the estate can be dis-
tributed among the beneficiaries.
(c) Finally, the rules of Jewish intestate succession differ from the rules of South African
intestate succession.
The proposals of the South African Law Reform Commission could also affect the future
recognition of other legal systems, such as Jewish law. Until Jewish law is recognised, it is
________________________
150 Meiselman (1978) 90–92.

151 Meiselman (1978) 90–93.
152 Meiselman (1978) 90–92.
recommended that Jews who wish their estates to devolve in terms of the Jewish law of succes-
sion, should do either of the following:
(a) include a general clause requesting Jewish law to be applied to the estate of the deceased;
and
(b) create a trust mortis causa that must be administered in terms of the Jewish law of succession.
The surviving spouse is in a position similar to that of the surviving spouse married in terms of
Muslim law or Hindu law. In practice, Jews conclude a civil marriage and a Jewish marriage.
The result is that the common law of South Africa applies to such a marriage. If they conclude
only a Jewish marriage, the marriage will be invalid and the spouses not recognised as legal
spouses. Therefore, it is recommended that the names of the spouses should be included in the
text of the will. Use of the words “husband”, “wife” and “spouse” only may cause serious prob-
lems for a surviving spouse.
13.7 Legal position of women in Jewish law

In a number of respects, the legal position of women is inferior to that of men in highly rigid
forms of Orthodox Judaism. This paragraph examines the legal disabilities of women within the
sphere of worship that have historically pertained to women within these forms of Judaism.153
The chapter on marriage will investigate problems relating to the status of women in this
sphere.154
In Jewish law in general, men are given control over the public domain, and women are kept
within the private domain.155 Women are incompetent to act as witnesses in Jewish tribunals and
regarded as incapable of holding religious leadership positions. Women are exempt from all
positive commandments which are time-bound: these commandments include, for example,
praying three times a day or dwelling in a booth during the feast of Tabernacles.156 It has been
argued that this exemption was designed to free women from burdens that would prevent them
from performing their domestic chores.157 This exemption of women has an impact on the
definition of a prayer community (minyan) in the prevailing rigid form of Orthodox tradition: a
prayer community is defined as comprising 10 adult men. Women are excluded from this defini-
tion, and, even if present, will not count to make up such a community. As a result, women play
no official role in leading the services and are placed behind a separation barrier (mehitza) where
they have no role in the prevailing rigid Orthodoxy. They also do not participate in reading the
Torah and are not called up to say the blessings over the Torah.158
These disabilities faced by women can all be explained against the background that the devel-
opment of much of Jewish law took place at a time when women were not equal to men in legal
status. Since that has changed in most places in the world, so too must Jewish tradition if it is to
give expression to its deepest principles of treating all individuals with respect. Famously, Hillel,
one of the great sages, stated that “the essence of the Torah is to abide by the principle: whatever
is hateful unto you do not do unto others”. The rest he said was commentary.159 If this is so, then
a deep principle such as this mitigates against the clear-cut inequality and insult contained in
many of the practices discussed above.
________________________
153 Also see Katz (1960) LLD thesis UP 1.

154 See 13.8.
155 Berman “The status of women in Halakhic Judaism” in Koltun (ed) (1976) 114–128.
156 Babylonian Talmud Kiddushin 33b.
157 Biale (1995) 13.
158 Babylonian Megillah 23a.
159 Babylonian Shabbat 31a.
As a result, there have been a number of responses to the position of women in Jewish com-
munities. Those who remain Orthodox but are disturbed by this inequality attempt to exploit all
the possibilities that lie within the existing law to remedy this position. Some Orthodox congre-
gations, for example, keep women and men separate but allow women to read from the Torah
and lead portions of the prayer services.160 In this system, however, women still do not count in
a minyan and are not able to play a fully equal role with men in services.
Conservative, Reconstructionist and Reform Judaism have generally adopted a more strongly
egalitarian approach. Most of these congregations have removed the separation between men
and women, and these movements now ordain female rabbis and allow women to play a com-
pletely equal role in the public life of their communities.
More thorough-going feminists are not content with legal equality, but argue that Judaism has
itself developed based upon a male construction of reality. They argue that the history of the
Jewish people has been told as if women were not a part of it. In order to fully include women
within Judaism, there is a need to fundamentally reconceptualise Judaism in such a way that
fully recognises the equality of men and women. This will have theological ramifications for the
concept of God within Jewish tradition, the interpretation of the Torah and the understanding of
what it means to be a Jewish person.161
There are thus a range of responses to the historical inequality of women within Jewish tradi-
tion. Jewish law is currently in a state of development in this regard and it is fair to say that it is
likely that the “gender revolution” will eventually have a major impact on Judaism.
________________________
160 The first such prayer group began in Jerusalem in 2002 and is known as Shirah Hadasha (“new song”).
Similar groups have now begun in the United States. See Greenberg (2004) 258.
161 Plaskow (1990) 3. See the fascinating article by Hellig (2000) Jewish Affairs 38–44.
14
Muslim Personal Law
Page
14.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 347
14.2 Muslim family law in South Africa ........................................................................ 348
14.2.1 Historical context ...................................................................................... 348
14.2.2 Muslim family law in a democratic South Africa ..................................... 351
14.2.2.1 Recognition of a Muslim marriage contract............................. 351
14.2.2.2 Quasi recognition of mahr........................................................ 353
14.2.2.3 Recognition of Islamic law duty of support ............................. 354
14.2.2.4 Recognition of a Muslim spouse in the case of succession ..... 358
14.2.2.5 Calling for the recognition and regulation of Muslim
marriages .................................................................................. 360
14.3 Muslim divorce ....................................................................................................... 363
14.3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 363
14.3.2 TalƗq .......................................................................................................... 366
14.3.3 Forms of divorce ....................................................................................... 371
14.3.4 Some comments ........................................................................................ 373
14.3.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................. 374
14.4 Muslim inheritance (mirƗth)........................................................................................ 374
14.4.1 Sunni law of intestate succession .............................................................. 375
14.4.1.1 Basic principles ........................................................................ 375
14.4.1.2 Classes of heirs ......................................................................... 377
14.4.1.2.1 Sharers ................................................................. 378
14.4.1.2.2 Residuaries ........................................................... 379
14.4.1.2.3 Distant kindred (dhawi ul-arham) ....................... 380
14.4.2 Distinction between Muslim and South African laws of inheritance ....... 380
345
Chapter 14: Muslim Personal Law 347
14.1 Introduction
This chapter deals with the manner in which Muslim personal law is addressed in South Africa.
Muslim personal law is a private law system comprising Muslim family law and Muslim inher-
itance, which are underpinned by the tenets of Islamic law.
1
Islamic law (or Shari’ah) is one of the major non-Western legal systems of the modern world. It is by no
means a single unified system of law, and may be compared with English common law because it also con-
sists of a set of common principles and sources. However, the interpretation and application of these princi-
2
ples and sources differ from country to country and person to person.
Muslim family law encompasses Muslim marriage and divorce, including parental rights and
responsibilities relating to minor children born of a Muslim marriage.3 Muslim inheritance refers
to the regulation of a deceased person’s estate according to Islamic law.4
The sources of Islamic law may be divided into two main categories, namely, primary and secondary
sources. The two primary sources of Islamic law are the Qur’Ɨn and the Sunnah. The secondary sources are
5
ijmƗ and qiyƗs. In addition, there are several subsidiary sources of Islamic law.
Qur’Ɨn: Most Muslims regard the Qur’Ɨn as the final word of Allah and thus divine law in contrast to man-
made law. As such, they consider the Qur’Ɨn as the most important source of law. It contains specific rul-
ings on matters such as marriage, divorce and inheritance, the larger part of the Qur’Ɨn relating to broad and
general principles on most major topics of Islamic law.
Sunnah: The Sunnah refers to the teachings, sayings and practices of the Prophet Muhammad. Literally
speaking, it means a manner of acting, a rule of conduct or a mode of life. The Sunnah may be consulted to
reiterate or corroborate a Qur’Ɨnic rule; to explain Qur’Ɨnic text; or to determine a matter for which the
Qur’Ɨn does not supply an answer.
6
IjmƗ: When a number of persons who are learned in Islamic law reach consensus on a legal question, their
opinion is binding and enforceable in law. IjmƗ (consensus) literally means “getting together” and signifies
the unanimous convergence of the views of reputable jurists (fuqaha, singular fƗqih) of a given era on any
point of law, hence consensus. If one cannot find a ruling either in the Qur’Ɨn or from the Sunnah pertaining
to a particular issue, then one turns to the third source, the general consensus or ijmƗ among Muslim schol-
ars/jurists, in search of a legal rule applicable to the situation. IjmƗ may not be in conflict with the Qur’Ɨn or
Sunnah.
continued
________________________
1 Shari’ah literally means “the right path to follow”. See Rautenbach (2001) 22.
2 Buskens (1999) 32; Edge (ed) (1966) xv; El Alami and Hinchcliffe (1996); Rautenbach (2001) 21.
3 See discussion at 14.9 of the previous edition, where the law of persons is discussed. Also see Pearl and
Menski (1998) 29; Moosa (1998) SALJ 479; Amien (2014) 192–218, 192.
4 See discussion at 14.4.
5 See discussion by Rautenbach (2001) 24–25 and the sources she refers to.
6 They include reputable jurists (fuqaha, singular fƗqih).
QiyƗs: If all three of the abovementioned sources fail to provide a solution to a particular legal problem,
jurists must strive, through reasoning and deep study, to derive an appropriate rule by analogy and logical
inference. Such resort to reasoning is known as qiyƗs, and the jurist is called a mujtahid. A mujtahid is a
7
person capable of exertion or initiative in thought about the law.
8 9
Other sources: Other modern sources that developed over the years include custom, court decisions, and
10
legislation.
The chapter commences with a consideration of the legal status of Muslim personal law in South
Africa with reference to case law and legislation, foregrounded by some historical context. The
first part of the chapter focuses on Muslim family law and the second part concentrates on
Muslim inheritance.
14.2 Muslim family law in South Africa

14.2.1 Historical context
Muslims entered South Africa during the colonial and apartheid eras in the 17th and 18th centu-
ries. They were initially brought into the country as slaves, political exiles and prisoners from
various parts of South East Asia.11 Thereafter, they were imported as indentured labourers
from India.12 Until the late 20th century, Muslims also came to South Africa as traders
and migrant workers from India, Pakistan and various parts of Africa.13 Today, the Muslim
population comprises 1,9% of a total population of 54 432 000.14 They are concentrated in four
of the country’s nine provinces; namely, the Western Cape, Eastern Cape, Kwazulu-Natal and
Gauteng. The majority of Muslims in South Africa follow the Sunni tradition.15
Islam has two main legal traditions of which Sunni is one and Shi’i the other. Within the Sunni tradition,
there are four main legal schools of thought (madhƗhib) namely, HanafƯ, ShƗfi’Ư, MƗliki and Hanbali.
Within the Shi’i tradition, the main legal school of thought (madhhab) is Ja’fari, followed by among others,
the Zaydi and Ismai’iliyah schools of thought. In South Africa, the majority of Muslims adhere to the HanafƯ
school of thought and are primarily situated in Gauteng, Kwazulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape. Followers of
the ShƗfi’Ư school of thought are located mainly within the Western Cape. To a lesser extent, there are also
16
followers of the Sunni MƗliki and Shi’i Ja’fari schools of thought.
Muslim family law is regulated in South Africa by the ulamƗ, which comprise established
bodies of Muslim theologians who decide how Islamic law should be interpreted and applied
________________________
7On the concept of ijtihƗd, see further Goolam (2006) Michigan State Law Review 1444–1467.
8The validity of custom depends on the ijma and will only be recognised if there is consensus about its
validity.
9 Though court decisions are not an official source of Islamic law, they have had an impact on the develop-
ment of Islamic law.
10 Legislation was not a source in classic Islamic law. In some countries, legislation has been promulgated to
regulate certain aspects of Islamic law. For example, in India, the Muslim Personal Law (Shariat)
Application Act 26 of 1937, the Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act 8 of 1939 and the Mussalman Wakf
Validating Acts 6 of 1913 were promulgated to regulate aspects of Islamic law.
11 Moosa (1998) Stell LR 199.
12 Moosa (1996) Yearbook of Islamic and Middle Eastern Law 131.
13 Moosa (1996) Yearbook of Islamic and Middle Eastern Law 131; S-H Hacq Nadvi, “Towards the Recogni-
tion of Islamic Personal Law” in Sanders (ed) (1990) 15.
14 General Household Survey 2015, Statistics South Africa, 7, 27–28. Available online at http://www.
statssa.gov.za/publications/P0318/P03182015.pdf (accessed 28 September 2018).
15 Moosa (1996) Yearbook of Islamic and Middle Eastern Law 131.
16 Moosa (1996) Yearbook of Islamic and Middle Eastern Law 131 and 143.
within the South African Muslim communities. The ulamƗ set up jamiats throughout South
Africa to administer the application of Muslim family law, especially in those provinces where
Muslims are predominantly situated. For instance, the Muslim Judicial Council17 is based in the
Western Cape, the Jamiatul Ulama18 in Gauteng and KwaZulu-Natal and the Majlisul Ulama19
in the Eastern Cape. In 1994, the United Ulama Council of South Africa (UUCSA) was created
as an umbrella structure to bring together the main Muslim theological formations in South
Africa.20 The jamiats operate as quasi-judicial bodies, which adjudicate Muslim-related disputes
including family law.21 Since Muslim family law operates within the non-state sphere in South
Africa, the decisions of the jamiats are legally unenforceable. However, “they carry substantial
moral weight with members of the [South African Muslim] communities” and are accordingly
usually followed within those communities.22
In particular, due to the potentially polygynous nature of Muslim marriages, the South African
colonial and apartheid era courts refused to afford legal recognition to Muslim marriages. The
judiciary at that time adopted the view that only marriages that adhered to Christian norms were
worthy of legal recognition.23 For instance, in 1860, the Cape Supreme Court in Bronn v Frits
Bronn’s Executors24 held:
[M]arriage is a condition Divine in its institution . . . and it is only by the development of Christianity
that the sacred and mysterious union has been clearly revealed to mankind, and has enjoined a strict
observance of its requirements, and one of the first of these requirements is, amongst all Christian nations
that polygamy is unlawful, and that marriage is only good when contracted with a man who is not already
married to another woman . . . I trust that in a short time . . . the sacred institution of marriage will be
brought by some well devised law within the reach of the people of this Colony who have not yet embraced
the greater blessings which they would obtain by Christian marriage, by which I mean of course to one wife,
which, among the heathen ought to be sanctioned and encouraged by law . . . If what [the Mohammedans]
call marriage is not what we call marriage, in its essential requirements, but what the jurisprudence of even
Christian Rome under the Emperors, up to the time of Leo the Philosopher, would call a recognised concu-
binage — we cannot, because of the ambiguity of the expression, make that marriage which is a wholly
different relation.
The above judicial attitude to Muslim marriages was confirmed several years later, in 1917, by
the Appellate Division in Seedat’s Executors v The Master (Natal),25 when the court found that:
Polygamy vitally affects the nature of the most important relationship into which human beings can enter. It
is reprobated by the majority of civilized peoples, on grounds of morality and religion, and the courts of a
country which forbids it are not justified in recognising a polygamous union as a valid marriage.
The colonial era rule entrenching the illegality of Muslim marriages was re-confirmed in 1983
by the apartheid-era Appellate Division in Ismail v Ismail26 where Trengove JA stated:
I have come to the conclusion that we would not be justified in deviating from the long line of decisions in
which our courts have consistently refused, on grounds of public policy, to recognise, or to give effect to the
consequences of, polygamous unions contracted in South Africa, statutory exceptions apart. The concept of
marriage as a monogamous union is firmly entrenched in our society and the recognition of polygamy
would, undoubtedly, tend to prejudice or undermine the status of marriage as we know it . . . [T]he [Muslim]
customs and the [Muslim marriage] contract . . . are contrary to public policy and are, consequently, unen-
forceable. They may equally well be regarded as being contra bonos mores.
________________________
17 See https://mjc.org.za/ (accessed 3 October 2018).

18 See https://jamiat.org.za/; https://www.thejamiat.co.za/ (accessed 3 October 2018).
19 See http://www.themajlis.info/majlisul-ulama (accessed 3 October 2018).
20 UUCSA website: http://www.muslim.co.za/organisations/uucsa (accessed 28 September 2018).
21 Cachalia (1993) THRHR 396, 398. Moosa (1996) Yearbook of Islamic and Middle Eastern Law 134.
22 Amien (2006) Human Rights Quarterly 731–732.
23 Amien (2006) Human Rights Quarterly 733.
24 (1860) 3 Searle 313 318, 320– 321.
25 1917 AD 302 307– 308.
26 1983 (1) SA 1006 (AD) 1024D– F.
The effect of the above judgments reinforced the common law definition of marriage in South
Africa as “the union of one man and one woman to the exclusion while it lasts of all others”.27
Therefore only de jure monogamous and heterosexual marriages were considered valid and
lawful.
Non-recognition of Muslim marriages negatively affects women and men in Muslim marri-
ages as well as children born of Muslim marriages. For example, when parties to civil marriages
divorce, the judiciary exercises “automatic court oversight” over any children born of those
marriages to ensure that their best interests are protected. In contrast, no automatic court over-
sight applies in respect of children born of Muslim marriages when the latter dissolves through
Muslim divorce.28
Furthermore, parties married by Muslim rites are unable to access all civil law benefits that
parties in civil marriages are able to enjoy, such as being able to share in each other’s matrimo-
nial estates.29
Spouses in Muslim marriages are unable to enforce Islamic law rights and obligations arising
from the Muslim marriage.30 For instance, in Ismail v Ismail31 referred to above, the parties had
been married to each other and divorced from each other by Muslim rites. The ex-wife
approached the civil court and asked the Court to enforce the terms and customs arising from her
Muslim marriage contract. Under Islamic law, a Muslim marriage is considered a contract.32 On
the basis of her Muslim marriage contract, the ex-wife claimed payment of arrears spousal
maintenance (nafaqah) for a period of two years and 10 months of the Muslim marriage, spousal
nafaqah for the three-month waiting period (iddah)33 following a Muslim divorce, delivery of
her deferred dowry (mahr)34 and delivery of or payment of the value of two sets of gold jewel-
lery that her ex-husband had given to her and on her request had kept for safe-keeping.35 Not
only did the Court not recognise the parties’ Muslim marriage as a legally valid marriage due to
its potentially polygynous nature, it also refused to recognise any customs and contract arising
from the Muslim marriage as enforceable.36 Consequently, the Court refused to grant the first
three of the ex-wife’s claims because those arose directly from the Muslim contract of mar-
riage.37 The Court only granted her claim for the gold jewellery as those were found to have
arisen from a contract of deposit that was not considered to be associated with the Muslim
marriage contract.38
________________________
27 Seedat’s Executors v The Master (Natal) 1917 AD 302, 309; Kader v Kader 1972 (3) SA 203 (RAD) 206H;
Ismail v Ismail 1983 (1) SA 1006 (AD) 1019H.
28 Women’s Legal Centre Trust v President of the Republic of South Africa [2018] ZAWCHC 109 (31 August
2018) para 60.
31 1983 (1) SA 1006 (AD) 1024D–F.
32 Fyzee (1949) 87.
33 Iddah is the waiting period that a woman is expected to observe following the dissolution of her marriage
by divorce or death. In the case of divorce, the period is three months and in the case of death, it is four
months and 10 days. If the ex-wife or widow is pregnant, the iddah extends until the birth of the child. Dur-
ing iddah, a woman is expected to be house-bound, she is not permitted to engage in a romantic relationship
with another man and she may not re-marry during this period. Qur’Ɨn 33:49, 2:228, 2:234, 65:4, 65:1. Ibn
Rushd (1996) 54– 55, 106, 115– 116; Sabiq (undated) 196.
34 Mahr is anything of value permitted by Islamic law that is agreed upon between the parties and constitutes a
term of the Muslim marriage contract. It is given to the wife by the husband and forms part of her estate.
Qur’Ɨn 4:4; Schacht (1964) 167; Doi (1984) 158– 166.
35 Ismail v Ismail 1983 (1) SA 1006 (AD) 1017A– D.
36 At 1024D– E, 1025B, D, G.
37 At 1027C.
38 At 1026H, 1027A– C.
After the democratic elections in 1994, the South African judiciary adopted a vastly different
approach to Muslim marriages, based on the constitutional values of equality, dignity and
freedom.39 The post-1994 judgments are discussed in the next section.
14.2.2 Muslim family law in a democratic South Africa

From 1997 to date, there has been a litany of cases in which the South African judiciary has
come to the aid of Muslim women who were negatively affected by the non-recognition of their
Muslim marriages. At the same time, the post-1994 courts have not been willing to give whole-
sale legal recognition to Muslim marriages on the basis that such recognition is best left to the
legislature to undertake.40 The main cases that have dealt with the effects of non-recognition of
Muslim marriages thus far include: Ryland v Edros,41 Arendse v Arendse,42 Amod v Multilateral
Motor Vehicle Accidents Fund,43 Khan v Khan,44 Cassim v Cassim,45 Jamalodien v Moola,46
Mahomed v Mahomed,47 Hoosein v Dangor,48 Daniels v Campbell,49 Hassam v Jacobs,50 Moosa
v Harnaker51 and Women’s Legal Centre Trust v President of the Republic of South Africa.52 In
most of the aforementioned cases, the parties had been married to each other by Muslim rites only.
The cases and their implications for Muslim marriages are discussed below.53
14.2.2.1 Recognition of a Muslim marriage contract
In terms of Islamic law, marriage is a civil contract between a man and a woman. The contract is considered
54
integral to the marriage and outlines the rights and responsibilities between the parties. The marriage
contract must comply with certain formalities, such as offer and acceptance, legal capacity of the parties,
55
two competent witnesses (Sunni law), and the absence of marriage impediments.
________________________

40 For example, Amod v Multilateral Motor Vehicle Accidents Fund 1999 (4) SA 1319 (SCA) para 28.
41 1997 (2) SA 690 (C).
42 2013 (3) SA 347 (WCC).
43 1999 (4) SA 1319 (SCA).
44 2005 (2) SA 272 (T).
45 (TPD) (Unreported case number 3954/06 delivered on 15 December 2006).
46 (NPD) (Unreported case number 1835/06).
47 [2009] JOL 23733 (ECP).
48 [2010] 2 All SA 55 (WCC).
49 2004 (5) SA 331 (CC).
50 Hassam v Jacobs [2008] 4 All SA 350 (C) and Hassam v Jacobs 2009 (5) SA 572 (CC).
51 2017 (6) SA 425 (WCC).
52 [2018] ZAWCHC 109 (31 August 2018).
53 These cases are also discussed in: Amien in Fielder and Topidi (eds) (2016) 53–77; Amien (2015) 118–126;
Amien in Eekelaar and George (eds) (2014) 26–44; Amien (2006) Human Rights Quarterly 729–754;
Amien and Leatt (2014) Maryland Journal of International Law 501–547; Church (1997) THRHR
292–295; Denson, Mukheibir and Carnelly (2018) Obiter 152–172; Heaton in Bill of Rights Compendium
(2006); Maithufi (1997) THRHR 695–699; Moosa (1999) De Rebus 32–37; Moosa (1998) SALJ (1998)
479–492; Pienaar (2006) Stell LR 314–332; Sloth-Nielsen and Van Heerden (2003) International Journal of
Law, Policy and the Family 121–146; Rautenbach (2004) PER/PELJ 1–34; Rautenbach (2003) Koers
121–152. Also see ch 13 of this publication, and the previous edition where some of these cases were sum-
marised in ch 4, at 4.4.2.
54 Hidayatullah and Hidayatullah (1999) 223; Kader (1998) 25; Mofokeng (2009) 140–142; Feroz (1959) 27. A
detailed discussion of Muslim marriage law is available in the previous edition of this book in ch 14, at 14.10.
55 See Feroz (1959) 3–37 for a discussion of the requirements and impediments of a marriage. Impediments
include: (a) a man may not marry more than four wives; (b) a man may not marry a non-Muslim woman;
(c) blood relationships that prevent a man from marrying certain blood relatives; (d) a man may not marry
certain females related to him by marriage; and (e) a man is forbidden to marry his foster relations; and (f) a
woman may not marry during the idda period.
Subsequent to the Ismail case, the issue regarding the validity of a Muslim marriage contract
arose again during the post-apartheid era in the case of Ryland v Edros. In this case, the parties
had been married to each other in a de facto monogamous Muslim marriage.56 They had lived in
the Western Cape and had both adhered to the ShƗfi’Ư madhhab, which as mentioned previously,
is predominant in the Western Cape Province.57 The ex-husband had terminated the marriage
through talƗq.58 During the course of the matter, the ex-wife claimed enforcement of the terms
of the Muslim marriage contract, which she argued included spousal nafaqah,59 a consolatory
gift on the basis that her ex-husband had unjustifiably terminated their marriage (mut’ah) and an
equitable share in the growth of his estate.60 The Cape High Court (as it then was) decided that
the position postulated in the apartheid era Ismail case was no longer applicable within a consti-
tutional ethos of a democratic South Africa.61 The court held that in the Ismail case, the pre-
sumed views of only one section of South Africa’s plural society had been taken into account,62
which is contrary to the multicultural nature of South Africa.63 The court found this to be:
quite inimical to all the values of the new South Africa for one group to impose its values on another and
that the courts should only brand a contract as offensive to public policy if it is offensive to those values
which are shared by the community at large, by all right-thinking people in the community and not only by
64
one section of it.
The court therefore redefined the concept of public policy in South Africa to make it consistent
with the underlying constitutional values of “equality, . . . tolerance of diversity and the recog-
nition of the plural nature of [South Africa].”65 Accordingly, the court found that a Muslim
marriage contract is not contrary to public policy and that proven terms and customs arising
from the contract could be enforceable.66 The court emphasised that its decision was in respect
of de facto monogamous Muslim marriages only.67
The court accepted that the Muslim marriage contract in this case was governed by the rules
of the ShƗfi’Ư school of thought as practiced within the Western Cape Muslim community.68 On
the basis of evidence placed before it, the court granted the ex-wife’s claim for spousal nafaqah
and a consolatory gift.69 The ex-wife’s claim for spousal nafaqah was subjected to extinctive
prescription, hence she was only permitted to be paid maintenance for the three-month iddah
period and the last three years of the marriage (not the full duration of the marriage as she had
initially claimed).70 Since the ex-wife could not provide evidence to demonstrate that a practice
had existed within the Western Cape ShƗfi’Ư community for a wife to share equitably in the
growth of her husband’s estate, she was also not successful in her claim for an equitable share in
the growth of her ex-husband’s estate.71
________________________
56 Ryland v Edros 1997 (2) SA 690 (C) at 696B– C.

57 At 698H– I; 701C– D.
58 At 701F– G. There are various forms of Muslim divorce available to men and women who are married to
each other by Muslim rites. See discussion at 14.3.
59 Islamic law places a unilateral obligation on men to provide reasonable maintenance for their wives during
the subsistence of the marriage and during the iddah period. Qur’Ɨn 4:34. Ibn Rushd (1996) 63, 114.
60 Ryland v Edros 1997 (2) SA 690 (C) at 696F– J.
61 At 711B– C.
62 At 707G– I.
63 Heaton (2006) 3C– 20; Rautenbach (2004) PER/PELJ 8–9; Rautenbach (2003) Koers 138.
64 Ryland v Edros 1997 (2) SA 690 (C) 707F–H.
65 At 708I–J; 709A–B.
66 At 710D–E.
67 At 709C–F.
68 At 711E–F.
69 At 718I–J.
70 At 714E–H.
71 At 717B–D, G–I; 719.
Subsequent to Ryland v Edros, aspects of a Muslim marriage contract such as mahr and the
husband’s Islamic law duty of spousal support surfaced in several cases, notably in Arendse v
Arendse, Amod v Multilateral Motor Vehicle Accidents Fund, Cassim v Cassim, Jamalodien v
Moola, Mahomed v Mahomed and Hoosein v Dangor. These cases are discussed in greater detail
in the following sections.
14.2.2.2 Quasi-recognition of mahr

The significance of mahr, which is a vital component of the Muslim marriage contract, was
identified in the case of Arendse v Arendse. In this case, the ex-wife, an unemployed single
mother who was diagnosed with a bipolar mood disorder, sought to review and set aside an
eviction order obtained by her ex-husband in the Goodwood Magistrate’s Court in terms of the
Prevention of Illegal Eviction from and Unlawful Occupation of Land Act (PIE).72 The ex-wife
also sought a declaration that the eviction order infringed her section 26 constitutional right to
have access to adequate housing.73
The parties had been married to each other by Muslim rites and the mahr agreed to was a
house in favour of the ex-wife. The parties also registered a marriage in community of property
in terms of the Marriage Act.74 Thereafter, the parties purchased their first property. The ex-wife
had paid the deposit on that house and the ex-husband had undertaken to pay the mortgage
instalments.75 The parties subsequently obtained a civil divorce. According to the divorce order,
the ex-wife was among others, awarded custody of the three children and the ex-husband’s
undivided share in the first property was to be transferred to the ex-wife, after which she would
be responsible for further mortgage payments on the house.76 About a year later, the ex-husband
purchased a second property, which was registered in his name. However, he continued to live
on the first property with his ex-wife and their three children while they looked for a purchaser
for the first property. The ex-wife alleged that the intention had been that the second property
would become her mahr; an allegation denied by her ex-husband. A few months later, the parties
obtained a Muslim divorce even though the ex-husband continued living on the first property
with his ex-wife and their three children.77 When the first property was sold, the parties and their
three children moved onto the second property where the ex-wife and the children occupied the
front section of the property and the ex-husband lived in a separate building at the back of
the property.78 Several years later, the ex-wife approached the Muslim Judicial Council (MJC)
for assistance in obtaining her mahr. The MJC issued a letter confirming that the mahr was a
house and that the ex-husband had not delivered the mahr to his ex-wife.79 Not too long after,
the ex-husband issued eviction proceedings against his ex-wife on the basis that she had been
allowed to stay on his premises provided that she paid rent as well as other expenses, which the
ex-husband alleged she had failed to do.80 The ex-husband thus withdrew his consent for his
ex-wife to continue living on the second property, at which point, in his view, she had become
an unlawful occupant.81 The ex-wife denied that there had been any rental agreement between
________________________
72 Act 19 of 1998. Arendse v Arendse 2013 (3) SA 347 (WCC) paras 1 and 8.
73 Arendse v Arendse 2013 (3) SA 347 (WCC) para 1.
74 Paragraph 9.
75 Paragraph 10.
76 Paragraph 11.
77 Paragraph 13.
78 Paragraph 14.
79 Paragraph 15.
80 Paragraph 16.
81 Paragraph 16, 23.
them.82 About two years later, the ex-husband married a second time and his second wife moved
in with him at the back of the second property.83
In reviewing the eviction order of the Magistrate’s Court, the Western Cape High Court con-
sidered sections 4(6) and 4(7) of the PIE. Section 4(6) provides:
If an unlawful occupier has occupied the land in question for less than six months at the time when the pro-
ceedings are initiated, the Court may grant an order for eviction if it is of the opinion that it is just and equi-
table to do so after considering all the relevant circumstances, including the rights and needs of the elderly,
children, disabled persons and households headed by women.
Section 4(7) reads:
If an unlawful occupier has occupied the land in question for more than six months at the time when the
proceedings are initiated, a Court may grant an order for eviction if it is of the opinion that it is just and
equitable to do so, after considering all the relevant circumstances including, except where the land is sold in
a sale of execution pursuant to a mortgage, whether land has been made available or can reasonably be made
available by a municipality or other organ of state or another land owner for the relocation of the unlawful
occupier, and including the rights and needs of the elderly, children, disabled persons and households headed
by women.
The High Court concluded that the Magistrate had failed to consider the rights and needs of the
marginalised groups identified in sections 4(6) and 4(7) of PIE, notably the rights and needs of
the children, especially their best interests, and the fact that the ex-wife was a disabled woman
who headed the household; all of whom would have been rendered homeless as a result of the
eviction order.84 In particular, the court found that the Magistrate had not considered whether
suitable alternative accommodation had been made available to them.85 Of significance is the
fact that the court regarded the issue of the mahr, comprising a house, as a relevant circumstance
in determining whether or not it was just and equitable to evict the applicant and the three
children. The court did not accept that the mahr issue had been settled.86 In light of the afore-
mentioned factors, the court held that it was not just and equitable for the order to have been
granted and accordingly set it aside. The court also declared that the eviction order infringed the
applicant’s constitutional right to have access to adequate housing as enunciated in section 26 of
the Constitution.87
Apart from the recognition and enforceability of a Muslim marriage contract and the quasi-
recognition of mahr as indicated in the Rylands and Arendse cases discussed above, the South
African judiciary has also recognised the husband’s Islamic law duty of support. Through this
recognition, the courts in the cases discussed next have brought Muslim spouses, especially
wives, within the ambit of specific legislation, which has enabled Muslim wives to enforce their
rights to spousal maintenance.
14.2.2.3 Recognition of Islamic law duty of support

In the case of Amod v Multilateral Motor Vehicle Accidents Fund,88 a Muslim widow had
claimed compensation from the Multilateral Motor Vehicle Accidents Fund (MMVAF) for loss
of spousal support as a result of her husband having died in a motor vehicle accident that was
caused by the negligent and unlawful driving of a third party. Prior to the death of the deceased,
the deceased and his widow had been married to each other in a de facto monogamous Muslim
________________________
82 Paragraph 19.
83 Paragraph 26.
84 Arendse v Arendse 2013 (3) SA 347 (WCC) at paras 36–37, 41–42.
85 Paragraph 36.
86 Paragraph 44.
87 Paragraph s 49–50.
88 The High Court case was reported as Amod v Multilateral Motor Vehicle Accidents Fund 1997 (12) BCLR
1716 (D), and the Supreme Court of Appeal case was reported as Amod v Multilateral Motor Vehicle Acci-
dents Fund 1999 (4) SA 1319 (SCA).
marriage through which two children were born. The widow based her claim on the Multilateral
Motor Vehicle Accidents Funds Act,89 which entitled a surviving spouse and/or any other
dependant of the deceased in respect of whom the deceased had had a legal duty to support, to
be compensated for the loss of the deceased’s duty of support.90 Although the MMVAF com-
pensated the children born of the marriage, it denied the widow’s claim on the basis that her
Muslim marriage had not been legally valid, thus the MMVAF argued that the deceased’s
unilateral Muslim obligation to nafaqah his wife while he was alive could not be considered
legally valid.91 Accordingly, the MMVAF took the view that the Muslim widow could not be
treated as a surviving spouse for the purpose of the MMVAF Act.92
The matter was first adjudicated in the Durban and Coast Local Division of the High Court (as
it then was).93 The High Court considered itself bound by the Ismail decision and found that the
Muslim marriage between the widow and the deceased had not been legally valid.94 Conse-
quently, the High Court held that no legal duty of support had existed between the parties and
that the MMVAF was not legally liable to compensate the widow.95
The widow appealed the High Court decision to the Supreme Court of Appeal (SCA).96 The
SCA considered the following three requirements that underpin the common law dependant’s
action, upon which the MMVAF Act had been based: a) the deceased must have had a duty to
support the surviving spouse; b) the duty must be legally enforceable; and c) the surviving
spouse’s right to the support must be worthy of legal protection.97 The SCA noted that when
assessing the third requirement namely, whether or not the duty of support is worthy of legal
protection, the boni mores or legal convictions of South African society must be considered. To
this end, the SCA observed:98
The insistence that the [Islamic] duty of support [of a Muslim husband in favour of his Muslim wife] . . . is
not worthy of protection can only be justified on the basis that the only duty of support which the law will
protect in such circumstances is a duty flowing from a marriage solemnized and recognized by one faith or
philosophy to the exclusion of others. This is an untenable basis for the determination of the boni mores of
society. It is inconsistent with the new ethos of tolerance, pluralism and religious freedom which . . . is sub-
stantially different from the ethos which informed the determination of the boni mores of the community
when the cases which decided that ‘potentially polygamous’ marriages which did not accord with the as-
sumptions of the culturally and politically dominant establishment of the time did not deserve the protection
of the law for the purposes of the dependant’s action . . . To the extent to which [the] dicta [in the Ismail
case] are inconsistent with the approach I have articulated in this judgment, I must express my respectful
disagreement with them.
In finding that the boni mores of South Africa must be consistent with the constitutional spirit of
“tolerance, pluralism and religious freedom”, the SCA departed from its predecessor’s view as
expounded in the Ismail case relating to customs and contracts associated with a Muslim mar-
riage. The SCA did not focus its attention on whether or not Muslim marriages per se are legally
________________________
89 93 of 1989.
90 Amod v Multilateral Motor Vehicle Accidents Fund 1997 (12) BCLR 1716 (D) 1719E; 1999 (4) SA 1319
(SCA) paras 3, 10.
91 Amod v Multilateral Motor Vehicle Accidents Fund 1997 (12) BCLR 1716 (D) 1719F. Also see Pienaar
(2006) Stell LR 314, 321.
92 Amod v Multilateral Motor Vehicle Accidents Fund 1997 (12) BCLR 1716 (D) 1719F.
93 Amod v Multilateral Motor Vehicle Accidents Fund 1997 (12) BCLR 1716 (D).
94 Amod v Multilateral Motor Vehicle Accidents Fund 1997 (12) BCLR 1716 (D) 1720C, 1726E.
95 Amod v Multilateral Motor Vehicle Accidents Fund 1997 (12) BCLR 1716 (D) 1726F, 1727A.
96 Amod v Multilateral Motor Vehicle Accidents Fund 1999 (4) SA 1319 (SCA).
97 Amod v Multilateral Motor Vehicle Accidents Fund 1999 (4) SA 1319 (SCA) para 12. The SCA adopted the
approach that had been introduced by Santam Bpk v Henery 1999 (3) SA 421 (SCA) 427H–J, 429C–D,
430D–I.
98 Amod v Multilateral Motor Vehicle Accidents Fund 1999 (4) SA 1319 (SCA) para 12 paras 20–21, 29.
valid. Instead, the SCA concentrated on whether or not the Muslim marriage gave rise to a duty
of support that was worthy of legal recognition.99
After applying the aforementioned three requirements for the common law dependant’s
action, the SCA found that the Muslim marriage between the widow and the deceased had been
contracted according to a major religion; it had involved a public ceremony comprising special
formalities; and the Muslim marriage had given rise to burdensome obligations between the
parties.100 The SCA accordingly found that the husband’s unilateral duty of support, which
emanated from the Muslim marriage contract, was worthy of legal recognition for the purpose of
the dependant’s action and was legally enforceable.101 The MMVAF was thus ordered to com-
pensate the widow for her loss of support as a result of the death of her husband.102 As in the
Ryland case, the SCA in Amod highlighted the fact that its decision was applicable only to de
facto monogamous Muslim marriages.103
However, several years later, in the case of Khan v Khan,104 a husband’s Islamic law duty of
support was also found to be worthy of legal protection in the context of a de facto polygynous
Muslim marriage. The Khan matter dealt with an appeal against the Nelspruit Magistrate’s
Court, which awarded a maintenance order against a Muslim husband in favour of his Muslim
wife while the parties were married to each other in a de facto polygynous Muslim marriage.105
The maintenance award was appealed by the husband to the Transvaal High Court (as it then
was). The High Court had to determine whether or not the Maintenance Act106 applies to parties
in a de facto polygynous Muslim marriage. Section 2(1) of the Maintenance Act makes the
legislation applicable to any person who has a legal duty to maintain another person.107 In
considering whether or not a husband in a de facto polygynous Muslim marriage has a legal duty
to support his polygynous wife,108 the High Court observed:109
The common-law duty of support is a flexible concept that has been developed and extended over time by
our Courts to cover a wide range of relationships such as grandparents vis-à-vis grandchildren, and
vice versa, children to their parents, brothers and sisters to each other, divorcees towards each other, same-
sex partnerships and most recently extending the duty of support of an illegitimate child to its paternal
grandparents . . .
The purpose of family law in general is to protect vulnerable family members and to ensure fairness in dis-
putes that arise at the end of relationships. Polygamous marriages are a type of family and should be pro-
tected by family law. Polygamous marriages are accepted by the tenets of a major faith, ie Islam, and the
marriage between the appellant and the respondent was concluded in accordance with the tenets of such
major faith . . .
Public policy considerations in interpreting legislation have changed with the advent of the Constitution . . .
Our Courts have come to the assistance of spouses in polygamous marriages in the past. In this regard com-
mon-law wives married in accordance with black customary law were assisted pertaining to maintenance,
inheritance and third party claims . . . .
________________________
99 Rautenbach (2003) Koers 144; Pienaar (2006) Stell LR 322; Rautenbach (2003) Fundamina 14.
100 Amod v Multilateral Motor Vehicle Accidents Fund 1999 (4) SA 1319 (SCA) paras 20, 25. Also see Pienaar
(2006) Stell LR 320.
101 Amod v Multilateral Motor Vehicle Accidents Fund 1999 (4) SA 1319 (SCA) paras 14, 15, 20, 25.
Rautenbach (2003) Fundamina 14.
102 Paragraph 32.
103 Paragraph 24. Heaton (2006) 3C–21. Pienaar (2006) Stell LR 329.
104 2005 (2) SA 272 (T) (Khan).
105 Khan para 4.
106 99 of 1998.
107 Section 2(1) of the Maintenance Act reads: “The provisions of this Act shall apply in respect of the legal
duty of any person to maintain any other person, irrespective of the nature of the relationship between those
persons giving rise to that duty.”
108 Khan para 2.
109 Khan paras 10–11. Sources omitted.
That being the case, the argument that it is contra bonos mores to grant a Muslim wife, married in accord-
ance with Islamic rites, maintenance where the marriage is not monogamous, can no longer hold water. It
will be blatant discrimination to grant, in the one instance, a Muslim wife in a monogamous Muslim mar-
riage a right to maintenance, but to deny a Muslim wife married in terms of the same Islamic rites (which are
inherently polygamous) and who has the same faith and beliefs as the one in the monogamous marriage, a
right to maintenance.
In any event, the purpose of the [Maintenance] Act would be frustrated rather than furthered if partners to a
polygamous marriage were to be excluded from the protection the Act offers, just because the legal form of
their relationship is not consistent with the Marriage Act.
The High Court therefore held that parties to a de facto polygynous Muslim marriage are entitled
to maintenance in accordance with the Maintenance Act.110
About a year later, in the case of Cassim v Cassim,111 the decision in Khan was extended to
parties in de facto monogamous Muslim marriages when the Wynberg Magistrate’s Court
granted a monogamous Muslim wife’s claim for spousal maintenance under the Maintenance
Act.
Interim maintenance in terms of Rule 43(1) of the Uniform Rules of Court has also been rec-
ognised in the cases of Jamalodeen v Moola,112 Mahomed v Mahomed and Hoosain v Dangor113
in favour of women who had been married to their spouses in de facto monogamous Muslim
marriages. Rule 43(1) reads:
This rule shall apply whenever a spouse seeks relief from the court in respect of one or more of the follow-
ing matters:
(a) Maintenance pendente lite;
(b) a contribution towards the costs of a pending matrimonial action;
(c) interim custody of any child;
(d) interim access to any child.
The difference in facts among the three aforementioned cases was that in Jamalodeen and
Hoosain, the parties had been divorced from each other by Muslim rites, while in Mahomed, the
parties disputed whether or not they were divorced under Islamic law.114 The wife in Mahomed
claimed that the Muslim marriage still subsisted at the time that the matter was heard, but the
husband argued that a valid Muslim divorce had been effected.115 However, the Eastern Cape
Provincial Division of the High Court (as it then was) decided that it was not necessary for the
purpose of the Mahomed judgment to determine the status of the Muslim divorce.116 In each of
the cases, the wives had instituted an action to recognise their Muslim marriages as valid under
the Marriage Act117 and to dissolve their marriages in accordance with the provisions of the
Divorce Act.118 When parties institute a civil divorce in the High Court, Rule 43(1) enables them
to apply for interim relief including maintenance pendente lite as indicated above. On the basis
of Rule 43(1), the wives in all three of the judgments had claimed, among others, interim spousal
maintenance119 and the wife in Mahomed had additionally sought interim maintenance for the
minor child born of the marriage.120
________________________
110 Paragraph 11.

111 (TPD) (Unreported case number 3954/06 delivered on 15 December 2006). Referred to and discussed by
Revelas J in Mahomed v Mahomed [2009] JOL 23733 (ECP) paras 7–8.
112 Referred to and discussed by Revelas J in Mahomed v Mahomed [2009] JOL 23733 (ECP) para 9.
113 [2010] 2 All SA 55 (WCC).
114 Mahomed para 1, 9; Hoosain para 1.
115 Mahomed para 2.
116 Paragraph 2.
117 25 of 1961.
118 70 of 1979. Mahomed paras 1, 3, 9; Hoosain para 2.
119 Mahomed paras 1, 9; Hoosain para 1.
120 Mahomed para 1.
The High Court in Mahomed noted that “[t]he issue for determination . . . [was] whether the
present proceedings constitute a pending matrimonial action.”121 In deciding this issue, the court
observed:122
[I]n our courts an increasing tendency has developed to enforce maintenance and other rights to spouses
married in terms of Islamic law, even though both the courts and the Legislature do not legally recognise an
Islamic marriage (nikah) as a marriage in terms of the Marriage Act.
The High Court in Mahomed found that the “pending divorce action brings the situation within
the ambit of matrimonial matters and a matrimonial action as envisaged in Rule 43.”123 In
particular, the Western Cape High Court in Hoosain held that a wife married by Muslim rites is
a “spouse” for the purpose of Rule 43(1).124 Accordingly, the courts in the aforementioned three
matters granted each wife’s claims for interim maintenance.125 Moreover, in Jamalodeen, the
Natal Provincial Division of the High Court (as it then was) ordered the interim spousal mainte-
nance to be payable beyond the iddah period, pending the finalisation of the divorce action.126
Recognition of Muslim spouses for legislative purposes was also granted in the context of
succession, specifically in the cases of Daniels v Campbell, Hassam v Jacobs and Moosa v
Harnaker. These cases are considered in the next section.
14.2.2.4 Recognition of a Muslim spouse in the case of succession

In the cases of Daniels v Campbell and Hassam v Jacobs, the applicants were widows who had
been married to their deceased husbands by Muslim rites only. In both cases, their husbands had
died intestate and the applicants had lodged claims with the Master of the High Court to
be recognised as beneficiaries of their husbands’ intestate estates under the Intestate Succession
Act127 and the Maintenance of Surviving Spouses Act.128 The main difference between the two
cases was that in Daniels, the Muslim widow had been in a de facto monogamous Muslim
marriage while in Hassam, the applicant had been the first wife in a de facto polygynous Muslim
marriage. In both cases, the Master had not accepted the widows as spouses or surviving spouses
for the purpose of the legislation and on that basis denied their claims.
In Daniels, the Constitutional Court disagreed with the Master’s view, and found that the
words “spouse” and “survivor” as contained in the legislation included parties to a de facto
monogamous Muslim marriage within their ordinary meaning.129 The court reasoned:130
[The] exclusion [of the words] as was effected in the past did not flow from courts giving the word “spouse”
its ordinary meaning. Rather, it emanated from a linguistically strained use of the word flowing from a cul-
turally and racially hegemonic appropriation of it. Such interpretation owed more to the artifice of prejudice
than to the dictates of the English language. Both in intent and impact the restricted interpretation was dis-
criminatory, expressly exalting a particular concept of marriage, flowing initially from a particular world-
view, as the ideal against which Muslim marriages were measured and found to be wanting. Discriminatory
interpretations deeply injurious to those negatively affected were in the conditions of the time widely accepted
in the courts. They are no longer sustainable in the light of our Constitution . . . . [Instead,] the constitutional
values of equality, tolerance and respect for diversity point strongly in favour of giving the word ‘spouse’ a
broad and inclusive construction, the more so when it corresponds with the ordinary meaning of the word.
________________________
121 Paragraph 4.
122 Paragraph 5.
123 Hoosain para 10. Emphasis added.
124 Paragraph 28.
125 Paragraph 13.
126 Referred to by Revelas J in Mahomed v Mahomed [2009] JOL 23733 (ECP) para 9.
127 81 of 1987.
128 27 of 1990.
129 Daniels paras 19, 21–22, 40.
The issue is not whether to impose some degree of strain on the language in order to achieve a constitution-
ally acceptable result. It is whether to remove the strain imposed by past discriminatory interpretations in
favour of its ordinary meaning.
In coming to its decision, the court observed that the exclusion of Muslim spouses from the
ordinary interpretation of “spouse” was historically linked to a pattern of discrimination against
those who did not conform to “a particular concept of marriage”.131 The court noted that the
achievement of substantive equality between women and men requires “a broad[er] and [more]
inclusive” interpretation of the word “spouse”.132 The court pointed out that the main purpose of
the legislation was to protect a “vulnerable” section of the South African population; namely,
widows.133 The Court thus found that to exclude monogamous Muslim widows from the benefit
of the legislation would negate the very purpose of the legislation.134
Similarly, in Hassam v Jacobs, the Constitutional Court observed that an exclusion of polyg-
ynous Muslim widows from the impugned legislation would defeat the aim of the legislation to
afford protection to “vulnerable” groups as well as the constitutional goal of substantive equali-
ty.135 The court extended protection to polygynous Muslim widows by bringing them also within
the ambit of the legislation. The Court agreed with the court a quo; namely, the Cape High Court
(as it then was) that the exclusion of Muslim polygynous widows from the Intestate Succession
Act and the Maintenance of Surviving Spouses Act was unconstitutional because it infringed
their human dignity and unfairly discriminated against them on the grounds of gender, marital
status and religion, which could not be justified.136 The Constitutional Court accordingly con-
firmed a declaratory order of the High Court that the relevant legislation must be read in to
include Muslim polygynous spouses.137 The Constitutional Court found that through a reading in
of the Intestate Succession Act, each polygynous widow would inherit a child’s share of the
deceased’s estate. In the absence of children born of the polygynous Muslim marriages, each
polygynous spouse would share equally in the deceased’s estate.138
More recently, section 2C(1) of the Wills Act139 was challenged in the Western Cape High
Court on the basis that it excluded a Muslim spouse from being treated as a “surviving spouse of
the testator”. In the case of Moosa v Harnaker,140 the deceased had been in polygynous Muslim
marriages with his first and second wives. Nine children were born of the two marriages.141
During the course of the marriages, the deceased and his first wife registered a civil marriage
under the Marriage Act to enable the deceased to qualify for a home loan.142 Subsequently, the
deceased purchased immovable property, which was registered in his and his first wife’s names.
The immovable property became the family home in which the deceased, both his wives and
some of their children lived.143 When the deceased died, he left a will in which he had directed
that his estate should devolve according to Islamic law. In accordance with the terms of
the deceased’s will, the MJC issued a certificate which allocated specific shares to each of
his wives, sons and daughters.144 The deceased’s children decided to renounce their benefits in
________________________
131 Paragraph 19.

132 Daniels paras 21, 22, 40.
133 Paragraph 22.
134 Paragraph 23.
135 Hassam paras 35, 37–38.
136 Paragraphs 9, 16, 30–34, 42.
137 Paragraphs 53, 57.
138 Paragraph 20.
139 7 of 1953.
140 2017 (6) SA 425 (WCC).
141 Moosa v Harnaker paras 3–4.
143 Paragraph 6.
144 Paragraph 7.
terms of section 2C(1) of the Wills Act in favour of the deceased’s estate being shared equally
between the deceased’s two wives.145 Section 2C(1) provides:
If any descendant of a testator, excluding a minor or a mentally ill descendant, who, together with the surviv-
ing spouse of the testator, is entitled to a benefit in terms of a will renounces his right to receive such benefit,
such benefit shall vest in the surviving spouse.
Although the Master of the High Court accepted the above proposal, the Registrar of Deeds was
only willing to register a transfer of the deceased’s half of the family home into the first wife’s
name on the basis that as a lawful wife, only she qualified as a surviving spouse for the purpose
of the Wills Act.146 In respect of the benefits that had been revoked by the deceased’s children,
the Registrar invoked section 2C(2) of the Wills Act, which reads:
If a descendant of the testator, whether as a member of a class or otherwise, would have been entitled to a
benefit in terms of the provisions of a will if he had been alive at the time of death of the testator, or had not
been disqualified from inheriting, or had not after the testator’s death renounced his right to receive such a
benefit, the descendants of that descendant shall, subject to the provisions of subsection (1), per stirpes be
entitled to the benefit, unless the context of the will otherwise indicates.
On the basis of section 2C(2), the Registrar took the view that the renounced benefits should
vest in the descendants of the children born to the deceased and his second wife.147
The High Court found that the drafters of the Wills Act most likely had not intended for sec-
tion 2C(1) to include polygynous spouses.148 The court accordingly found that the exclusion of
Muslim wives from the ambit of the Wills Act unfairly discriminated against them on the
grounds of religion and marital status and that such discrimination could not be justified.149 As a
remedy, the court ordered a reading-in to the Wills Act, which includes a spouse in a monoga-
mous and polygynous Muslim marriage within the definition of surviving spouse.150
14.2.2.5 Calling for the recognition and regulation of Muslim marriages

While the judicial intervention in each of the cases discussed thus far has certainly been helpful
in providing relief to spouses in Muslim marriages, the relief has been ad hoc and casuistic. This
is why in the most recent case involving Muslim marriages, a consolidated application compris-
ing three matters was launched in the Western Cape High Court in 2018 in which the applicants
asked for wholesale legal recognition and regulation of Muslim marriages. The three matters are
the Women’s Legal Centre Trust v President of the Republic of South Africa (WLCT), Faro v
Bingham (Faro) and Esau v Esau (Esau).151
Some of the primary claims among the aforementioned matters overlapped. For instance, in
the WLCT and Esau matters, the applicant (Women’s Legal Centre) and plaintiff (Esau) respec-
tively sought a declaration by the High Court that the South African state had failed to prepare
and initiate draft legislation to recognise and regulate Muslim marriages, thereby failing in their
duties under section 7(2) of the Constitution to protect, promote and fulfil the rights in the Bill of
Rights.152 In particular, the constitutional rights affected include sections 9 (equality), 10 (dignity),
15 and 31 (freedom of religion), 28 (best interests of the child) and 34 (access to courts).153
The WLCT and Esau both asked the High Court for an order directing the South African state to
________________________
145 Paragraph 8.
146 Moosa v Harnaker paras 9–11.
147 Paragraph 12.
149 Paragraphs 29–30, 33, 35.
150 Paragraph 37.
151 Women’s Legal Centre Trust v President of the Republic of South Africa, Faro v Bingham, Esau v Esau
[2018] ZAWCHC 109 (31 August 2018).
prepare, initiate, enact and bring into operation legislation recognising and regulating Muslim
marriages within a period of 12 to 18 months from the date of judgment.154 Alternatively, the
WLCT asked that the Marriage Act, Divorce Act and Recognition of Customary Marriages
Act155 be declared inconsistent with the constitutional rights listed above.156
Other overlapping claims were formulated either in the alternative or as primary claims. For
example, the WLCT (in WLCT) and Faro (in Faro) asked that Muslim marriages be declared
valid under the Marriage Act and/or that the common law definition of marriage be widened to
include Muslim marriages.157 The latter claims were postulated as alternative claims by the
WLCT but as primary claims by Faro. Similarly, the WLCT (asking in the alternative) and the
applicant (Esau) in the Esau matter (asking as a second primary claim), sought to have Muslim
marriages declared valid for the purpose of the Divorce Act.158 Moreover (in the alternative),
Esau claimed a declaration of validity of a de facto monogamous Muslim marriage for the
purposes of the Matrimonial Property Act159 and the common law duty of support at divorce.160
In addition, the WLCT claimed interim relief pending the enactment of legislation to recog-
nise and regulate Muslim marriages by enabling a reading-in to the Recognition of Customary
Marriages Act to afford recognition to and regulation of Muslim marriages.161 As an alternative
to the requested reading-in, the WLCT asked that the declaration of invalidity in respect of the
Marriage Act, Divorce Act and Recognition of Customary Marriages Act be suspended for 12
months to afford Parliament an opportunity to correct the constitutional defects, failing which
the declaration of invalidity should take effect and the reading-in to the Recognition of Custom-
ary Marriages Act should take place.162 The WLCT also claimed an order declaring that the pro
forma marriage contract drafted by the MJC is contrary to public policy and should be rendered
unenforceable at law.163
Furthermore, Faro sought a declaration of unconstitutionality in respect of the failure by the
Minister of Justice and Constitutional Development to implement policies and procedures in
accordance with the Promotion of Administrative Justice Act164 to regulate how enquiries into
the validity of Muslim marriages should be undertaken by the Master when spouses claim
benefits under the Intestate Succession Act and Maintenance of Surviving Spouses Act. Faro
requested that the declaration be suspended for 18 months to enable the Minister to put into
place the required policies and procedures.165 The claim for a declaration of unconstitutionality
emanated from the first part of the Faro matter that had been determined by the Western Cape
High Court per Rogers J in 2013.166 The second part of the Faro matter involved a claim for
constitutional relief (as discussed above), which was considered in the consolidated application
________________________
154 Paragraphs 33, 48. The WLC requested a period of 12 months while Esau asked for 18 months for the
legislation to be enacted.
155 120 of 1998.
[2018] ZAWCHC 109 (31 August 2018) para 35.
159 88 of 1984.
161 Paragraph 36.
162 Paragraph 37.
163 Paragraph 39.
164 3 of 2000.
166 Paragraph 44.
before the Western Cape High Court in 2018. In the review application (first part of the Faro
matter), Faro sought to set aside a decision of the Master of the High Court, which excluded her
from benefiting as a spouse under the Intestate Succession Act and the Maintenance of Surviv-
ing Spouses Act.167 There had been a dispute regarding whether or not she had still been married
by Muslim rites to the deceased at the time of the latter’s death. The Master had dismissed
Faro’s claim that she had still been married to the deceased when he died and instead relied on
the MJC’s view that the parties had not been married at the time of the deceased’s death.168 After
assessing the expert evidence placed before the High Court, Rogers J held that the Muslim mar-
riage between the parties had subsisted at the time that the deceased had died and accordingly
set aside the Master’s decision. Faro was therefore recognised as a surviving spouse for the
purposes of the Intestate Succession Act and Maintenance of Surviving Spouses Act.169 Hence,
Faro claimed that the Minister be ordered to realise policies and procedures in the Master’s office
to assist it in determining the validity of Muslim marriages for the purpose of assessing claim
benefits in terms of the Intestate Succession Act and the Maintenance of Surviving Spouses Act.
In assessing the above claims in the consolidated application, the Western Cape High Court
accepted that by failing to enact legislation to recognise and regulate Muslim marriages, the South
African state had failed to fulfil its obligations as contained in section 7(2) of the Constitution.170
More specifically, the High Court found that a lack of recognition of Muslim marriages infringes
the right to dignity of Muslim women.171 The court also found that Muslim wives are unfairly
discriminated against compared to civil and customary wives as well as Muslim men on the
grounds of religion, marital status and gender and that such unfair discrimination cannot be justi-
fied.172 The Court held that due to the non-recognition of Muslim marriages, Muslim wives are
denied access to courts when a man obtains a Muslim divorce through talƗq and the wife is
unable to access a court for division of the matrimonial property.173 The court also observed that
children born of Muslim marriages do not enjoy the same level of protection as children born
of civil and customary marriages. When parties to the latter marriages undergo a process of
divorce, the court assumes an “automatic oversight role” to ensure that the best interests of the
children born of those marriages are protected.174 In contrast, children born of Muslim marriages
that dissolve through Muslim divorce are not provided with any ‘automatic’ court supervision to
ensure that their best interests are protected.175 Therefore, the court held that the lack of recognition
of Muslim marriages infringes on the right of a child to have his or her best interests protected.176
The Western Cape High Court also found that the only reasonable manner for the South Afri-
can state to fulfil its section 7(2) duties “is through the enactment of legislation” to recognise
and regulate Muslim marriages.177 The court observed that such legislation would not under-
mine freedom of religion.178 The court accordingly ordered the President, Cabinet and Parlia-
ment to prepare, initiate, introduce, enact and bring into operation legislation to recognise and
________________________
168 Paragraph 44.
169 Paragraph 45.
170 Paragraphs 178–181, 252.
171 Paragraph 136.
172 Paragraphs 124, 126, 135.
173 Paragraph 137.
174 Paragraph 138.
175 Paragraph 139.
176 Paragraph 140.
177 Paragraph 181.
regulate Muslim marriages within 24 months of the date of the order.179 The court left it up to
Parliament to decide what form the legislation should take – either to amend the common law
through legislative reform or by the enactment of legislation to recognise and regulate Muslim
marriages and/or religious marriages.180 The latter option means that Parliament could either en-
act the Muslim Marriages Bill,181 which purports to comprehensively recognise and regulate the
specific features of Muslim marriages and divorce, or Parliament could enact omnibus legisla-
tion182 to afford recognition to all religious marriages without necessarily regulating their spe-
cific features.183 In the event that the South African state fails to enact legislation within the
stipulated time period, the court ordered that interim relief should be applied until the legislation
is enacted. The interim relief offered by the court is for Muslim marriages that are in existence at
the time that the interim relief takes effect, to be dissolved through the provisions of the Divorce
Act.184 In the case of a polygynous marriage, the court directed that when applying the interim
relief, all relevant factors such as a marriage contract must be taken into account and an equita-
ble and just order must be made.185 The claims relating to the MJC’s pro forma marriage con-
tract and the implementation of administrative policies and procedures in the Master’s office
were refused.186
14.3 Muslim divorce

14.3.1 Introduction
A controversial aspect of Muslim personal law is the dissolution of a Muslim marriage.187 There
exists a common perception among both Muslims and others that the right to divorce rests solely
in the hands of the husband, which is often executed capriciously and to the wife’s detriment.
The purpose of this section is not necessarily to dispel this perception but to cast some light on
the extent to which this may be true. In terms of the Islamic law188 of divorce in general, and the
HanafƯ school of law in particular, divorce at the behest of the husband is common and easy
while, to the contrary, divorce initiated by the wife is uncommon and difficult. This does not
________________________
179 Paragraph 252. The order was granted by the Western Cape High Court on 31 August 2018.
181 See https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/33946_gen37.pdf (accessed 7 October 2018). The Muslim
Marriages Bill was drafted by the South African Law Reform Commission and submitted to the Minister
of Justice and Constitutional Development in 2003. Seven years later, an amended form was approved by
Cabinet. However, to date, it has not yet been enacted.
182 It appears an attempt is being made by the South African state to draft a single Marriages Bill to bring all
marriages within the parameters of one omnibus legislation. See Amien (6 June 2018) The Daily Maverick,
available online at https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/author/waheeda-amien/#.Wxd3d6m-nq0 (accessed
7 October 2018). The editor of this book, Christa Rautenbach, has been appointed to the advisory commit-
tee of the South African Law Reform Commission tasked to investigate this in Project 144.
183 For a discussion about the benefits and harms of recognition versus regulation of Muslim marriages, see
Amien in Maclean and Eekelaar (eds) (2013) 107–123; Amien (2010) International Journal of Law, Policy
and the Family 361–396; Amien and Leatt (2014) Maryland Journal of International Law 501–547.
185 Paragraph 252.
186 Paragraph 252.
187 For an insightful discussion on divorce, see Gabru (2004) PER/PELJ. Also see Mofokeng (2009) 151–162.
For a detailed discussion on the legal implications of the Islamic law of divorce in general and in a South
African context, see Moosa in Heaton (ed) (2014) 281–354.
188 The focus in this section is placed on the four Sunni schools (madhhabs or versions) of Islamic law, namely,
HanafƯ, MƗliki, Shafi’i and Hanbali, and not on the differences of opinion between their founding jurists
(ImƗms Abu Hanifa, Malik, Shafi’i and Hanbal, respectively) who developed these rules.
mean that Islam encourages divorce or treats it as commendable. Instead, it can partly be attributed
to the fact that although there are many areas of congruence with the divorce provisions in its
primary sources, namely, the Qur’Ɨn and Sunnah of Prophet Muhammad and those contained in
its later codification, Islamic law, the latter is often at variance with the primary sources. None-
theless, not all contentious and gender-insensitive divorce-related provisions can historically be
attributed to Islamic law. Some provisions, for example, the mandatory waiting period (iddah)
which is only expected to be observed by a wife, emanate directly from the primary sources of
Islam and are therefore divinely attributed. Furthermore, although a practice like the instant or
triple divorce (talƗq) was not approved of by the Prophet, it is an innovation that has
unfortunately become entrenched as part of Islamic law and is currently still in practice in many
parts of the Muslim world including South Africa. Ultimately, it remains a basic principle of
Islamic law that it is better to terminate a marriage that has broken down irretrievably.
As in many other matters, Islam adopts a moderate, balanced approach to divorce.189 It does
not prohibit divorce, nor does it encourage it without good reason. The Prophet Muhammad
stated that of all permitted things, the most detestable in the eyes of God [Allah] is divorce, and
also that divorce “. . . is an act which shakes the throne of God”.190 Nonetheless, Islam recognises
the non-permanence of human relationships and permits divorce at the behest of both men and
women when the continuance of a marriage becomes impossible.
The Qur’Ɨn states: “But if they disagree (and must part), Allah will provide abundance for all
from His all-reaching bounty: for Allah is He that careth for all and is Wise”.191 In this sense,
Islam recognises divorce as a necessary and sometimes inevitable social evil.192 In fact, Allah
commands the Prophet Muhammad himself, in the Qur’Ɨn,193 to grant his multiple wives the
freedom of choice to either maintain or to sever their ties of marriage with him:
O Prophet! Say to thy Consorts: If it be that ye desire the life of this World, and its glitter - then come! I will
provide for your enjoyment and set you free in a handsome manner . . . But if ye seek Allah and His Mes-
senger, and the Home of the Hereafter, verily Allah has prepared for the well-doers amongst you a great
reward.
The practical example set by the Prophet, whose first marriage was to a divorcee, also goes a
long way towards assuaging the stigma usually attached to divorced women and supports remar-
riage for divorcees. Women are, furthermore, encouraged by Allah to respect themselves and
place more reliance on Him for their sustenance rather than to continue to stay in a marriage
merely for the sake of the financial security that it may offer.
Chapter 65 of the Qur’Ɨn, although titled “At-TalƗq (Divorce)”, only deals with one of the
many aspects of divorce, namely, the waiting period (iddah) of women. However, as will be
elaborated on below, in doing so, it sheds light on and clarifies in detail other important verses
dealing with the length of the iddah which are only cursorily referred to in other Qur’Ɨnic
chapters, for example, chapter 2 (Al-Baqarah (The Cow)):
When ye divorce women, and they fulfil the term of their (’Iddat), either take them back on equitable terms
or set them free on equitable terms; but do not take them back to injure them, (or) to take undue advantage;
if any one does that; He wrongs his own soul. Do not treat Allah’s Signs as a jest, but solemnly rehearse
Allah’s favours on you, and the fact that He sent down to you the Book and Wisdom, for your instruction.
194
And fear Allah, and know that Allah is well acquainted with all things.
________________________
189 Doi (1989) 83 and 94.

190 ‘Abdal’ AĠƯ (1977) 220.
191 Chapter 4 v 130. The Qur’Ɨnic references in this section refer to the translation by Ali The holy Qur’Ɨn
(text, translation and commentary) (1946), unless otherwise indicated. The first number in the citation
refers to the number of the chapter (surah) and the second number indicates the verse (ayat).
192 Cheshire (1945) LQR 352.
193 Chapter 33 vs 28–29.
194 Chapter 2 v 231.
Chapter 4 of the Qur’Ɨn, titled “An-Nisa (Women)”, is another important chapter dealing with
divorce. These chapters and their verses on divorce provide clear guidance on how (the most
correct way) to effect a divorce so that it conforms with a spirit of justice and has potential for
reconciliation between spouses. For example, the Qur’Ɨn gives guidance on the number of times
a divorce should be pronounced, and which wisely points to “staggering” the talƗq rather than to
the pronouncing of the requisite number (three talƗqs) in one go (instant or triple divorce) which
would effect a final separation between a couple. This requirement, would of course apply
equally to a wife pronouncing the talƗq if the right to do so (delegated divorce) was incorporated
in her marriage contract:
A divorce is only permissible twice: after that, the parties should either hold together on equitable terms, or
195
separate with kindness.
While the requirement that the number of pronouncements of divorce is limited to three, is based
on this particular Qur’Ɨnic verse, the verse clearly says that “a divorce is only permissible
twice”. The third talƗq is therefore not expressly mentioned in the verse but is deemed to be
implied in the phrase that parties “after that … separate with kindness”. There are some forms of
Islamic divorce which, like a secular divorce, end a marriage immediately and with finality.
However, quite unlike a secular divorce, an Islamic divorce, while it may become effective from
the moment it is pronounced, is not necessarily finalised at that stage. The marriage may remain
intact and valid in all respects if parties reconcile, or it may terminate at a later stage. This
process, and the practical application of the “three pronouncements” requirement, are briefly
explained as follows: The talƗq al-sunna is a form of divorce that can be deemed to be the most
correct method of divorcing. What essentially happens in this instance is that the husband
pronounces talƗq only once and thereafter the couple reconcile. Sometime in the future (whether,
for example, ten days or ten years later), the husband pronounces a second talƗq and again the
couple reconcile. The husband then pronounces a third talƗq. This third and final pronounce-
ment, and again regardless of the passage of time, results in an irrevocable divorce and therefore
the couple can no longer reconcile. Given the “severity” or “finality” of the divorce and the
seriousness with which divorce ought to be treated, re-marrying each other thereafter, although
possible, is made very difficult for the couple. Thus when(ever) a talƗq is pronounced, whether
it is a first, second or third talƗq, the pronouncement(s) themselves always remain effective. The
parties may reconcile without remarrying each other (since their marriage may at the same time
also remain intact) after one or two pronouncements but not after a third pronouncement when
the divorce is final (irrevocable). However, the practical application of the “three pronounce-
ments” requirement is not as simple as it appears in the illustration above since it also depends
on the context of the form (revocable or irrevocable) of divorce used, the number of occasions
on which a divorce can be effected, the number of pronouncements to be made on each occasion
of divorce, and whether or not the waiting period (iddah) has expired. This is further complicated
by the intricacies involved in the varied methods of divorce and the differences of opinion in the
various schools of Islamic law.
The above Qur’Ɨnic verses also detail the most appropriate behaviour of parties, especially of
husbands (who have the automatic advantage of the unilateral right to divorce) towards wives,
during and after the process of divorce. Equity, kindness, decency and dignity are refrains that
are repeatedly emphasised in these verses.
A Muslim marriage contract is dissolved on the death of a spouse or through divorce at the
initiative of either the husband or wife during their lifetime. Islamic law allows for various forms
of dissolution of a marriage, that is, at the initiative of the husband or the wife, by mutual
agreement or by judicial process. What must, however, be clarified at the outset, and which to
a large extent is responsible for the common perception referred to above, is that divorce as a
________________________
195 Chapter 2 v 229 (emphasis added).

process is provided to the spouses in different and unequal forms. While a wife may therefore
have equal access to divorce, the (unilateral) right to divorce is also not equal.
In summary:
The most common forms of divorce that are practiced throughout the Muslim world today include talƗq,
tafwid-al-talƗq, faskh, khul’a and mubar’a. TalƗq, tafwid-al- talƗq, khul’a and mubar’a are extra-judicial
forms of Muslim divorce. This means that parties do not require the consent of a third party (such as an
imƗm) for the divorce to be valid. TalƗq is the right of a husband to unilaterally repudiate his wife. When the
husband issues talƗq, he must pay any deferred mahr that is owing to the wife. A husband has three talƗqs
available to him in respect of one marriage. When he utters talƗq once, the wife enters the iddah period. If
the parties do not reconcile during the iddah period, the marriage is irrevocably terminated. If the parties
wish to reconcile after the iddah period has expired, they must marry each other again. If the parties recon-
cile prior to the expiration of the iddah period, the talƗq is revoked and the marriage remains intact. How-
ever, if the husband utters talƗq thrice, revocation of the talƗq is no longer possible after a third pronunci-
ation of talƗq. This means that the marriage is irrevocably terminated with the pronunciation of the third
talƗq, after which the wife must observe iddah. Should the parties wish to reconcile after the husband has
uttered a third talƗq, the wife must first perform hilala. This means that she must marry another man, con-
summate the marriage with that man and then that subsequent marriage must terminate through divorce or
the death of the subsequent husband. A husband may also conditionally or unconditionally delegate the talƗq
to his wife (tafwid-al- talƗq). The wife may further institute divorce at her own initiative through khul’a by
returning her mahr. In South Africa, the ulama requires the husband’s consent regarding the amount to be
returned in order for the khul’a to be valid. The parties may also mutually agree to terminate their marriage
through mubar’a. The fifth form of divorce, namely faskh, is a judicial mechanism whereby either party
(husband or wife) may apply to a third party (for example, an imƗm) to dissolve the marriage on an Islamic-
ally permissible ground. Since the talƗq is readily available to men, it is usually women who try to rely on
faskh to be released from their Muslim marriage.
14.3.2 TalƗq
TalƗq, archaically translated in English as “repudiation”, literally means to “set free” in Arabic.
It is the most common of the divorce procedures and its requirements and legal implications
impact generally on all the other forms of divorce. The distinction between the revocable and
irrevocable divorce is briefly outlined in this section while these forms of divorce are discussed
in more detail later.
Islamic law defines talƗq as “the dissolution of a valid marriage contract forthwith or at a later
date by the husband, his agent, or his wife duly authorised by him to do so, using the word talƗq,
a derivative or a synonym thereof”.196 This definition includes all the conditions for the dissolution
to be valid, binding and effective, namely, a valid marriage contract, with a sane, adult husband
who pronounces the talƗq and the oral, written or gesture formula used.197 The phrase “forthwith
or at a later date” refers to an instantaneous (irrevocable) and a consequential (revocable)
divorce, respectively.198
There are no fixed formalities in classical Sunni law prescribing the manner in which the talƗq
is to be pronounced. There is no requirement to have witnesses and the wife need not even be
present or indeed informed. The talƗq may be oral or in writing and any words may be used. The
consent of the wife is not required and the pronouncement or declaration of talƗq is extra-
judicial and entirely at the discretion of the husband. A talƗq is furthermore not subject to any
________________________
196 Nasir (2009) 120.

197 Nasir (2009) 120–125.
198 Rahman vol 1 (1978) 309–311.
external check.199 The primary sources of Islam, in contrast, encourage divorce when necessary
(for good reason) through a mutual process rather than a single act; emphasise equitable,
informed and witnessed separation; and strongly advocate reconciliation. Modern personal law
legislators have therefore attempted to curb what is regarded as the indiscriminate power of the
husband “to the extent that . . . no divorce shall be effective, or even allowed, outside the
court”.200
The Qur’Ɨn imposes a waiting period (iddah) on women whose consummated marriage has
been terminated by the occurrence of two events: divorce or death of their husbands. The iddah
plays an important role in divorce proceedings and is mentioned a number of times in the
Qur’Ɨn . For example:
O Prophet! When ye do divorce women, divorce them at their prescribed periods, and count (accurately),
their prescribed periods: And fear Allah your Lord: and turn them not out of their houses, nor shall they
(themselves) leave, except in case they are guilty of some open lewdness, those are limits set by Allah: and
any who transgresses the limits of Allah, does verily wrong his (own) soul: thou knowest not if perchance
201
Allah will bring about thereafter some new situation.
Iddah starts after the first “divorce” is pronounced. This means that in the case of a revocable (as
opposed to irrevocable) divorce, the woman is still the legal wife of the husband as the talƗq
becomes effective only upon completion of this waiting period by the wife. For women, iddah
constitutes a temporary prohibition to remarry until the expiry of this period. Iddah has a three-
fold purpose, namely, it provides time to:
• effect reconciliation between the spouses in the case of revocable divorces;
• determine whether the wife is pregnant in order to determine paternity of the child; and
• mourn the loss of her husband in the case of the widow, and the loss of her marriage in the
case of the divorcee.
In two forms of talƗq, namely the talƗq al-hasan and the talƗq al-bid’a (instant divorce), the
waiting period is only observed after the marriage is irrevocably dissolved and defeats one of its
primary purposes, namely, reconciliation. The length of this waiting period varies in relation to a
woman’s menstrual status. The revocable divorce becomes effective once the wife has completed
three successive menstrual cycles202 or, if she was pregnant, upon termination of the pregnancy.
The Qur’Ɨn states that “for those who carry life in their wombs their period is until they deliver
their burdens”.203 Of course, this has the implication that if a widow or divorcee is in an
advanced stage of pregnancy and the birth of her child occurs very shortly after she is widowed
or divorced, that her waiting period terminates the moment she gives birth. While this period is
linked to and will have a further detrimental impact on the already limited period of maintenance
that a woman as a divorcee or widow is personally entitled to, on the plus side, she will tech-
nically be free to remarry and will still be entitled to compensation until the end of the nursing
period of her child, etc. The iddah of a wife who has not yet begun to menstruate, does not
menstruate, has reached menopause or has irregular periods, is three lunar months.204
In all the instances mentioned above, the divorce can be revoked at any time prior to comple-
tion of the waiting period and no remarriage between the spouses is necessary. However, once
the waiting period has been completed and even without the pronouncement of a second or third
divorce, the divorce will be final and irrevocable. If the marriage has not been consummated,
________________________
199 Ahmad (1984) 28–30; Esposito (2001) 29–30.

200 Nasir (2009) 117 and Nasir (2002) 106.
201 Chapter 65 v 1.
202 In terms of the Qur’Ɨn, ch 2 v 228.
203 Chapter 65 v 4.
204 Chapter 65 v 4. Also see El Alami and Hinchcliffe (1996) 23. Note that the Islamic calendar is based on
lunar months.
there is no need to serve the waiting period and in this instance the divorce is always irrevocable
regardless of the number of pronouncements.205
Divorce, it appears, ought to be pronounced while the wife is not menstruating in order for it
to be a valid divorce. Although the timing of a divorce is deemed important, there does not seem
to be any direct indication in the Qur’Ɨn that a man cannot divorce his wife while she is
menstruating. Indeed, this is often exactly what happens in the cases of an instant (triple) divorce
and a judicial divorce (faskh). However, given that one of the ways in which the parties can
reconcile during iddah is to be sexually intimate, one of the reasons for this requirement is that
in terms of Qur’Ɨnic injunction, spouses are not allowed to have sexual intercourse with each
other while the wife is menstruating as menstruation, apart from being a physical impurity, is
considered to be an illness. In this regard, the Qur’Ɨn,206 addressing the Prophet Muhammad,
declares:
They ask thee concerning women’s courses. Say: They are a hurt and a pollution: So keep away from women in
their courses, and do not approach them until they are clean.
In a bid to reconcile the parties, two arbiters, one representing each spouse, must be appointed.
Again, in this regard, the Qur’Ɨn207 clearly provides as follows:
If ye fear a breach between them twain, appoint (two) arbiters, one from his family, and the other from hers;
if they wish for peace, Allah will cause their reconciliation.
Informal mediation (tawassut) and formal arbitration (tahkim) are alternative methods of dispute
resolution. In terms of the Qur’Ɨn,208 mediation, rather than formal arbitration, before the disso-
lution of a marriage is compulsory and therefore plays an important role in the Islamic law of
divorce. Mediators attempt to reconcile disputants through compromise and parties normally
choose mediation because they wish to maintain their relationship with each other. Sometimes,
however, mediation results in the termination of a relationship, for example, when parties are
assisted in accepting the inevitability of a divorce. The Qur’Ɨn calls for two witnesses to the
divorce to facilitate proof thereof.209 Given that this requirement is not always complied with in
practice, mediation also, albeit indirectly, ensures that the wife will have knowledge of the
impending divorce prior to it actually happening.
Divorces may be divided into revocable and irrevocable divorces. An irrevocable (ba’in) divorce
dissolves the marriage with immediate effect and leaves no room for the husband to change
________________________
205 Qur’Ɨn, ch 33 v 49; Doi (1989) 85.

206 Chapter 2 v 222. The physical experience of the discomfort which accompanies (heavy) bleeding and
menstrual cramps is hereby acknowledged. This does not, however, affect her mental abilities.
207 Chapter 4 v 35.
208 The following verses are also often cited in support of mediation: “But if ye cannot– and of a surety ye
cannot– then fear the Fire whose fuel is men and stones,– which is prepared for those who reject Faith”
(Qur’Ɨn, ch 2 v 224); “O ye who believe! Obey Allah, and obey the Messenger, and those charged with
authority among you. If ye differ in anything among yourselves, refer it to Allah and His Messenger, if ye
do believe in Allah and the Last Day: That is best, and most suitable for final determination” (Qur’Ɨn, ch 4
v 59); “In most of their secret talks there is no good: But if one exhorts to a deed of charity or justice or
conciliation between men, (Secrecy is permissible): To him who does this, seeking the good pleasure of
Allah, We shall soon give a reward of the highest (value)” (Qur’Ɨn, ch 4 v 114); “If two parties among the
Believers fall into a quarrel, make ye peace between them: but if one of them transgresses beyond bounds
against the other, then fight ye (all) against the one that transgresses until it complies with the command of
Allah; but if it complies, then make peace between them with justice, and be fair: for Allah loves those who
are fair (and just) . . . The Believers are but a single Brotherhood: So make peace and reconciliation
between your two (contending) brothers; and fear Allah, that ye may receive Mercy” (Qur’Ɨn, ch 49 v 9–10).
209 “Thus when they fulfil their term appointed, either take them back on equitable terms or part with them on
equitable terms; and take for witness two persons from among you, endued with justice, and establish the
evidence (as) before Allah. Such is the admonition given to him who believes in Allah and the Last Day. And
for those who fear Allah, He (ever) prepares a way out” (Qur’Ɨn, ch 65 v 2). Also see Pearl (1987) 102.
his mind.210 The marital relationship is deemed to be over and any intercourse will be regarded
as adultery (zina). Children born as a result of such intercourse are deemed illegitimate unless
determined otherwise.211 A revocable (raj’i) talƗq is one that does not immediately dissolve the
marriage in that it does not become effective until the end of the waiting period (iddah). The
woman is therefore still the legal wife of the husband in this case.212 She may not remarry until
the expiry of this period. However, as polygyny is allowed in Islam, her husband may marry
another woman.
A divorce has certain legal implications on inheritance, maintenance,213 dower and remar-
riage. As regards inheritance, the spouses may inherit from each other if their divorce is revoca-
ble214, but not if it is an irrevocable215 divorce, except in one instance.216 If either spouse dies
during the iddah, following upon a revocable divorce, each may inherit from the other. The
husband is obliged to provide maintenance (nafaqa) during the iddah as the divorce is theoreti-
cally still revocable. Nafaqa covers maintenance generally owed by a man to his dependants. In
the case of his wife, it is often deemed to cover food, clothing and lodging. The duty to maintain
lasts until the expiration of the iddah. In the case of a pregnant wife, it lasts until the birth of the
child or the end of the nursing period. A divorced wife may breastfeed (by analogy, presumably
bottle-feed) her baby for up to two years or employ a wet-nurse to do so if she is unable to.
During this period, the father must maintain and house both the child and mother.217
________________________
210 Ahmad (1984) 83. There are also “degrees” of irrevocability in that some irrevocable divorces are of a
major degree or more final (kubra) (e.g. talƗq al-hasan) than others of a minor degree or lesser finality
(sughra).
211 Islamic law does, however, make allowances for the father to either acknowledge the child as his own or
that parentage may be established through evidence, for example, through paternity tests or the witnessing
of the birth by a midwife. See Nasir (2002) 145 and 150.
212 Ahmad (1984) 82.
213 Recent cases highlighting successful applications for relief in terms of Rule 43 of the Uniform Rules of
Court brought by Muslim women who were divorced by their husbands through talƗq, include: TM v ZJ
2016 (1) SA 71 (KZD) and YO v ZW [2018] ZAWCHC 61 (25 May 2018).
214 In Faro v Bingham [2013] ZAWCHC) 159 (25 October 2013), the High Court held that the Muslim
marriage between the deceased (who had died intestate) and his wife (whom he had issued with a revocable
talƗq prior to his death) still subsisted at the time of his demise. Hence, his wife was deemed to be his
spouse for purposes of the Intestate Succession Act 81 of 1987 and the Maintenance of Surviving Spouses
Act 27 of 1990. Although related to testate succession rather than divorce, in Moosa v Minister of Justice
and Correctional Services 2018 (10) BCLR 1280 (CC), the Constitutional Court, in a unanimous judgment
handed down on 29 June 2018, held that the wife in a polygynous Muslim marriage be treated as a “surviv-
ing spouse” for the purposes of section 2C(1) of the Wills Act 7 of 1953 and therefore allowed to inherit
from her deceased’s husband’s will.
215 For an article dealing with intestate succession against the background of the complex Islamic legal aspects
of faskh and talƗq as forms of divorce, see Moosa and Abduroaf (2014) Acta Juridica. In Hassam v Jacobs
[2008] 4 All SA 350 (C), a faskh, which is an irrevocable form of judicial divorce, was treated as revocable.
This allowed the wife to be treated as an heir in terms of the Islamic law of inheritance and therefore to be
able to inherit from the deceased estate of her former husband. The article offers a new perspective on this
ground-breaking High Court case and concludes that the case is a harbinger of the potential misapplication
of the Islamic law pertaining to faskh.
216 This involves a “death illness”. Also see Esposito (2001) 35.
217 “The mothers shall give suck to their offspring for two whole years, if the father desires to complete the
term. But he shall bear the cost of their food and clothing on equitable terms. No soul shall have a burden
laid on it greater than it can bear. No mother shall be treated unfairly on account of her child. Nor father on
account of his child, an heir shall be chargeable in the same way. If they both decide on weaning, by mutual
consent, and after due consultation, there is no blame on them. If ye decide on a foster-mother for your off-
spring, there is no blame on you, provided ye pay (the mother) what ye offered, on equitable terms. But fear
Allah and know that Allah sees well what ye do” (Qur’Ɨn, ch 2 v 233). “Let the women live (in ‘iddat) in
the same style as ye live, according to your means: Annoy them not, so as to restrict them. And if they carry
(life in their wombs), then spend (your substance) on them until they deliver their burden: and if they suckle
(continued)
The waiting period of a widow is four months and ten days and her maintenance is thus
deemed to be limited to this period.218 Given that only divorcees and widows are obliged to
observe the iddah, it is not surprising that the different Qur’Ɨnic applications of iddah in the
treatment of a widow and divorcee are often blurred to the detriment of the widow especially in
maintenance matters. As far as an irrevocable divorce is concerned, the schools of law have
divergent opinions as to what maintenance rights, if any, the wife is entitled to. The whole
question as to whether maintenance should be extended to the period beyond iddah (post-
divorce) is also subject to interpretation.219
Divorce is discouraged through strong deterrents. Dower (mahr)220 is one such deterrent. It is
considered a form of security and a precautionary measure against the husband’s arbitrary power
of divorce. While there are variations in the schools of law, dower is a sum of money or other
property which becomes payable by the husband to the wife as a result of marriage. A dower
may be prompt (paid at the time of marriage or on demand) or deferred (payable on dissolution
of marriage by death or divorce). Once a divorce is final and the marriage had been
consummated, the husband has to immediately settle in full any unpaid portion of the wife’s
dower. If the marriage was not consummated, the wife is only entitled to half of the specified
dower, and if no amount was specified, she is entitled to a gift.
As a further deterrent, former spouses are prevented from becoming reconciled once their
divorce becomes final and irrevocable. The opportunity to reconcile during iddah must be taken
seriously as once it passes; the divorce becomes final and permanent. Before a man can be
reconciled with his former wife, and if she is willing to reconcile with him, she must undergo a
very trying process known as halala (intervening marriage). This means that she must first
marry someone else, consummate this other marriage and then either be granted a divorce from
this other person or wait until he dies. If she is granted a divorce or he dies, she has thereafter
still to undergo another waiting period.221 This process highlights that the latter marriage should
be bona fide and not one of mere convenience.222
An exception does, however, exist. The ahsan mode of talƗq (detailed in the next section)
makes allowances for reconciliation by allowing remarriage to take place between the same
________________________
your (offspring), give them their recompense: and take mutual counsel together, according to what is just
and reasonable. And if ye find yourselves in difficulties, let another woman suckle (the child) on the
(father’s) behalf” (Qur’Ɨn, ch 65 v 6). Also see text to note 110 for the translation of Qur’Ɨn, ch 65 v 1. See
Moosa (2013) IJLSE 27–41.
218 “If any of you die and leave widows behind, they shall wait concerning themselves four months and ten
days: When they have fulfilled their term, there is no blame on you if they dispose of themselves in a just
and reasonable manner. And Allah is well acquainted with what ye do” (Qur’Ɨn, ch 2 v 234).
219 For a detailed analysis of post-divorce or continued (long-term) maintenance of the divorcee, see Moosa
and Karbanee (2004) Law, Democracy and Development 267–88, where it is contended that there is enough
scope in the primary sources (Qur’Ɨn and Sunna) in support of such maintenance.
220 “And give the women (on marriage) their dower as a free gift; but if they, of their own good pleasure, remit
any part of it to you, Take it and enjoy it with right good cheer” (Qur’Ɨn, ch 4 v 4); “But if ye decide to take
one wife in place of another, even if ye had given the latter a whole treasure for dower, Take not the least
bit of it back: Would ye take it by slander and manifest wrong?” (Qur’Ɨn, ch 4 v 20); “And if ye divorce
them before consummation, but after the fixation of a dower for them, then the half of the dower (Is due to
them), unless they remit it or (the man’s half) is remitted by him in whose hands is the marriage tie; and the
remission (of the man’s half) is the nearest to righteousness. And do not forget Liberality between your-
selves. For Allah sees well all that ye do” (Qur’Ɨn, ch 2 v 237).
221 “So if a husband divorces his wife (irrevocably), He cannot, after that, re-marry her until after she has married
another husband and He has divorced her. In that case there is no blame on either of them if they re-unite, pro-
vided they feel that they can keep the limits ordained by Allah. Such are the limits ordained by Allah, which
He makes plain to those who understand” (Qur’Ɨn, ch 2 v 230). Also see Rahman vol 1 (1978) 319.
222 Ali and Ahmad (1983) 74; Doi (1989) 92–93.
spouses after an irrevocable divorce without the need to undergo the process of halala. That is
why it is called an irrevocable divorce of a minor degree (sughra). The reason for halala not
being necessary is that divorce was either only pronounced once or at the most twice. While the
purpose of halala is to remarry one’s former spouse, and although its merit lies in highlighting
the gravity of divorce, there is also Qur’Ɨnic support for the fact that former spouses may
remarry each other after the waiting period has elapsed and without the wife having to go
through the process of halala. The Qur’Ɨn223 states:
When ye divorce women, and they fulfil the term of their (Iddat), do not prevent them from marrying their
(former) husbands, if they mutually agree on equitable terms. This instruction is for all amongst you, who
believe in Allah and the Last Day. That is (the course Making for) most virtue and purity amongst you and
Allah knows, and ye know not.
14.3.3 Forms of divorce

There are various forms of divorce, namely:
(a) Divorce by the husband: There are three forms of dissolution used by the husband. Two of
these, ila224 (where the husband takes a vow to abstain from sexual intercourse with his wife)
and zihar225 (where the husband compares his wife in a derogatory manner to a female
relative within a prohibited degree), although both still valid, are rarely used today or treated
as obsolete. TalƗq is therefore the only form which still remains practically relevant. A talƗq
may be effected in one of a number of forms, some being more meritorious than others. These
in turn are generally grouped into two methods and followed by Sunni Muslims. One method
is recommended by the primary sources and is known as talƗq al-sunna (divorce
according to the rules laid down in the traditions of Muhammad). The second method, known
as the talƗq al-bid’a (innovated divorce not according to the rules laid down by prophetic
tradition), is not recommended and although it has long been the subject of much controversy,
is nonetheless valid.226 The talƗq al-bid’a is commonly known as the “three-in-one”, “triple”
or instant divorce. TalƗq al-sunna is further divided into two kinds, namely, talƗq al-ahsan
(“most proper”) and talƗq al-hasan (“proper”). The latter essentially varies from the former in
the number of pronouncements of talƗq. Both are approved methods of repudiation, accepted
by all schools, and both forms allow for revocation.
(b) Divorce by the wife: The talƗq al-tafwid or delegated divorce, although under-utilised due
to a lack of awareness, is a very effective tool (even more so than the khula, as explained
________________________
223 Chapter 2 v 232.

224 “For those who take an oath for abstention from their wives, a waiting for four months is ordained; if then
they return, Allah is Oft-forgiving, Most Merciful. But if their intention is firm for divorce, Allah heareth
and knoweth all things” (Qur’Ɨn, ch 2 v 226–7).
225 “Allah has not made for any man two hearts in his (one) body: nor has He made your wives whom ye divorce
by Zihar your mothers: nor has He made your adopted sons your sons. Such is (only) your (manner of) speech
by your mouths. But Allah tells (you) the Truth, and He shows the (right) Way” (Qur’Ɨn, ch 33 v 4); “Allah
has indeed heard (and accepted) the statement of the woman who pleads with thee concerning her husband
and carries her complaint (in prayer) to Allah: and Allah (always) hears the arguments between both sides
among you: for Allah hears and sees (all things). If any men among you divorce their wives by Zihar (call-
ing them mothers), they cannot be their mothers: None can be their mothers except those who gave them
birth. And in fact they use words (both) iniquitous and false: but truly Allah is one that blots out (sins), and
forgives (again and again). But those who divorce their wives by Zihar, then wish to go back on the words
they uttered,– (It is ordained that such a one) should free a slave before they touch each other: Thus are ye
admonished to perform: and Allah is well-acquainted with (all) that ye do. And if any has not (the where-
withal), he should fast for two months consecutively before they touch each other. But if any is unable to do
so, he should feed sixty indigent ones, this, that ye may show your faith in Allah and His Messenger. Those
are limits (set by) Allah. For those who reject (Him), there is a grievous Penalty” (Qur’Ɨn, ch 58 v 1–4).
226 Nasir (2009) 126.
below) at the disposal of a wife trapped in an unhappy marriage. The parties can agree to
include in their contract of marriage that the wife has a right to talƗq. Without therefore
depriving the husband of his inalienable right to talƗq, it allows the wife (who has acquired
the right to talƗq) to terminate her marriage in order to obtain her freedom expeditiously
and without the intervention of any court and furthermore without having to relinquish her
right to claim the full dower.227 Support for it is found in both the Qur’Ɨn228 and Sunnah.229
The same process followed by the husband would apply equally to a wife who issues or
pronounces a talƗq.
(c) Divorce by mutual agreement of the spouses: This form of divorce includes khula
(literally meaning “to take off one’s dress” and refers to a metaphoric description of the
spouses serving as garments to one another)230 and mubara’a (mutual discharge). While
there are variations in the four schools of law, khula is applicable where the aversion or dis-
inclination is on the side of the wife. It is therefore concluded by an offer (from the wife) to
“ransom” herself by, for example, paying her husband an agreed, reasonable sum of money
for her “freedom” or release from the marriage and the acceptance thereof (by the hus-
band).231 The wife usually does not have to give a reason for wanting such a divorce. In
mubara’a, the aversion is mutual and both parties decide to bring the marriage to an end.232
The husband, however, is the one who makes the initial offer of a mutually agreed divorce.
He may not take back his offer before the wife has given him an answer. If the wife accepts
the offer, the divorce is effective immediately. If the wife, however, initiates this process,
she may take back her offer at any time prior to acceptance by the husband.
(d) Judicial divorce (tafriq):233 Islamic law also allows for divorce by judicial intervention
where a court arbitrates and pronounces a divorce. The husband or wife can bring a suit for
a judicial order of separation. The two methods of judicial dissolution of a marriage are li’an
and faskh. Li’an (mutual imprecation) is generally classified under this category although it
is not strictly speaking a judicial termination of the marriage. This divorce is invoked
where, although there is no formal evidence of adultery, the husband accuses his wife of
having committed adultery. He may for this reason, for example, also deny paternity of a
child born of her. The husband (and in her turn, the wife who refutes it) will be asked to
swear an oath as to what he or she believes to be the truth.234 Faskh, as a form of divorce,
although available to both spouses, is usually only utilised by women since men have the
(unilateral) right to talƗq. It is the only way that a wife can obtain an irrevocable235 divorce
(as understood in secular law) without her husband’s consent and participation and is
allowed by all the schools although the schools differ in their opinions on both the grounds
________________________
227 Rahman vol 1 (1978) 339–352.

228 Qur’Ɨn, ch 33 v 28. See note 102.
229 Ahmad (1984) 184–185; Rahman vol 1 (1978) 340.
230 “[Y]our wives. They are your garments and ye are their garments” (Qur’Ɨn, ch 2 v 187).
231 El Alami and Hinchcliffe (1996) 27.
232 El Alami and Hinchcliffe (1996) 27; Rahman vol 1 (1978) 552.
233 Nasir (2002) 106 and 119 uses the more modern Arabic term “tafriq” (literally meaning separation) to
indicate divorce by judicial intervention. This type of dissolution has its basis in the Qur’Ɨn, ch 4 v 35 (see
note 116 above) and the Sunnah.
234 “And for those who launch a charge against their spouses, and have (in support) no evidence but their
own,– their solitary evidence (can be received) if they bear witness four times (with an oath) by Allah that
they are solemnly telling the truth; And the fifth (oath) (should be) that they solemnly invoke the curse of
Allah on themselves if they tell a lie. But it would avert the punishment from the wife, if she bears witness
four times (with an oath) By Allah, that (her husband) is telling a lie; And the fifth (oath) should be that she
solemnly invokes the wrath of Allah on herself if (her accuser) is telling the truth. If it were not for Allah’s
grace and mercy on you, and that Allah is Oft-Returning, full of Wisdom – (Ye would be ruined indeed)”
(Qur’Ɨn, ch 24 v 6–10).
235 See fn 124.
(complaints) of dissolution as well as the procedure to be followed. In this case the wife
usually has a valid reason (or complaint) for seeking a divorce. The wife may, for example,
apply for faskh on the following grounds:236
• injury or discord between the wife and husband;
• failure of the husband to provide maintenance;
• physical and mental defect on the husband’s part; or
• husband’s prolonged absence sine causa (desertion) or his imprisonment.
The effect of such a court-decided divorce is that once granted by a court for any of the
above reasons, then the wife does not have to make any payment to the husband nor does
she have to forfeit or reimburse her dower (mahr).
What may cause some confusion is that faskh has also been translated to mean “annulment”
and therefore to denote the formal judicial rescission of an Islamic marriage. An annulled
marriage is one that, in certain circumstances, is held to be null and void ab initio (deemed
not to have taken place at all) or one that started out as valid but later became invalid. This
would typically be the case where it is discovered that the spouses are close blood relations
who were not allowed to marry each other in the first place or where either of the spouses
later renounces Islam (apostasy). In these cases, the marriage is automatically annulled and
therefore there is no question of a divorce. The judicial annulment merely serves to legally
confirm the non-existence of the marriage.237
14.3.4 Some comments

There are various modes of revocable or irrevocable talƗq, some being more meritorious than
others, and yet other modes that are considered not to be of much importance today and there-
fore simply treated as virtually non-existent.
The least meritorious form of talƗq is the controversial talƗq al-bid’a or instant divorce. This
mode of talƗq dissolves the marriage immediately and irrevocably. Since the primary sources of
Islam frown upon this form of divorce and most countries238 have outlawed it, it is not
uncommon for people to dismiss this form as no longer applicable. However, even though there
is very little that can be considered “proper” about this form of divorce, it is still practised and
recognised by the layman and indeed certain religious authorities as a valid Islamic law form of
divorce and often exercised to the detriment of Muslim women.
TalƗq is the unilateral and exclusive right of the husband. While he may delegate the power to
pronounce the talƗq to some other person (an agent), or indeed the wife, divorce at the latter’s
initiative is particularly difficult. While knowledge on the part of women of the various forms of
divorce at their disposal can certainly be used to their advantage, practical realities indicate
otherwise. The delegated divorce (talƗq al-tafwid), for example, is under-utilised. Many Muslims,
especially women, are not aware of this possibility and it is not used in popular local contracts.
What is more, in some countries where a stipulation to this effect is automatically incorporated
in a marriage contract, it is not uncommon for this particular clause to be deleted at the inception
of the marriage, to the detriment of the wife.
While it is true that certain forms of divorce, such as khula, can be initiated by women, it is
equally true that in most of these instances, women literally need the co-operation of men and
must have the financial means to effectively do so. The talƗq of the wife (by the husband)
ultimately remains the basis of a Muslim divorce. It is therefore contended that the notion of a
________________________
236 For a detailed discussion of these and other grounds, see Nasir (2002) 120–133.
237 See Nasir (2002) 133 and Nasir (2009) 108.
238 The practice of triple talƗq was recently declared to be unconstitutional by the Indian Supreme Court. See
BBC News (22 August 2017) accessible at https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-41008802.
husband’s unilateral right to divorce goes contrary to the real and ethical spirit of equality, evi-
dent in the Islamic law of marriage and divorce. Islam must be viewed in a historical and decon-
textualised context. From the viewpoint of normative Islam (an Islam relevant for all times to
come), women and men are essentially equal, despite biological and other differences.
This contention is further supported by the fact that state legal systems have sought to exer-
cise some, if not much, control over the Islamic law of divorce and its consequences, and further
that the trend for reforms in Islamic law have been towards reducing the ease and facility with
which the process of talƗq has been customarily practised, whilst women’s rights to divorce
have been both strengthened and expanded in various countries.
In South Africa, Islamic marriages are in the process of being recognised through proposed
legislation. Two key objectives of the 2010 Muslim Marriages Bill (MMB),239 which has yet to
be adopted by Parliament, are to regulate the termination of Muslim marriages240 and the con-
sequences flowing from such termination241 according to the broad guidelines of Islamic law.
The proposed legislation, rather than (further) reforming divorce laws, accords with Islamic law
as it is currently understood and implemented in practice in the Muslim world while at the same
time attempting to remain true to the Constitution of South Africa. The MMB seeks to ensure
knowledge of the divorce on the part of the wife and finalisation of the process of divorce.
Whether or not the judiciary will succeed in encouraging the legislature to enact the proposed
legislation, it is ultimately not the role of the judiciary to pronounce on the formal recognition or
dissolution242 of Muslim marriages.
14.3.5 Conclusion
The fundamentals and some of the complexities of the Islamic law of divorce have been high-
lighted. Women’s rights are, however, diminished by interpretations of the Sunni schools of law,
which are sometimes at variance with the spirit of equality inherent in Islam. Positive innov-
ations in this field in certain Muslim countries have benefited women. It should be borne in
mind that the overall spirit of the Islamic law of divorce emphasises both equity and decent
behaviour. In disputes such as divorce, Muslims often resort to using the alternative mechanisms
as a first step to dispute resolution. In a bid to focus on reconciliation rather than separating
spouses, more emphasis therefore needs to be placed on formal or informal arbitration or media-
tion before the divorce and before recourse to adjudication in the courts is sought.
14.4 Muslim inheritance (mirƗth)243

Muslim inheritance is another component of Muslim personal law. It encompasses the body of
Islamic law that regulates what must happen to the estate of a Muslim person after his or her
death.244 As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, most Muslims in South Africa follow
________________________
239 The Muslim Marriages Bill of 2010 is an amended version of the 2003 Muslim Marriages Bill. It is the
latest published version and was published for public comment in January 2011: General Notice 37 GG
33946 of 21 January 2011. The 2010 MMB is available at http://www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/33946_
gen37.pdf (accessed 21 July 2018).
240 Clause 9.
241 Clauses 10 and 11.
242 In a letter to the editor of the South African attorneys’ journal, De Rebus, dated 27 November 2015, the
acting judge in the case of S v S (GJ) (unreported case 2014/05928 of 26 September 2014), in clarifying an
error that arose in the transcription of the order, verifies the following as far as the dissolution of a Muslim
marriage is concerned: “[t]he order given in court did not dissolve an Islamic marriage and does not serve
as a precedent for such relief in the High Court.” See Andrews (27 November 2015) accessible at
http://www.derebus.org.za/letters-to-the-editor-4/.
243 For a discussion about Muslim inheritance in South Africa, see Amien (2014) Acta Juridica 192–218;
Rautenbach (2001) 179–185.
244 Jung (1990) i; Brugman (1984) Recht van de Islam 4–14; Jansen (1987) 78; Rautenbach (2001) 15–50. Also
see Mundy in Al-Azmeh (ed) (1988) 1–123. The relevant verses of the Qur’Ɨn dealing with inheritance
include, inter alia, ch 4, v 11–12, and 176.
the Sunni legal tradition. It is therefore the Sunni law of inheritance that will inform the discus-
sion on Muslim inheritance in this chapter.
Islamic law enables a deceased person to die testate and intestate. Muslims may devolve up to
one-third of their estates through a will.245 Devolution of the remaining two-thirds, however, is
prescribed by the Qur’Ɨn and Sunnah. The Qur’Ɨn and Sunnah are both primary sources of
Islamic law.246 While the Qur’Ɨn is deemed to be the written word of God, the Sunnah (con-
tained in book form called ahadƯth) refers to the sayings and practices of Prophet Muhammad.247
14.4.1 Sunni law of intestate succession

14.4.1.1 Basic principles
The basic principles relating to the Sunni law of intestate succession can be summarised as
follows:248
(a) Before any of the deceased’s heirs can inherit from his or her estate, the deceased’s funeral
expenses and the deceased’s creditors must first be paid from the deceased’s estate.
(b) There are three main instances that would disqualify an heir from inheriting under Sunni
law; namely, murder of the deceased by the heir; if the heir or deceased is not Muslim;
and/or apostasy.249
(c) Should the heirs be eligible to inherit, the following rules are applicable:
(aa) The primary heirs of the deceased may not be excluded from inheritance. They con-
sist of the deceased’s parents, surviving spouse(s) and children. The primary heirs are
referred to as the first parentela.250
First parentela
Father Mother
Deceased Spouse(s)
Son(s) Daughter(s)
Figure 14.1
________________________
245 Anderson (1971) ICLQ 11; Coulson (1971) 235; Omar (1988) 7–8; Zaid (1986) 9; Jansen (1987) 78; Abdur
Rahman (1980) 256–258; Layish (1975) 279; Markby (1906) 2; Pearl (1987) 142–144, 148; Sherif (1985)
122. For the requirements of a valid will in Islam, see ‘Abdal-Haqq, Bewley and Thomson (1995) 26;
Markby (1906) 116–117; Roberts (1990) 61–62.
246 Ali (2000) 19–23. Esposito and DeLong-Bas (2001) 3, 5. Bulbulia (1985) CILSA 234.
247 Ali (2000) 19–23. Esposito and DeLong-Bas (2001) 3, 5. Bulbulia (1985) CILSA 234.
248 Omar (1988) 31–33. The illustrations in this paragraph are also based on the illustrations given by Omar
(1988) and Rautenbach (2001) 32–35.
249 ‘Abd al ‘AĠƯAĠƯ (1977) 255–256; Schacht (1964) 170; Coulson (1971) 193–194; Roberts (1990) 66–67;
Pearl (1987) 169.
250 Corbett, Hofmeyr and Kahn (2001) 564 describes parentela as an “order of succession”. It refers to a spe-
cific parental group together with its descendants. The deceased and his or her descendants form the first
parentela. The second parentela consists of the deceased and his or her parents with their descendants. The
deceased and his grandparents with their descendants form the third parentela.
(bb) Based on the principle that the nearer exclude the more remote, there is no represen-
tation of a predeceased beneficiary.
Deceased
Son 1 Son 2 Predeceased Son 3
Son 1 Son 2
Deceased
Figure 14.2
Son 1 and Son 2 inherit the estate of the deceased in equal shares. The sons of the pre-
deceased Son 3 do not represent their father and they inherit nothing.
(cc) Full blood relatives exclude half blood relatives when they are equal in degree.
Mother Father Wife 2
Full Deceased
brother Half
brother
Figure 14.3
The full brother of the deceased would exclude the half-brother of the deceased from
inheritance.
(dd) In general, a woman inherits half of what her male counterpart inherits.251
Deceased
Son 1 Son 2 Daughter
Figure 14.4
In this example, Son 1 would inherit 2/5, Son 2 would inherit 2/5 and the daughter would
inherit 1/5 of the estate of the deceased.
________________________
251 Qur’Ɨn Chapter 4 Verse 11 reads: “Allah commands you in respect of your children’s inheritance. To the
male a share equal to that of two females. If only daughters, two or more, their share is two-thirds. Of the
inheritance, if only one her share is a half.”
(ee) In general, beneficiaries nearer in degree exclude those more remote.
Deceased
Brother 1 Predeceased
Brother 2
Son
Figure 14.5
Brother 1 is nearer in degree to the deceased and therefore excludes the son of the
deceased’s predeceased Brother 2.
14.4.1.2 Classes of heirs

There are three classes of heirs, namely:252
(a) Sharers: are those who are entitled to a fixed share of the inheritance;253
(b) Residuaries: are those who receive no fixed share but succeed to the residue after the claims
of the sharers are satisfied. If there are no sharers, the residuaries will succeed to the whole
estate; and
(c) Distant kindred: are those blood relations who are neither sharers nor residuaries. If there
are no sharers or residuaries, the estate will be divided among the distant kindred who are
entitled to the estate.
________________________
252 Omar (1988) 29. The main difference between the Sunni and Shia law schools is as follows: the Sunni
distinguishes between the agnates and cognates. The result is an unequal position between males and
females and a complex set of rules of succession. On the other hand, the Shia does not make the same dis-
tinction and the agnate and cognate inherit equally. The result is an equal position between males and
females and lesser complex rules of succession. For the position in Shia law, see ‘Abd al ‘AĠƯAĠƯ (1977)
263–267; Coulson (1971) 108; Jung (1990) 60.
253 Surah Al-Nisa (chapter 4), v 7 states:
It is prescribed that when death approaches any of you,
If you leave any property, that you make a bequest to
Parents and next of kin according to equity,
This is a duty on those who fear Allah.
14.4.1.2.1 Sharers254
Sharers (also referred to as Qur’Ɨnic heirs) are those heirs who are entitled to a fixed share of the
inheritance and whose specific shares should be given after payment of funeral expenses, debts
and legacies. Under pre-Islamic customary law, certain Qur’Ɨnic sharers such as females and
cognates were not entitled to succeed. Instead, the nearest male agnate inherited the entire estate
of the deceased, descendants were preferred over ascendants, and ascendants were preferred
over collaterals. There are 12 Qur’Ɨnic sharers, namely:255
(a) Husband: he inherits half where there are no children of a son how-low-so-ever, and a
quarter if there are.
(b) Wife: she inherits a quarter where there are no children of a son how-low-so-ever, and one-
eighth if there are. Two or more wives collectively inherit a quarter or one-eighth, which is
divided equally among them.
(c) Father: he inherits one-sixth where there is a child or child of a son how-low-so-ever. He
inherits as a residuary where there is no child or child of a son how-low-so-ever. He inher-
its both as a sharer and a residuary where there are only daughters or son’s daughters how-
low-so-ever.
(d) Mother: she inherits one-sixth where there is a child or child of a son how-low-so-ever or
where there are two or more brothers or sisters, whether full blood (having the same mother
and father), consanguine (having the same father but different mothers) or uterine (having
the same mother but different fathers). She inherits one-third where no child or child of a
son how-low-so-ever exists, and no more than one brother or sister; but where there is a
wife or husband and the father, only one-third of what remains after deducting the wife’s or
husband’s share.
(e) Grandfather: he is excluded by the father and a nearer paternal grandfather. Where there
are no full or consanguine brothers or sisters, he inherits one-sixth as a sharer with a son or
son’s son how-low-so-ever. He inherits the same as a sharer and co-residuary with the
daughter and the daughter of a son how-low-so-ever. He inherits as a residuary where no
other heirs exist.
(f) Grandmother: whether paternal or maternal, the grandmother is excluded by the mother. In
the absence of other exclusions, she inherits one-sixth.
(g) Daughter: she inherits half where there is no son. Two or more daughters will share two-
thirds of the estate. If there is a son (or sons), the daughter (or daughters) become a co-
residuary – receiving half a son’s share, after deduction of the share of the other sharers.
________________________
254 Abd al ‘AĠƯAĠƯ (1977) 259; Pearl (1987) 149–166; Omar (1988) 29. Qur’Ɨn Chapter 4 v 11 reads:
Allah commands you in respect of your children’s inheritance
To the male a share equal to that of two females,
If only daughters, two or more, their share is two-thirds
Of the inheritance, if only one her share is a half.
For parents, a sixth share of the inheritance to each
If the deceased left children, if no children and the
Parents are the only heirs the mother receives a third,
If the deceased left brothers or sisters the mother
Receives a sixth. In all cases, distribution takes place
After the payment of legacies and debts.
You know not whether your parents or your children
Are nearest to you in benefit.
These are the prescribed shares ordained by Allah
And Allah is All-Knowing, All-Wise.
255 Under Shia law, there are only nine sharers, namely the husband, wife, mother, father, uterine brother,
daughter, full sister, consanguine sister and uterine sister. See Jung (1990) 61.
(h) Son’s daughter: she inherits in the following four cases:

(aa) where she is alone, she inherits half of the estate;
(bb) where there are two or more than two daughters, they share two-thirds of the estate
equally;
(cc) where there is a daughter of the deceased she receives half the estate, and the
deceased’s son’s daughter receives one-sixth; and
(dd) where there is a grandson, the deceased’s son’s daughters become residuaries and the
residue of the estate is divided among them in terms of the rule that the male receives
twice that of a female. The son’s daughter does not inherit where the deceased had
two or more daughters or a son.
(i) Full sister: she inherits only where there is no son how-low-so-ever or where there is no
father how-high-so-ever. She inherits in the following four cases:
(aa) if only one sister exists, she receives half the estate;
(bb) if there are two or more, they share two-thirds;
(cc) where the deceased left a brother, the full sister becomes a residuary and the rule that
the male receives twice that of a female is applicable; and
(dd) where the deceased left a daughter or son’s daughter, the full sister receives the
residue after the daughter/son’s daughter receive their shares.
(j) Consanguine sister: she does not inherit in the presence of a son or grandson of the
deceased and in the presence of the deceased’s father. The rules governing inheritance by a
consanguine sister are similar to those governing the full sister;
(k) Uterine sister: she inherits in the following two cases:
(aa) where the deceased’s issue is also deceased, and no father or grandfather exists, the
uterine sister receives one-sixth of the estate; and
(bb) where there are two or more uterine brothers or sisters, they share one-third equally.
(l) Uterine brother: he is excluded as a sharer or residuary by any descendant or any male
ascendant. Otherwise, he receives one-sixth on his own or shares one-third with brother/s or
sister/s.
14.4.1.2.2 Residuaries256
After the sharers have been allotted their shares, the residuaries inherit the balance or residue of
the estate. There are three types of residuaries, namely, residuaries in their own right, residuaries
through another and residuaries with another. There are three general rules in respect of residu-
aries. These are:
(a) nearer in degree excludes the more remote;
(b) where they are of equal degree, strength of blood tie becomes the criterion; and
(c) distribution takes place in accordance with the per capita principle.
Residuaries in their own right: Residuaries in their own right are all the male relatives of the
deceased. There are four categories of such relatives in the following order of priority:
(a) the son and the son’s son how-low-so-ever;
________________________
256 Also referred to as agnatic heirs. Their shares are described in the Qur’Ɨn. See ‘Abd al ‘AĠƯAĠƯ (1977) 261.
However, it may not be entirely correct to refer to this category of beneficiaries as agnatic heirs, since
women are also included in some respects as residuaries. For further details, see Jung (1990) 16–25; Omar
(1988) 29, 59–66; Hidayatullah and Hidayatullah (1990) 54–63.
(b) the male ascendants of the deceased, that is the father and paternal grandfather (father’s
father) how-high-so-ever;
(c) the descendants of the father of the deceased, that is full or consanguine brothers and their
sons how-low-so-ever; and
(d) the descendants of paternal grandfathers how-high-so-ever.
Category (a) excludes category (b) and so on. Within the same category, the nearer excludes the
more distant. If relatives are equal in category and nearness, the stronger relative takes prece-
dence for example, a full sister would precede a uterine half-blood sister. If relatives are equal in
all respects, they receive equal shares.
Residuaries through another: Residuaries through another are all female sharers who require a
male residuary to share with. They are:
(a) the daughter (with the son);
(b) the son’s daughter (with the son’s son);
(c) the full sister (with the full brother); and
(d) the consanguine sister (with the consanguine brother).
Residuaries with another: Residuaries with another consists of two females, a full sister and a
consanguine sister.
14.4.1.2.3 Distant kindred (dhawi ul-arham) 257

Distant kindred are those relatives who are neither sharers nor residuaries. Literally, dhawi
ul- arham means “relatives by virtue of the womb”. They inherit when there are no sharers or
residuaries.258 They are divided into four categories, in the following order of priority:259
(a) descendants of the deceased through a female link (for example, children of the deceased’s
daughter);
(b) ascendants of the deceased through a female link (for example, the mother’s father);
(c) descendants of the deceased’s parents; and
(d) descendants of the deceased’s grandparents.
14.4.2 Distinction between Muslim and South African laws of inheritance

South African law does not recognise Muslim inheritance laws. If a Muslim dies in South
Africa, his or her estate will devolve according to the South African law of succession. The
South African law of succession differs from Muslim inheritance laws in material respects.
These differences may be summarised as follows:260
(a) Muslim inheritance laws do not distinguish between real and personal property, movable
and immovable property and joint and separate property. In terms of South African law, it
________________________
257 A detailed discussion of the different categories and manner of succession falls outside the scope of this
book. For further information, see ‘Abd al ‘AĠƯAĠƯ (1977) 261–263; Hidayatullah and Hidayatullah (1999)
63–80; Omar (1988) 29; Jung (1990) 42–59.
258 It is important to remember that the nearest relative to the deceased excludes the more distant relative, and
if the relatives are equal according to their category, the stronger relative will exclude the weaker relative. If
they are equally strong, they will inherit collectively. See Jung (1990) 42; Markby (1906) 132–134.
259 See Jung (1990) 41–42.
260 Rautenbach (2001) 43–45.
is necessary to distinguish between these concepts, since the transfer of property differs
depending on the nature of the property.
(b) The testator under Islamic law has limited freedom of testation in that he or she may only
bequeath one third of his or her estate by means of a will. The rest of his or her estate must
devolve according to the rules of Muslim intestate succession. In South Africa, the testator
has, in principle, unlimited freedom of testation.
(c) Under Muslim inheritance laws, ascendants inherit alongside descendants, while in the
South African law of intestate succession, the existence of descendants exclude intestate
succession to ascendants.
(d) There is no right of representation in Muslim inheritance laws. A beneficiary must be alive
at the death of the testator to inherit from him or her. In South African law, representation
takes place if a beneficiary is predeceased, unworthy to inherit, or if he or she repudiates
the bequest.261
(e) In the South African law of intestate succession, an adopted child has the same rights as the
natural children of the adoptive parents. Therefore, an adoptive child has the right to inherit
from the adoptive parents as if he or she was their natural child. On the other hand, Islamic
law does not recognise adopted children as natural children of the adoptive parents and they
will therefore not inherit as the natural children of the Muslim testator.
(f) The rules of intestate succession under Islamic law differ substantially from the South
African rules of intestate succession.
In light of the fact that Muslim personal law is not legally recognised in South Africa, Muslim
inheritance laws can only be applied to the estate of a deceased Muslim if they are contained in
the will of such a person. A Muslim testator may therefore utilise the South African principle of
freedom of testation to ensure that his or her estate devolves according to the Muslim laws of
inheritance. A Muslim who wants his or her estate to devolve according to Islamic law could
make a will with a general clause, which may read as follows:262
I hereby bequeath my whole estate to my heirs to be determined at the time of my death in accordance with,
and in the proportions specified by the Islamic law of succession. A certificate furnished by an expert in that
law, or a qualified Muslim theologian, setting forth my heirs and their respective shares according to the
Islamic law of succession, shall be final and binding.
It is highly unlikely that the office of the Master of the High Court will not accept such a clause
as binding if the will complies with all the formalities of a valid will. As illustrated in Moosa
v Harnaker,263 discussed earlier in this chapter, the certificate of a qualified Muslim theologian,
usually an imƗm, must be attached to the original will or to the final liquidation and distri-
bution account of the deceased estate to indicate how the will must be distributed between the
beneficiaries.264
A testator could also use the devolution of one-third of his or her estate through a will to try
and equalise the position of his or her heirs. For example, a husband may bequeath up to one-
third of his estate to his non-Muslim wife provided it does not exceed the Qur’Ɨnic shares of his
Muslim wife or wives.265 However, a testator cannot make provision for a Qur’Ɨnic heir from
the one-third portion of his or her estate that devolves via a will.266
________________________
261 See, however, Moosa v Harnaker 2017 (6) SA 425 (WCC) where the court extended statutory representa-
tion in terms of section 2C(1) of the Wills Act to polygynous Muslim marriages.
262 Omar (1988) 11.
263 2017 (6) SA 425 (WCC).
264 Telephonic interview between the editor and the Office of the Master of the High Court on 5 August 2000.
In Fakroodeen v Fakroodeen 1972 (1) SA 178 (D), the duty to determine the rightful beneficiaries was in
the hands of the appointed executors of the deceased estate.
265 ‘Abdal-Haqq, Bewley and Thomson (1995) 25.
266 Omar (1988) 7; Markby (1906) 2.
A second method to ensure that one’s estate devolves according to Islamic law is to create a
trust mortis causa or inter vivos. The Muslim testator could bequeath his or her estate to a trust
to be administered by the trustees according to Islamic law. The relevant clauses of the will
could read as follows:267
I direct that after my death the whole of my estate shall be paid over or transferred to my Trustee in trust
who shall hold such inheritance subject to the following conditions;
(1) The income of the trust shall after payment of necessary expenses be divided among my said heirs
determined at the time of my death in accordance with and in the proportions prescribed by the
Islamic Law of Succession.
(2) The corpus of the trust shall on termination be divided among my said heirs in the said proportions.
(3) In the event of any heir dying before the date of termination of the trust, the share of income and
capital due to such deceased heir (“the deceased”) shall be divided among the heirs of the deceased
according to and in the proportions prescribed by the Islamic Law of Succession.
A trust may ensure that the estate of a deceased eventually succeeds to the beneficiaries accord-
ing to Muslim inheritance laws. However, the creation of such a trust with the exclusive inten-
tion to ensure distribution between beneficiaries according to the laws of Muslim inheritance
would be a costly and time-consuming exercise.
Another situation that Muslim testators in South Africa should be cautious about is the legal
position of their spouses.268 As noted previously, non-recognition of Muslim marriages in South
Africa means that the surviving spouse of a Muslim marriage is not treated as a legal spouse for
all purposes. He or she may therefore not inherit if only referred to as “spouse”, “wife” or
“husband” in the text of the will.269 Until Muslim marriages are afforded legal recognition, it is
recommended that a Muslim testator includes an additional clause to his or her will that reads as
follows:270
I hereby give, devise and bequeath my entire estate and effects to my heirs to be determined at the time of
my death in accordance with, and in the proportions prescribed by the Islamic Law of Succession. Provided
that the word ‘heirs’ shall include . . . my wife Gadija [or husband Muhammad], …
Such a clause would ensure that the surviving spouse is not excluded from inheriting.271
________________________
267 Omar (1988) 23.

268 Rautenbach (2001) 46.
269 However, in this regard, see further the cases of Hassam v Jacobs [2008] 4 All SA 350 (C) and Hassam v
Jacobs 2009 (5) SA 572 (CC), which are briefly discussed in ch 4.
270 Omar (1988) 25.
271 Rautenbach (2001) 46.
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Table of Statutes
Page Page
A Annexation Act 41 of 1895 (Cape) .............. 37
Abolition of Racially Based Land s 16 ............................................................ 37
Measures Act 108 of 1991 ..... 128, 129, 134
B
s 87 ......................................................... 129
s 87(4) .................................................... 129 Bantu Homelands Constitution
Act 1 of 1899 (Natal)................................. 174 Act 21 of 1971 ........................................ 221
Addis Ababa Declaration on Ending Births and Deaths Registration
Child Marriage in Africa ................ 171, 172 Act 51 of 1992 .......................................... 65
s 1(2)(a) ..................................................... 65
Administration of Estates s 2 ............................................................ 111
Act 66 of 1965
s 2A ........................................................ 192 Black Administration Act
s 4(1A) ................................................... 191 38 of 1927 ..........................9, 38, 43, 52, 54,
s 18(3) .................................................... 192 210, 220, 223, 245,
246, 247, 248, 254, 265
Administration of Estates Amendment
Sch 3 ....................................................... 251
Act 47 of 2002 ....................................... 191
s 1 ............................................................ 220
Administrative Authorities s 2 ............................................................ 220
Act (Ck) 37 of 1984 ............................... 221 s 6 .................................................. 9, 38, 129
African Charter on the Rights s 7 .................................................. 9, 38, 129
and Welfare of the Child ................ 171, 172 s 8 ...................................................... 38, 129
Age of Majority s 10 .......................................................... 220
Act 57 of 1972 ........................... 41, 88, 133 s 11(1) ........................................... 38, 42, 43
Aliens Act 1 of 1937 ................................... 12 s 11(3) ....................................................... 96
s 12 ................9, 38, 211, 220, 252, 253, 259
Amendment of Certain Laws s 12(1) ....................................... 40, 252, 253
Act 28 of 2005 ................................. 52, 220 s 12(1)(a) ................................................... 26
Amendment of the Regulations s 12(1)(b) ................................................ 253
for the Administration and Control s 12(2) ..................................................... 252
of Townships in Black Areas s 12(3) ..................................................... 252
(Proc R153 of 1983)............................... 190 s 12(4) ............................................. 252, 262
Amendment of the Regulations for the s 12(6) ..................................................... 253
Administration and Distribution of s 20 ................9, 38, 211, 220, 249, 250, 259
Estates (GN R1501 of 2002) .......... 188, 191
405
Page Page
Black Administration Act, 38 of 1927 Bophuthatswana Traditional Authorities
(continued) Act 23 of 1978 ........................................ 221
s 20(1)(a) ............................................ 26, 40 Bophuthatswana Traditional Courts
s 20(2) ............................................ 250, 251 Act 29 of 1979 (Bop) .............................. 248
s 20(4) .................................................... 249 Black Marriages and Estates
s 20(5) .................................................... 250 (Proc 142 of 1910) .......................... 189, 190
s 20(5)(a) ................................................ 251 Botswana’s Common Law and
s 20(5)(b) ................................................ 251 Customary Law Act Cap 16:01 ................ 44
s 20(5)(c) ................................................ 252 s 6(1) ......................................................... 44
s 20(6) ............................................ 250, 263
Broad-based Black Economic
s 20(9) .................................................... 250 Empowerment Act 53 of 2003.................. 10
s 22 ................................................. 113, 114 s 1 .............................................................. 10
s 22(1)–(5) .............................................. 114
Business Registration Act 5 of 2003
s 22(1) ............................................ 113, 114
(Limpopo) ............................................... 239
s 22(2) .................................................... 114
s 22(5) .................................................... 113 Business Registration Regulations,
GN 99 of 2015 (Limpopo) ...................... 239
s 22(6) .................................... 113, 114, 188
s 22(7) ............................................ 113, 114 C
s 23 .................................... 43, 45, 186, 187,
Cape Native Succession Act of 1864 ............. 8
188, 189, 192, 193
s 23(1) .................................................... 187 Caste Disabilities Removal
s 23(2) .................................................... 187 Act 21 of 1850 ................................ 281, 302
s 23(3) .................................................... 187 Cattle Removal Act 14 of 1870 (Cape) ...... 174
s 23(5) .................................................... 187 Cattle Stealing Act 1 of 1889 (Cape) ......... 174
s 23(6) .................................................... 187 Child Care Act 74 of 1983 ........................... 41
s 23(9) .................................................... 191 Preamble ................................................... 41
s 23(11) .................................................. 187 s 18(1)(a) ................................................. 111
s 23(10) .................................. 187, 188, 190
Chief’s and Headmen’s Civil Courts
s 25 ......................................... 128, 129, 220
Reg 10(1)(d)............................................ 263
s 25(7)–(9) .............................................. 187
Reg 11 ..................................................... 263
s 25(7)(a) ........................................ 187, 191
Rule 1 ...................................................... 256
s 31 ......................................................... 188 Rule 1(1) ................................................. 254
s 35 ................................................... 41, 250 Rule 2 ...................................................... 256
Black Administration Amendment Rule 3 ...................................................... 256
Act 9 of 1929 ......................................... 263 Rule 4 ...................................................... 256
Black Authorities Act 68 of 1951 ..... 221, 223 Rule 5 ...................................................... 256
Black Areas Land Regulations Rule 6 ...................................... 254, 256, 257
(Proc R188 of 1969)......................... 43, 128 Rule 7 .............................................. 254, 257
Annexure 24 ............................................. 43 Rule 8 .............................................. 254, 257
Reg 35 .................................................... 190 Rule 9–12 ................................................ 257
Black Laws Amendment Rule 13 .................................................... 257
Act 76 of 1963 Rule 13(2) ............................................... 257
s 31 ................................... 88, 161, 175, 176 Rules R2082 of 1967 ...................... 248, 253
s 31(1) ...................................................... 87 Chiefs’ Courts Act (Tk) 6 of 1983 ............. 248
s 31(5) .................................................... 175 Children’s Act 38 of 2005 .......... 103, 171, 172
Bombay Prevention of Hindu Bigamous Chapter 15 ....................................... 108, 109
Marriages Act 25 of 1946 ...................... 286 Chapter 16 ............................................... 108
Statutes 407
Page Page
Children’s Act 38 of 2005 (continued) Communal Land Rights Act (CLARA)
s 12 ......................................................... 161 11 of 2004 (continued)
s 12(1) .................................................... 171 Chapter 4 .................................................... 134
s 12(2) .................................................... 171 Chapter 5 .................................................... 134
s 17 ................................................... 88, 162 Chapter 6 .................................................... 134
s 23 ......................................................... 111 Chapter 7 .................................................... 134
s 24 ......................................................... 111 Chapter 8 .................................................... 134
s 228 ....................................................... 109 Chapter 9 .................................................... 134
s 230(2) .................................................. 109 s 1 ............................................................... 134
s 230(3)(c) .............................................. 111 s 4 ............................................................... 135
s 233(1)(a) .............................................. 111 s 12 ............................................................. 134
s 233(1)(c) .............................................. 109 Communal Property Associations
s 236 ....................................................... 111 Act 28 of 1996 ................................ 134, 140
s 236(1)(b) .............................................. 111
s 242(2)(a) .............................................. 109 Constitution of the Republic of South
s 242(3) .................................................. 109 Africa Act 200 of 1993
(interim Constitution) ........... 29, 39, 68, 222
Ciskei Administrative Authorities Chapter 11 .................................................. 222
Act 37 of 1984 ....................................... 248 s 7 ................................................................. 68
Civil Procedure Code ................................ 279 s 35(1)........................................................... 75
Civil Union Act 17 of 2006 ......................... 64 s 39 ............................................................... 75
s 8(2) .......................................................... 112 s 181 ............................................................. 39
s 8(3) .......................................................... 112 s 229 ........................................................... 222
s 13(2) ................................................ 112, 113 Constitution of the Republic of South
Code of Zulu Law of 1878 ...................... 8, 30 Africa, 1996 .................7, 13, 19, 21, 27, 34,
39, 42, 49, 51, 52, 54, 64,
Commission for the Promotion 66, 68, 69, 123, 126,
and Protection of the Rights 127, 134, 172, 265, 266
of Cultural, Religious and Linguistic s 1(a) ......................................................... 71
Communities Act 19 of 2002 ................... 75
s 2 .............................................................. 69
Communal Land Tenure s 6 .............................................................. 23
Bill of 2017 ............................ 131, 135, 140 s 6(1) ......................................................... 23
Sch.......................................................... 129 s 7(1) ....................................................... 351
clause 2................................................... 138 s 7(2) ............................................... 360, 362
clause 3................................................... 138 s 8(1) ......................................................... 68
clause 4........................................... 130, 139 s 8(2) ................................................... 40, 70
clause 5................................................... 139 s 9 ..............96, 161, 162, 164, 191, 250, 360
clause 6................................................... 139 s 9(1) ....................................................... 104
clause 9................................................... 139 s 9(3) .......................21, 70, 71, 72, 104, 193
clause 11................................................. 139 s 9(5) ......................................................... 71
clause 12................................................. 139 s 10 .......................................... 161, 193, 360
clause 13................................................. 139 s 12 .................................................. 161, 246
clauses 25–27 ......................................... 139 s 15 ......................................54, 70, 108, 360
clause 28................................................. 139 s 15(1) ...............................21, 64, 73, 74, 75
clause 29................................................. 139 s 15(3) ..................................................... 108
clauses 32–35 ......................................... 139 s 15(3)(a) ............................................. 64, 68
clauses 36–40 ......................................... 139 s 15(3)(a)(i) ......................................... 42, 75
Communal Land Rights s 15(3)(a)(ii) ........................................ 42, 75
Act (CLARA) 11 of 2004 ............. 131, 136, s 15(3)(b) .................................................. 75
138, 140, 141, 190, 235 s 16(1) ............................................. 247, 259
Chapter 3 ................................................... 134 s 16(1)(c) ................................................... 24
Page Page
Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Republic
of South Africa, 1996 (continued) of South Africa, 1996 (continued)
s 18 ................................................... 24, 329 s 239 ........................................................ 241
s 20 ......................................................... 246 Sch 4 ................................................. 40, 189
s 25 ................................................. 141, 143 Sch 6 ....................................................... 247
s 25(5) ............................................ 133, 139 Sch 6, item 2 ................................... 222, 247
s 25(6) .................................................... 133 Chapter 2 ......................................... 161, 212
s 25(7) ............................................ 133, 139 Chapter 3 ................................................. 241
s 25(9) .................................................... 133 Chapter 12 ............................................... 213
s 26 ......................................................... 354 Bill of Rights .................27, 29, 33, 39, 40, 51,
s 28 ......................................... 161, 193, 360 68, 69, 72, 76, 108, 111, 119,
s 28(2) .............................................. 41, 102 141, 161, 235, 247
s 30 .................................. 21, 22, 23, 24, 45, s 1 ............................................................ 209
74, 75, 84, 161, 248
s 2 ............................................................ 209
s 31 .................................. 22, 23, 24, 45, 64,
s 7 ............................................................ 209
68, 70, 75, 161, 248, 360
s 8 ............................................................ 209
s 31(1) ........................................ 21, 74, 329
s 8(1) ....................................................... 212
s 31(2) ................................................ 71, 72
s 8(2) ......................................................... 76
s 34 ......................................................... 360
s 9 ...................................................... 76, 212
s 35 ......................................................... 256
s 9(2) ....................................................... 213
s 36 ............................................. 71, 72, 193
s 9(3) ....................................................... 211
s 36(1) ........................................ 71, 72, 329
s 30 ............................................................ 42
s 36(2) ...................................................... 72
s 31 ............................................................ 42
s 38(a)..................................................... 193
s 38(c)..................................................... 193 s 31(1) ....................................................... 42
s 38(d) .................................................... 193 s 35(3)(c) ................................................. 259
s 39 ........................................................... 75 s 35(3)(f) ................................................. 259
s 39(1)(b) ............................................ 73, 75 s 35(3)(g) ................................................ 259
s 39(2) ................ 33, 40, 51, 52, 56, 67, 161 s 39(2) ............................................... 76, 213
s 75 ......................................................... 136 s 39(3) ..................................................... 213
s 76 ................................................. 136, 140 s 40 .......................................................... 213
s 143(1)(b) ................................................ 21 s 41 .......................................................... 213
s 165(2) .................................................. 259 s 151 ........................................................ 213
s 166 ....................................................... 246 s 211 ........................................................ 222
s 166(e)................................................... 247 s 211(1) ........................................... 209, 211
s 172(1)(a) ................................................ 69 s 211(2) ................................................... 212
s 181(1)(b) .............................................. 192 s 212 ................................................ 213, 222
s 184 ....................................................... 192 s 212(2)(a) ............................................... 231
s 185 ..................................... 21, 33, 75, 192 Conversion of Certain Rights into
s 186 ........................................... 21, 75, 192 Leasehold Act 81 of 1988
s 211 ......................................................... 56 s 11 .......................................................... 190
s 211(1) .................................................. 246 Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and
s 211(2) .................................................. 246 Related Matters) Amendment
s 211(3) ............... 13, 19, 20, 32, 39, 40, 41, Act 32 of 2007 ................................ 161, 171
54, 261, 262, 264
Criminal Procedure Act 51 of 1977 ........... 263
s 231(4) .............................................. 73, 75
s 309A ..................................................... 263
s 231(5) .................................................... 73
s 232 ......................................................... 73 Criminal Procedure Code ........................... 279
s 233 ......................................................... 73 Customary Law Amendment Decree
s 235 ......................................................... 21 (Ciskei) Act 23 of 1991 .......................... 223
Statutes 409
Page Page
Customary Male Initiation Practice Draft Bill for the Regulation
Act 5 of 2016 (Eastern Cape)................. 239 of Customary Courts (continued)
s 2(2) ...................................................... 239 cl 11 ........................................................ 266
s 8 ........................................................... 239 cl 13 ........................................................ 266
s 10 ......................................................... 239 cl 14 ........................................................ 266
s 12 ......................................................... 239
s 16 ......................................................... 239 E
Emergency Regulations Proc
D 109 of 1986 ............................................... 15
Death Duties Act 11 of 1947 ..................... 282 Extension of Security of Tenure
Demobilisation Act 99 of 1996 ................... 65 Act 62 of 1997 (ESTA)........................... 126
s 1 ............................................................. 65 s 1 ............................................................... 142
Disaster Management Act 57 of 2002 ....... 238 s 4 ............................................................... 142
s 5(1)(e)(vi) ............................................ 238 s 5 ....................................................... 199, 200
s 7(2)(f)(i)............................................... 238 s 6(1)................................................... 199, 200
s 37(1)(e)(v) ........................................... 238 s 6(2)................................................... 142, 199
s 51(1)(d)(iv) .......................................... 238 s 6(2)(d) ...................................................... 142
s 6(2)(dA) ........................................... 142, 200
Disaster Management Amendment
s 6(3)........................................................... 199
Act 16 of 2015 ....................................... 238
s 6(4)................................................... 199, 200
Dissolution of Muslim Marriages s 9 ............................................................... 142
Act 8 of 1939 ......................................... 348 s 10 ............................................................. 142
Divorce Act 70 of 1979 .................. 14, 41, 65, s 11 ............................................................. 142
67, 284, 296, 297, 357, 361, 363 s 19(3)......................................................... 142
s 5A .................................................. 14, 331
s 6 ........................................................... 102 H
s 7 ........................................................... 103 Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance
s 7(1) ...................................................... 105 Act 78 of 1956 ................................ 289, 290
s 7(2) ...................................................... 105 Hindu Inheritance (Removal of Disabilities)
s 7(3) .............................................. 103, 104 Act 12 of 1928
s 7(4)–(7) ................................................ 104 s 2 ............................................................ 302
s 7(4) .............................................. 103, 104
s 7(5) .............................................. 103, 104 Hindu Law of Inheritance (Amendment)
s 7(6) .............................................. 103, 104 Act 2 of 1929 .......................................... 308
s 7(7) .............................................. 103, 104 Hindu Marriage
s 7(8) ...................................................... 104 Act 25 of 1955 ................279, 285, 295, 296
s 8 ........................................................... 103 s 2 ............................................................ 273
s 9 ........................................................... 103 s 5 ............................................................ 286
s 10 ......................................................... 103 Hindu Marriage Validity
Domestic Partnerships Bill of 2008 .......... 101 Act 38 of 1949 ........................................ 286
Dowry Prohibition Act 28 of 1961 ............ 294 Hindu Married Women’s Right
to Separate Maintenance and
Draft Bill for the Regulation
Residence Act 37 of 1946 ....................... 290
of Customary Courts .............................. 265
cl 2 .......................................................... 265 Hindu Succession Act
cl 4 .......................................................... 265 30 of 1956 ............................... 279, 301, 304
cl 5 .......................................................... 265 s 28 .......................................................... 302
cl 6 .......................................................... 265 Hindu Women’s Right to Property
cl 9 .......................................................... 265 Act 18 of 1937 ................279, 289, 300, 305
cl 10 ........................................................ 265 s 3(2) ....................................................... 299
Page Page
House of Traditional Leaders Act Intestate Succession Act 81 of 1987
1 of 1995 (Eastern Cape) ....................... 231 (continued)
s 66–83 ................................................... 231 s 1(4) ....................................................... 196
s 89–92 ................................................... 231 s 1(4)(f) ........................................... 196, 197
s 4 ............................................................ 198
House of Traditional Leaders
Act 6 of 1994 (Free State) ...................... 231
J
I Judicial Matters Amendment Act
55 of 2002 ................................................... 6
Immigration Act of 1902 ............................. 12
s 8 ................................................................ 6
Immigration Quota Act 8 of 1930 ............... 12
Immigrants’ Regulation Act 22 of 1913 K
s 5(2)(b) .................................................. 283 Kaffraria Native Succession Ordinance
of 1864 ........................................................ 8
Indian Constitution ............................ 278, 312
Kwandebele Traditional Authorities
Indian Immigration Law 25
Act 2 of 1994 .......................................... 221
of 1891 ................................................... 281
s 61–89 ................................................... 281 KwaNdebele Traditional Hearings
s 65 ......................................................... 281 of Civil and Criminal Cases by the
Lingwenyama, Amakhosi,
s 66 ......................................................... 281 Amakhosana and Linduna
s 68 ......................................................... 281 Act 8 of 1984 (KwaNdebele).................. 248
s 118 ....................................................... 280
KwaZulu Act on the Payment
Indian Penal Code ..................................... 279 of Salaries, Allowances and other
Indian Laws Amendment Act Privileges to the Ingonyama
68 of 1963 .............................................. 281 Act 6 of 1993 .......................................... 221
s 2 ........................................................... 281 KwaZulu Act on the Code of Zulu Law
s 3 ........................................................... 281 16 of 1985 .................30, 161, 186, 187, 248
Chapter 10 ............................................... 189
Indian Succession Act 39 of 1925
s 1 .............................................. 83, 124, 125
s 63 ......................................................... 301
s 1(1) ....................................................... 153
Insolvency Act 24 of 1936 .......................... 65 s 8 ............................................................ 254
s 21(13) .................................................... 65 s 20 ...................................................... 85, 96
Interim Protection of Informal Land s 36(1) ..................................................... 106
Rights Act 31 of 1996 .................... 132, 141 s 38 ............................................................ 85
s 1 (1) (iii) .................................................. 140 s 58(1) ....................................................... 83
s 2(1) .......................................................... 140 s 81(8) ..................................................... 184
s 2(3) .......................................................... 140 ss 83–90 .................................................. 156
International Covenant on Civil and KwaZulu Amakhosi and
Political Rights, 1966 (ICCPR).......... 75, 76 Iziphakanyiswa Act
art 27 ........................................................ 75 9 of 1990 (KZN) ............................. 221, 248
Intestate Succession KwaZulu-Natal Act on the House
Act 81 of 1987 ........................ 15, 179, 183, of Traditional Leaders 7 of 1994 ............ 232
188, 194, 199, 358, KwaZulu-Natal Ingonyama Trust
359, 361, 362, 369, 284 Act 3 KZ of 1994
s 1 ........................................................... 195 s 2 ............................................................ 134
s 1(1)(c) .................................................. 196 s 3 ............................................................ 134
Statutes 411
Page Page
KwaZulu-Natal Land Administration Maintenance of Surviving Spouses
and Immovable Asset Management Act 27 of 1990 ...................15, 65, 198, 358,
Act 2 of 2014 ......................................... 239 359, 361, 362, 369
s 7 ........................................................... 239 Marriage Act 25 of 1961 ....................... 65, 67,
KwaZulu-Natal Traditional Leadership 283, 284, 353, 357, 359, 361
and Governance Act 5 of 2005 ...... 223, 232 s 11 .......................................................... 297
s 1 ........................................................... 228 s 24A ......................................................... 89
s 30(4) .................................................... 229 s 25 ............................................................ 88
s 53(1) ...................................... 85, 189, 248
Marriage and Matrimonial Property Law
L Amendment Act 3 of 1988 ............. 104, 113
Land Reform (Labour Tenants) Act Matrimonial Property
3 of 1996 ................................................ 126 Act 88 of 1984 ....................41, 96, 104, 361
Chapter 3 ................................................... 142 Chapter 3 ................................................... 99
s 1 ......................................................... 142 Chapter 4 ................................................... 99
s 16 ....................................................... 142 s 18 ............................................................ 99
s 17 ....................................................... 142 s 19 ............................................................ 99
Land Regulations ....................................... 186 s 20 ............................................................ 99
s 24 ............................................................ 99
Law of Evidence Amendment s 24(1) ..................................................... 103
Act 45 of 1988 ......... 13, 20, 32, 37, 38, 283
s 1 ............................................. 53, 94, 262 Mediation in Certain Divorce Matters
s 1(1) ......... 13, 20, 32, 38, 39, 49, 163, 164 Act 24 of 1987 ........................................ 102
s 1(2) ..................................................... 163 Mpumalanga General Laws Repeal
s 1(3) ....................................................... 47 and Application Act 13 of 1998 ............. 248
s 1(4) ................................................. 20, 41 Mpumalanga Provincial House and
Law to Amend Coolie Law Local Houses of Traditional
Consolidation Law 12 of 1872............... 281 Leaders Act 6 of 2005............................. 232
s 13 ....................................................... 281 Multilateral Motor Vehicle Accidents
s 14 ....................................................... 281 Fund Act 93 of 1989 ......................... 65, 355
Local Government: Municipal Muslim Marriage Bill, 2010......... 67, 363, 374
Demarcation Act 27 of 1998 .................. 237 cl 9 .......................................................... 374
s 2 ......................................................... 237 cl 10 ........................................................ 374
Local Government: Municipal cl 11 ........................................................ 374
Structures Act 117 of 1998 Muslim Personal Law (Shariat)
s 81 ....................................................... 229 Application Act 26 of 1937 .................... 348
Local Government: Municipal Mussalman Wakf Validating
Systems Act 32 of 2000 ......................... 235 Acts 6 of 1913 ......................................... 348
Sch 1 ..................................................... 229
N
M
Natal Code of Zulu Law
Magistrates’ Courts Act Proc R151 of 1987 ....................... 30, 47, 82,
32 of 1944 ...................................... 252, 264 161, 187, 248
s 2(a)....................................................... 264 Chapter 10 ............................................... 189
Magistrates’ Courts Amendment s 1 .................................................... 124, 125
Act 120 of 1993 ..................................... 264 s 8 ............................................................ 254
Maintenance Act 99 of 1998 ....... 65, 111, 357 s 36(2) ....................................................... 87
s 2(1) ...................................................... 356 s 81(8) ..................................................... 184
Page Page
Natal Code of Zulu Law Proc R293 of 1962 ..................................... 128
Proc R195 of 1967 ................................. 186 Prohibition of Forced Marriages
s 1(1) ...................................................... 153 and Child Marriages Bill .................. 82, 172
s 22 ........................................................... 96
s 27 ........................................................... 96 Promotion of Administrative Justice
s 36(1) .................................................... 106 Act 3 of 2000 .......................................... 361
ss 83–90 ................................................. 156 Promotion of Equality and Prevention
National House of Traditional Leaders of Unfair Discrimination Act
Act 10 of 1997 (repealed) ...................... 212 4 of 2000 (PEPUDA) ............ 13, 71, 73, 172
s 5(2) ......................................................... 73
National House of Traditional
Leaders Act 22 of 2009 .......... 212, 230, 239 s 8 .............................................................. 72
s 3 ........................................................... 230 s 14 ...................................................... 72, 73
s 4 ........................................................... 230 s 14(2)–(3) ................................................ 72
Natives Land Act/Black Land Protocol to the African Charter
Act 27 of 1913 ....................................... 127 on Human and People’s Rights
on the Rights of Women
Native Laws and Customs in Africa .......................................... 171, 172
Commission of 1883 .................................. 9
Provincial and Local Houses
Native Trust and Land Act 18 of 1936/
of Traditional Leaders Act
Development Trust and Land Act .......... 127
7 of 2017 ................................................. 238
s 48 ......................................................... 129
s 20 .......................................................... 229
North West Provincial Languages Act s 22 .......................................................... 234
1 of 2015
s 23–28 .................................................... 231
s 3 ........................................................... 231
s 29 .......................................................... 230
s 5 ........................................................... 231
s 31 .......................................................... 225
O Sch 1 ....................................................... 238
Optional Protocol to the Convention Sch 3 ....................................................... 225
on the Rights of the Child,
Q
on the Sale of Children, Child
Prostitution and Child QwaQwa Administration Authorities
Pornography ................................... 171, 172 Act 6 of 1983 (FS) .......................... 221, 248
Ordinance 3 of 1849 .................................... 37
R
P Recognition of Customary Marriages
Prevention and Combating of Corrupt Act 120 of 1998 ..................... 81, 87, 93, 10,
Activities Act 12 of 2004 ....................... 251 13, 19, 20, 26, 31, 33,
Prevention and Combating 39, 40, 44, 55, 64, 67,
of Trafficking in Persons Act 120, 121, 107, 171, 172, 261, 361
7 of 2013 ........................................ 171, 172 s 1 ......................................10, 19, 20, 39, 55
84, 92, 102, 123, 194
Prevention of Illegal Eviction from
s 1(i) ........................................................ 264
and Unlawful Occupation of Land
Act 19 of 1998 (PIE) .............................. 353 s 2 ...................................................... 84, 196
s 4(6) ...................................................... 354 s 2(1) ......................................................... 85
s 4(7) ...................................................... 354 s 2(3) ......................................................... 85
s 26 ......................................................... 353 s 3 ............................................................ 264
s 3(1)(a) ..................................................... 88
Proc 107 of 1994 ....................................... 189
s 3(1)(b) ........................................ 84, 88, 90
Proc 111 of 1994 ....................................... 189 s 3(1) ......................................................... 44
Proc 166 of 1994 ....................................... 189 s 3(1)(b) .................................................. 264
Statutes 413
Page Page
Recognition of Customary Marriages Reform of Customary Law
Act 120 of 1998 (continued) of Succession and Regulation
s 3(2) ........................................ 88, 112, 114 of Related Matters Act
s 3(3) ........................................................ 88 11 of 2009 .........................20, 31, 40, 43, 55
s 3(4)(a) .................................................... 89 121, 123, 194
s 3(4)(b) .................................................... 89 s 1 ......................................20, 107, 195, 197
s 3(4)(c) .................................................... 89 s 2 ............................................................ 196
s 3(5) ........................................................ 89 s 2(1) ................................................. 43, 195
s 3(6) ........................................................ 89 s 2(1)(b) ............................................ 44, 107
s 4 ................................................... 169, 174 s 2(1)(c) ..................................................... 44
s 4(1) ................................................ 94, 176 s 2(2) ......................................................... 44
s 4(3) ........................................................ 94 s 2(2)(a) ................................................... 196
s 4(3)(a) .................................................... 94 s 2(2)(b) .......................................... 195, 196
s 4(3)(b) .................................................... 94 s 2(2)(c) ........................................... 195, 196
s 4(4) ........................................................ 95 s 3 ............................................................ 196
s 4(5) ........................................................ 95 s 3(1) ......................................... 44, 107, 196
s 4(6) ........................................................ 95 s 3(2) ............................................... 107, 196
s 3(3) ....................................................... 196
s 4(7) ........................................................ 95
s 4(1) ....................................................... 196
s 4(7)(a) .................................................... 95
s 4(2) ............................................... 196, 197
s 4(8) ........................................................ 94
s 4(2)(a) ................................................... 197
s 4(9) ................................................ 94, 176 s 4(2)(b) .................................................. 197
s 6 ............................... 96, 98, 124, 162, 164 s 5 ............................................................ 198
s 7(1) ............................ 96, 97, 98, 108, 124 s 6 ............................................................ 198
s 7(2) .................................... 96, 98, 99, 108 s 7 ............................................................ 198
s 7(3) ........................................................ 99 s 7(1) ....................................................... 198
s 7(4) ........................................................ 99 s 7(2) ....................................................... 198
s 7(5) ...................................................... 100 Reform of Customary Law
s 7(6) ...................................... 100, 101, 125 of Succession and Regulation
s 7(7) ...................................................... 100 of Related Matters Bill............................ 195
s 7(8) ...................................................... 100
Regional Authorities Courts
s 7(9) ...................................................... 100 Act 13 of 1982 (Tk) ................................ 248
s 8 ................................... 101, 102, 253, 264 s 2 ............................................................ 258
s 8(1) .............................................. 101, 102 s 2(1) ....................................................... 258
s 8(2) ...................................................... 101 s 2(2) ....................................................... 258
s 8(3) ...................................................... 102 s 7 ............................................................ 259
s 8(4) ...................................................... 103
Regulations for the Administration
s 8(4)(a) .......................................... 103, 104 and Distribution of Estates
s 8(4)(b) .................................................. 104 of Deceased Blacks (Government
s 8(4)(c) .................................................. 106 Notice R200 of 1987) ............................. 186
s 8(4)(e) .................................................. 105 Reg 2 ....................................................... 188
s 8(5) .............................................. 102, 253 Reg 2(a) .................................................. 188
s 9 ..................................... 41, 133, 162, 164 Reg 2(c) .................................................. 188
s 10(1) .............................. 88, 112, 113, 114 Reg 2(d) .................................................. 188
s 10(2) .............................................. 99, 113 Reg 2(e) .................................................. 188
s 10(3) ...................................................... 99 Reg 3(1) .......................................... 191, 192
s 10(4) ............................................ 112, 114 Regulations for the Administration
s 11(1) ...................................................... 95 and Control of Townships in
s 21 ........................................................... 99 Black Areas (Proc R293 of 1969)........... 190
Page Page
Regulations Governing the Control Special Courts for Blacks Abolition
and Supervision of an Urban Bantu Act 34 of 1986 ........................................ 175
Residential Area and Relevant Special Marriage Act 43 of 1954 ....... 285, 295
Matters (Government
Notice R1036 of 1968)........................... 190 Special Pensions Act 69 of 1996.................. 65
s 31 ............................................................ 65
Regulations Prescribing the Duties,
Powers, Privileges and Conditions Stock Theft Act 57 of 1959 ........................ 174
of Service of Chiefs and Headmen Stock Theft Act 25 of 1977 (Transkei) ...... 174
(Proc 110 of 1957) ................................. 220
T
Regulations relating to the Appointment
of Members of the Interim Traditional Courts Bill, 2017 ............ 239, 246,
Traditional Health Practitiioners 248, 256, 267
Council of South Africa cl 5 .......................................................... 239
(Government Notice R685 of 2011) ...... 156 Traditional Health Practitioners Act
Regulations (for Criminal Appeals) 22 of 2007 ............................................... 156
R45 of 1961.................................... 248, 250 Traditional Health Practitioners
Reg 2 ...................................................... 263 Regulations
Remuneration of Public Office Bearers (Government Notice R1052 of 2015) ..... 156
Act 20 of 1998 Traditional Khoi-San Leadership
s 5 ........................................................... 229 Bill, 2015 ........................................ 162, 239
s 5(2) ...................................................... 229 Chapter 3 ................................................. 241
Chapter 4 ................................................. 241
Repeal of Local Government
Chapter 5 ................................................. 241
and Traditional Affairs Laws Act
cl 1 .......................................................... 239
6 of 2016 ................................................ 223
cl 1(2) ...................................................... 240
Repeal of the Black Administration Act cl 1(3) ...................................................... 240
and Amendment of Certain Laws cl 1(5) ...................................................... 240
Act 28 of 2005 ....................... 114, 187, 189 cl 2 .......................................................... 240
Repeal of the Black Administration Act cl 3 .......................................................... 240
and Amendment of Certain Laws cl 4 .......................................................... 240
Amendment Act 20 of 2012 ........... 129, 220 cl 5 .......................................................... 240
cl 6 .......................................................... 240
Restitution of Land Rights Act 22 of 1994
cl 7 .......................................................... 240
s 1 ........................................................... 131 cl 8 .......................................................... 240
s 2 ........................................................... 133 cl 9 .......................................................... 240
cl 10 ........................................................ 240
S
cl 12 ........................................................ 240
Small Claims Courts Act 61 of 1984 ........ 261 cl 13 ........................................................ 240
s 7(2) ...................................................... 261 cl 14 ........................................................ 240
s 9 ........................................................... 261 cl 15 ........................................................ 240
s 15 ......................................................... 261 cl 16 ........................................................ 240
s 16 ......................................................... 261 cl 17 ........................................................ 240
s 26(1) .................................................... 261 cl 18 ........................................................ 240
s 26(3) .................................................... 261 cl 19 ........................................................ 240
cl 20 ........................................................ 240
South African Republic cl 21 ........................................................ 240
(Law 4 of 1885) ....................................... 37 cl 22 ........................................................ 240
Spatial Planning and Land Use cl 23 ........................................................ 240
Management Act 16 of 2013.................. 129 cl 24 ........................................................ 241
s 60 ......................................................... 129 cl 25 ................................................ 239, 241
Statutes 415
Page Page
Traditional Khoi-San Leadership Traditional Leadership and Governance
Bill, 2015 (continued) Framework Act 41 of 2003 .............. 31, 119,
cl 26–50 .................................................. 241 162, 198, 212, 223, 239, 241
cl 51 ........................................................ 241 s 1 .................................................... 196, 223
cl 51–58 .................................................. 241 s 2 ............................................................ 131
Traditional Leadership and Governance s 2(1) ....................................................... 224
Act 4 of 2005 (Eastern Cape)................. 258 s 2(2)(b) .................................................. 223
Sch 2....................................................... 258 s 2(3) ....................................... 213, 214, 224
s 18 ......................................................... 228 s 2A ......................................................... 224
s 2A(1) .................................................... 236
Traditional Leadership and Governance s 2B ......................................................... 225
Act 1 of 2017 (Eastern Cape)......... 223, 224 s 3 ............................................................ 225
s 4(1) ...................................................... 224 s 3(2) ....................................................... 226
s 6 ........................................................... 225 s 3(3)(b) .................................................. 214
s 7 ........................................................... 225 s 3A ......................................................... 226
s 8 ........................................................... 225 s 3B ......................................................... 227
s 9 ........................................................... 225 s 4(1) ....................................................... 227
s 10 ......................................................... 225 s 4(1)(a) ................................................... 227
s 11 ......................................................... 225 s 4(1)(l) ................................................... 227
s 12 ......................................................... 225 s 4B ......................................................... 226
s 13 ......................................................... 225 s 4B(1)(a) ................................................ 226
s 14 ......................................................... 225 s 4B(2) .................................................... 226
s 4B(3) .................................................... 226
s 16 ......................................................... 227
s 4B(6) .................................................... 226
s 17 ......................................................... 227 s 4C ......................................................... 228
s 19 ......................................................... 235 s 5(1)–(2) ................................................ 235
s 21–28 ................................................... 228 s 5(3)(a)–(b) ............................................ 235
s 29 ......................................................... 228 s 5(4) ....................................................... 235
s 30–34 ................................................... 234 s 8 .................................................... 198, 228
ss 35–36 ................................................. 237 s 8(a) ............................................... 211, 214
s 37 ......................................................... 229 s 8(c) ............................................... 211, 214
s 38 ......................................................... 238 s 9(1) ....................................................... 236
s 39–47 ................................................... 229 s 9(1)(a) ................................................... 211
s 48–65 ................................................... 233 s 10A(1)(a) .............................................. 211
s 84 ......................................................... 226 s 11(1)(a) ................................................. 211
s 86 ......................................................... 230 s 13 .......................................................... 228
Sch 1....................................................... 238 s 14 .......................................................... 228
s 14(2)(a) ................................................. 229
Sch 2....................................................... 238
s 15 .......................................................... 228
Sch 3....................................................... 225
s 15(1) ..................................................... 229
Sch 4....................................................... 225 s 17 .......................................................... 230
Traditional Leadership and Governance s 17(1)(a) ................................................. 233
Act 8 of 2005 (Free State) ...................... 223 s 17(2)(a) ................................................. 233
Traditional Leadership and Governance s 17(2)(b) ................................................ 233
Act 4 of 2010 (Gauteng) ................ 223, 231 s 17(2)(c) ................................................. 233
s 17(3) ..................................................... 233
Traditional Leadership and Governance s 17(4) ..................................................... 233
Act 3 of 2005 (Mpumalanga) ................. 223 s 17(5) ..................................................... 233
Traditional Leadership and Governance s 19 .......................................................... 234
Act 2 of 2005 (North West) ................... 223 s 20 .......................................................... 234
Page Page
Traditional Leadership and Governance Transkei Marriage
Framework Act 41 of 2003 (continued) Act 21 of 1978 .................................... 92, 94
s 20(1) .................................................... 234 s 3 .............................................................. 84
s 20(2)(a)–(g) ......................................... 234 s 13 ............................................................ 84
s 21 ................................................. 228, 235 s 31 ............................................................ 85
s 22 ................................................. 228, 235 s 38 ............................................................ 84
s 23 ......................................................... 236 s 39 (1) ...................................................... 99
s 25 ......................................... 228, 236, 237
s 25(2)(a) ................................................ 236 U
s 25(3)(a) ................................................ 236 Uniform Rules of Court
s 25(3)(b) ................................................ 236 Rule 43 .................................. 106, 358, 369
s 25(3)(c) ................................................ 237 Rule 43(1) ..................................... 357, 358
s 25(6) .................................................... 237
United Nations Convention
s 25(8) .................................................... 237 on the Elimination of All Forms
s 25(9) .................................................... 237 of Discrimination against Women,
s 26 ......................................................... 237 1979 (CEDAW) ........................ 76, 171, 172
s 26(1) .................................................... 237 Part 1: s 2(a) .............................................. 76
s 26(2) .................................................... 237 art 2 ........................................................... 76
s 26(3) .................................................... 237 art 16 ......................................................... 76
s 26(4) .................................................... 237
United Nations Convention on the
s 26A ...................................................... 237
Rights of the Child .......................... 171, 172
s 26A(2)(a) ............................................. 238
s 26A(2)(c) ............................................. 238 United Nations Declaration on the
s 26A(3) ................................................. 238 Elimination of All Forms
of Intolerance and Discrimination
s 27(1) .................................................... 238
Based on Religion or Belief of 1981 ........ 75
s 27(3) .................................................... 238
art 1(1) ...................................................... 75
s 28(4) .................................................... 225
art 5 ........................................................... 75
s 212(2)(a) .............................................. 230
Sch.................................................. 198, 238 United Nations International
Covenant on Economic, Social
Traditional Leadership and Governance and Cultural Rights, 1996 (ICESCR) ....... 76
Framework Amendment Act
23 of 2009 .............................................. 209 Universal Declaration of Human
Chapter 6 ................................................ 223 Rights .............................................. 171, 172
Traditional Leadership and Institutions Upgrading of Land Tenure Rights
Act 6 of 2005 (Limpopo) ....................... 223 Act 112 of 1991 ...................... 134, 187, 189
s 25 ......................................................... 218 Sch 1 ....................................................... 140
Sch 2 ....................................................... 140
Traditional Leadership, Governance
and Houses of Traditional Leaders United Nations Protocol to Prevent,
Act 2 of 2007 (Northern Cape) .............. 223 Suppress and Punish Trafficking
Transkeian Penal Code 1883 ..................... 174 in Persons, Especially Women
and Children.................................... 171, 172
Transkeian territories
(Procs 110 and 112 of 1879) .................... 37 V
s 23 ........................................................... 37 Venda Land Affairs Proc 45 of 1990 ......... 190
Transkei Authorities
Venda Traditional Leaders
Act 4 of 1965 (Tk) ........................ 221, 236,
Administration Proclamation
246, 248, 258 29 of 1991 ....................................... 221, 248
Statutes 417
Page Page
W Z
Wills Act 7 of 1953 ..................... 65, 179, 196 Zimbabwe’s Customary Law
s. 2C(1) ................................... 359, 360, 369 and Local Courts Act Cap 7:05 ................ 44
s 2C(2) .................................................... 360 s 3(1)(a)(i) ................................................. 44
Table of Cases
Page
A
Alexkor Ltd v Richtersveld Community 2003 (12) BCLR 1301 (CC) ..................... 5, 7, 22, 33, 49
Alexkor Ltd v Richtersveld Community 2004 (5) SA 460 (CC) .............................. 50, 51, 56, 130
Allen v Gibbs 1977 (3) SA 212 (SE) ............................................................................................ 66
Amar v Amar 1999 (3) SA 604 (W) ........................................................................... 3, 20, 65, 331
Ambu Bai Ammal v Sani Bai Ammal (1941) Mad 13................................................................ 289
Amod v Multilateral Motor Vehicle Accidents Fund
(Commission for Gender Equality Intervening)
1999 (4) SA 1319 (SCA) .......................................................14, 65, 66, 351, 353, 354, 355, 356
Amod v Multilateral Motor Vehicle Accidents Fund
1997 (12) BCLR 1716 (D) ............................................................................................... 354, 355
Angelai v Padayachee 1948 (4) SA 718 (N) ....................................................................... 282, 283
Arendse v Arendse 2013 (3) SA 347 (WCC) ........................................................ 65, 351, 353, 354
Aronson v Estate Hart 1950 (1) SA 539 (A) ....................................................................... 320, 334
B
Baadjies v Matubela 2002 (3) SA 427 (W) ........................................................................... 94, 106
Bakgatla-Ba-Kgafela Communal Property Association
v Bakgatla-Ba-Kgafela Tribal Authority 2015 (6) SA 32 (CC) ...................................... 134, 224
Baleni v Baleni [2012] ZAECMHC 19 (20 December 2012)..................................................... 228
Bangindawo v Head of Nyanda Regional Authority 1998 (3) SA 262 (Tk) ........................ 49, 258
BapediMarotaMamone v Commission on Traditional Leadership Disputes
and Claims [2014] ZACC 36 ................................................................................................... 236
Bengwenyama Minerals (Pty) Ltd v Genorah Resources (Pty) Ltd
2011 (3) BCLR 229 (CC) ........................................................................................................ 226
Bengwenyama-ya-Maswazi Community v Genorah Resources (Pty) Ltd
2015 (1) SA 219 (SCA) ........................................................................................................... 226
Bengwenyama-ya-Maswazi Community v Minister of Mineral Resources
2015 (1) SA 197 (SCA) ........................................................................................................... 226
Berkowitz v Berkowitz 1956 (3) SA 522 (SR) ........................................................................... 320
419
Page
Bhe v Magistrate, Khayelitsha 2005 (1) BCLR 1 (CC) .........5, 13, 14, 21, 28, 31, 34, 86, 97, 122,
123, 177, 181, 183, 187, 188, 192, 193, 194, 195, 204
Bhe v Magistrate, Khayelitsha 2005 (1) SA 580 (CC) ......................................... 27, 28, 40, 49, 57
Bilitani v Kwini 1962 NAC (S)................................................................................................... 255
Bronn v Frits Bronn’s Executors (1860) 3 Searle 313 ........................................................ 107, 349
Bührmann v Nkosi 2000 (1) SA 1145 (T)................................................................................... 200
Buthelezi v Minister of Bantu Administration and Development
1961 (3) SA 256 (N) ................................................................................................................ 220
Buthelezi v Minister of Bantu Administration and Development
1961 (4) SA 835 (A) ................................................................................................................ 220
C
C v Commissioner of Child Welfare Wynberg 1970 (2) SA 76 (C) ........................................... 320
Campbell v Hall (1774) 1 Cowper 204 ......................................................................................... 37
Cassim v Cassim (TPD) (Unreported case number 3954/06
delivered on 15 December 2006) ..................................................................................... 351, 353
Chairperson of the Constitutional Assembly, Ex parte: In re Certification
of the Constitution of South Africa, 1996 1996 (4) SA 744 (CC)..................................... 49, 247
Chairperson of the Constitutional Assembly, Ex parte: In re Certification
of the Amended Text of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa
1997 (2) SA 97 (CC)................................................................................................................ 222
Chetty v Tamil Protective Association 1951 (3) SA 34 (N) ....................................................... 282
Chinese Association of South Africa v The Minister of Labour
[2008] ZAGPHC 174 (18 June 2008)........................................................................................ 10
Chirwa v Mandah 1956 NAC (C) ................................................................................................. 48
Chitima v RAF [2012] 2 All SA 632 (WCC)................................................................................ 48
Christian Education South Africa v Minister of Education
2000 (10) BCLR 1051 (CC) ...................................................................................................... 70
Christian Education South Africa v Minister of Education 2000 (4) SA 757 (CC) ..................... 71
Commercial Union Assurance Co of SA Ltd v Mirkin 1989 (2) SA 584 (C) ............................ 320
D
Dalindyebo v S 2016 (1) SACR 329 (SCA) ............................................................................... 222
Daniels v Campbell 2004 (7) BCLR 735 (CC), 2004 (5) SA 331 (CC) ......... 15, 65, 351, 358, 359
Denton’s Estate, In re 1951 (4) SA 582 (N) ................................................................................ 320
Dhanapalan v Panjalay 1959 (1) SA 622 (N) .............................................................................. 281
Dhlamini v Nhlapo 1942 NAC (N&T) 62 .................................................................................... 45
Dikoko v Mokhatla 2006 (6) SA 235 (CC) ................................................................................. 173
Dreyer v Lyte-Mason 1948 (2) SA 245 (W) ............................................................................... 320
Du Plooy v Du Plooy [2012] 4 All SA 239 (SCA) ................................................................. 45, 46
Dudumayo v Dalasile [2011] ZAEMCHC 8 (26 May 2011) ...................................................... 228
E
Eilon v Eilon 1965 (1) SA 703 (A) ............................................................................................. 320
Erasmus v Grunow 1980 (2) SA 793 (O) .................................................................................... 204
Esau v Esau [2018] ZAWCHC 109 (31 August 2018) .................................65, 360, 361, 362, 363
Table of Cases 421
Page
Estate Mehta v Acting Master, High Court 1958 (4) SA 252 (FC) ............................................ 282
Ex parte Administrators Estate Sandler 1976 (4) SA 930 (C) .................................................... 320
F
Fakroodeen v Fakroodeen 1972 (1) SA 178 (D) ......................................................................... 381
Fanti v Boto [2008] 2 All SA 533 (C) ..................................................................................... 41, 49
Fanti v Boto [2008] JOL 21238 (C) ............................................................................................ 199
Fanti v Boto 2008 (5) SA 405 (C) ............................................................................. 86, 87, 91, 204
Faro v Bingham [2013] ZAWCHC) 159 (25 October 2013) ................................ 65, 360, 361, 369
Finlay v Kutoane 1993 (4) SA 675 (W) .............................................................................. 201, 202
Fosi v Road Accident Fund 2008 (3) SA 560 (C) ......................................................................... 43
Fuzile v Ntloko 1944 NAC (C&O) ................................................................................... 45, 46, 93
G
Gabavana v Mbete [2000] 3 All SA 561 (Tk) ............................................................................. 203
Gate Development Ltd v Mahlangu LCC 103/08 decided 4 March 2009 .................................. 201
Gidja v Yingwane 1944 NAC (N&T) ........................................................................................... 52
Githa Hariharan & Anor v Reserve Bank of India & Anor Writ Petition
[1999] ICHRL 15 (17 February 1999) .................................................................................... 312
Goba v Mtwalo 1932 NAC (N&T) 58 .......................................................................................... 45
Goniwe v Mawinde [2007] JOL 20854 (SE) .............................................................................. 201
Govender v Ragavayah [2008] JOL 22653 (D) .................................................................. 282, 284
Govender v Ragavayah 2009 (3) SA 178 (D) ............................................................................... 65
Govuzela v Ngavu 1949 NAC 156 (S).......................................................................................... 47
Guma v Guma 4 BAC (1919) 220 .............................................................................................. 107
Gumede v President of Republic of South Africa
2009 (3) SA 152 (CC)..........................................................................19, 39, 40, 44, 51, 52, 124
Gumede v President of the Republic of South Africa
2009 (3) BCLR 243 (CC) ..........................................................................5, 96, 98, 99, 103, 108
H
Harksen v Lane 1998 (1) SA 300 (CC) ................................................................................... 71, 72
Hassam v Jacobs [2008] 4 All SA 350 (C) ......................................................... 351, 358, 369, 382
Hassam v Jacobs 2009 (5) SA 572 (CC) ......................................................... 15, 65, 351, 358, 382
Hassam v Jacobs 2017 (6) SA 425 (WCC) ......................................................................... 358, 359
Hattingh v Juta 2013 (3) SA 275 (CC) ........................................................................................ 142
Hlophe v Mahlalela 1998 (1) SA 449 (T) ............................................................................. 48, 102
Holomisa v Holomisa [2017] ZASCA 64 ..................................................................................... 99
Hoosain v Dangor [2010] 2 All SA 55 (WCC) .............................................65, 351, 353, 357, 358
Human v Human 1975 (2) SA 251 (E) ....................................................................................... 202
I
Ingonyama Trust v Radebe [2012] 2 All SA 212 (KZP) ............................................................ 241
Ismail v Ismail 1983 (1) SA 1006 (AD) ................................................................ 63, 349, 350, 355
Jamalodien v Moola (NPD) (Unreported case number 1835/06) ....................... 351, 353, 357, 358
Page
J
Jezile v S [2015] 3 All SA 201 (WCC) ..................................................................................... 5, 82
K
Kader v Kader 1972 (3) SA 203 (RAD) ............................................................................... 63, 350
Kaula v Mtimkulu 1938 NAC (N&T) 68 ...................................................................................... 43
Khan v Khan 2005 (2) SA 272 (T) ........................................................................ 65, 351, 356, 357
Khumalo v Khumalo 1984 (2) SA 229 (D) ................................................................................. 203
Khumalo v Ntshalintshali 1971 NAC (C) 59 ................................................................................ 93
L
Leboho v Premier of Limpopo Province [2011] ZAGPPHC 22 (28 January 2011) ................... 229
Lebona v Ramokone 1946 NAC (C&O) ....................................................................................... 44
Letsiele Stores (Pty) Ltdv Roets 1959 (4) SA 579 (T) ................................................................ 204
Levy v Levy 1991 (3) SA 614 (A) .............................................................................................. 320
Logee v Minister of Interior 1951 (2) SA 595 (T) .............................................................. 282, 283
Lurhani v Premier of the Eastern Cape Provincial Government
[2018] 2 All SA 836 (ECM) ........................................................................................................ 5
M
M v M 1991 (4) SA 587 (D) ....................................................................................................... 282
Maakane v Premier of the North-West Province
[2011] ZANWHC 29 (23 June 2011) ...................................................................................... 230
Mabena v Letsoalo 1998 (2) SA 1068 (T) ............................................5, 14, 31, 41, 48, 49, 86, 87
Mabulu v Thys 1993 (4) SA 701 (SECLD) ................................................................................ 204
Mabuza v Mbatha 2003 (4) SA 218 (C) ............................................................................ 22, 31, 49
Mabuza v Mbatha 2003 (7) BCLR 743 (C) ...................................................................... 87, 91, 92
Madlala v Madlala 1975 BAC 96 (NE) ........................................................................................ 46
Madzhadzhi v President of the Republic of South Africa
[2010] ZASCA 57 (1 April 2010) ........................................................................................... 229
Maeteletja v Maeteletja [2013] ZAGPPHC 155 (12 June 2013) ................................................ 228
Magadla v Hams 1936 NAC (C&O) ............................................................................................. 43
Maganu v Maganu 1938 NAC (N&T) ........................................................................................ 121
Magidela v Sawintshi 1943 NAC (C&O) ..................................................................................... 43
Mahala v Nkombombini 2006 (5) SA 524 (SE) ......................................................................... 204
Maharaj v Amichund 1952 (4) SA 594 (N) ................................................................................ 282
Mahashe v Mahashe 1955 NAC (S) .............................................................................................. 43
Mahlaba v Mdladlamba 1946 NAC (C&O) .................................................................................. 47
Maholo v Mate 1945 NAC (C&O) ............................................................................................... 45
Mahomed v Mahomed [2009] JOL 23733 (ECP) ............................................... 351, 353, 357, 358
Maisela v Kgolane [2000] 1 All SA 658 (T) ............................................................................... 158
Maisela v Kgolane 2000 (2) SA 370 (T) ................................................................................. 38, 45
Majola v Mortimer [2010] JOL 25455 (LCC) ............................................................................ 199
Makapan v Khope 1923 AD 551................................................................................................. 256
Table of Cases 423
Page
Makedela v Sauli 1948 NAC (C&O) ............................................................................................ 46
Mamone v Commission of Traditional Leadership Dispute and Claims (260/13)
[2014] ZASCA 30 (28 March 2014) ....................................................................................... 236
Maneli v Maneli 2010 (7) BCLR 703 (GSJ) ................................................................. 41, 111, 112
Mankahla v Matiwane 1989 (2) SA 920 (Ck) ............................................................................. 203
Manona v Alice Funeral Parlour [2002] JOL 9717 (Ck) ............................................................ 204
Maquta v Sancizi 1936 NAC (C&O) .......................................................................................... 257
Martens v Martens 1952 (3) SA 771 (W) ................................................................................... 320
Masenya v Seleka Tribal Authority 1981 (1) SA 522 (T)........................................................... 256
Mashia Ebrahim v Mahomed Essop 1905 TS 59 .......................................................................... 63
Maswanganye v Baloyi 2015 JOL 34005 (GP) .................................................................. 109, 112
Matau v Longrops 5 (Pty) Ltd [2011] JOL 27380 (LCC) ........................................................... 199
Matchika v Mnguni 1946 NAC (N&T)......................................................................................... 93
Matiwane v President of the Republic [2014] 2 All SA 419 (ECM)
(12 December 2013) ................................................................................................................ 236
Matsheng v Dhlamini 1937 NAC (N&T) ..................................................................................... 43
Matsupelele v Nombakuse 1937 NAC (C&O) ............................................................................. 52
Mayelane v Ngwenyama 2013 (4) SA 415 (CC) ........................................40, 49, 51, 56, 125, 213
Mayelane v Ngwenyama 2013 (8) BCLR 918 (CC) ....................................................................... 5
Mbaza v Tshewula 1947 NAC (C&O) .......................................................................................... 45
Mbhashe Traditional Leaders in Municipal Council v Mbhashe Local Municipality
[2013] ZAECMHC 27 (26 September 2013) .......................................................................... 229
Mbonjiwa v Scellam 1957 NAC (S) ....................................................................................... 46, 93
Mdumane v Mtshakule 1948 NAC (C&O) 28 (Bizana) ............................................................. 254
MEC for Education, KwaZulu-Natal v Pillay 2008 (1) SA 474 (CC) .............................. 42, 64, 70
MEC for Education: KwaZulu-Natal v Pillay 2006 (10) BCLR 1237 (N) ................................... 27
Mehlomakulu v Jikejela 1942 BAC (C&O) .................................................................................. 83
Metiso v Padongelukfonds 2001 (3) SA 1142 (T) ................................................ 41, 110, 111, 112
Mgombane Royal Council v Kekana [2013] ZAGPPHC 70 (1 March 2013) ............................ 228
Mhlekwa v Head of the Western Tembuland Regional Authority; Feni
v Head of the Western Tembuland Regional Authority
2000 (9) BCLR 979 (Tk) ......................................................................................... 247, 258, 259
Mhlongo v Mhlongo 1919 AD 470 ............................................................................................. 120
Mhlongo v Sibeko 1937 NAC (N&T) 124.................................................................................... 45
Minister of Home Affairs v Fourie 2006 (3) BCLR 355 (CC) ..................................................... 63
Minister of Native Affairs, Ex parte: In re Yako v Beyi 1948 (1) SA 388 (A) .............. 37, 43, 164
Mjuza / Kamile v Ntshibilili [2017] JOL 37144 (ECB).............................................. 199, 201, 203
Mkabe v Minister of Home Affairs [2016] ZAGPPHC 460 (9 June 2016) ...................... 91, 92, 94
Mkize v Mnguni 1952 NAC (NE).................................................................................................43
ML v KG [2013] ZAGPJHC 87 (8 April 2013) ..........................................108, 109, 110, 111, 112
Mlangeni v Macal 1947 NAC (C&O) ......................................................................................... 121
MM v MN 2013 4 SA 415 (CC) ................................................................................................. 101
Mngomezulu v The Premier of the Province of KwaZulu-Natal
[2011] ZAKZPHC 52 (17 November 2011)............................................................................ 229
Page
Mnyama v Gxalaba 1990 (1) SA 650 (C) ................................................................................... 204
Mogale v Maakane [2011] ZANWHC 17 (31 March 2011)....................................................... 226
Mokhada v Nundo Lall (1901) Cal 278 ...................................................................................... 289
Molife v Molife 1934 NAC (N&T)............................................................................................... 47
Monete v Setshuba 1948 NAC (C&O) ....................................................................................... 253
Moosa v Harnaker 2017 (6) SA 425 (WCC)...............................................351, 358, 359, 360, 381
Moosa v Minister of Justice and Correctional Services
2018 (10) BCLR 1280 (CC) .................................................................................................... 369
Moosa v Minister of Justice and Correctional Services 2018 (5) SA 13 (CC) ............................. 65
Morai v Morai 1948 NAC (C&O) 14............................................................................................ 46
Morake v Dubedube 1928 TPD 625 ............................................................................................. 53
Moseneke v The Master of the High Court 2001 (2) SA 18 (CC) ...................................... 187, 191
Mosii v Motseoakhumo 1954 (3) SA 919 (A) .............................................................................. 37
Motaung v Philemon Dube 1930 BAH (N&T) ............................................................................. 38
Motsoatsoa v Roro [2011] 2 All SA 324 (GSJ) .................................................................. 5, 44, 91
Mpikakane v Kunene 1940 NAC (N&T) ...................................................................................... 46
Mpungose v Mpungose 1946 BAC (N&T) ................................................................................... 98
Mpungose v Zulu 1981 AC 50 (NE) ........................................................................................... 121
Mrubata v Dondolo 1949 NAC (S) ............................................................................................... 46
Mthembu v Letsela 1997 (2) SA 936 (T) ....................................................19, 39, 49, 87, 121, 122
Mthembu v Letsela 2000 (3) SA 867 (SCA)............................................................................... 181
Mtiyane v Mtiyane 1952 NAC (NE) ........................................................................................... 263
Mtolo v Poswa 1950 NAC (S) ...................................................................................................... 43
Murabi v Murabi [2014] ZASCA 49........................................................................................... 114
Myataza v Macasa 1952 NAC (S)............................................................................................... 257
N
Naidoo, Ex parte 1951 (3) SA 797 (N) ....................................................................................... 282
Ndhlovu v Molife 1936 NAC (N&T) ........................................................................................... 47
Ndlovu v Mokoena 2009 (5) SA 400 (GNP) ................................................................................ 44
Ndlovu v Ramocoela [2003] JOL 10737 (O) .............................................................................. 204
Netshituka v Netshituka 2011 (5) SA 453 (SCA) ....................................................................... 114
Ngqobela v Sihele 10 SC 346 (1893) .............................................................................................. 9
Ngwenyama v Mayelane 2012 (4) SA 527 (SCA) ...................................................................... 101
Nhlabathi v Fick 2003 (2) All SA 323 (LCC) ............................................................................. 142
Njokweni v Luthuli Ranches CC [2008] JOL 22383 (LCC) ...................................................... 199
Nkabinde v Road Accident Fund [2001] 3 All SA 611 (W) ........................................................... 5
Nkambula v Linda 1951 (1) SA 377 (A)............................................................................... 87, 113
Nkethleni v Mlanjeni 4 NAC (1920) 368.................................................................................... 157
Nkosi v Bührmann 2002 (1) SA 372 (SCA) ............................................................................... 200
Nkosi v Zwane 1952 NAC 110 (NE) .......................................................................................... 253
Nobumba v Mfecane 2 NAC (1911) 104 .................................................................................... 157
Nontobeko Virginia Gaza v Road Accident Fund Durban and Coast
Local Division (unreported) Case number 314/04 ............................................................ 87, 114
Table of Cases 425
Page
Noqayi v Skeme [2014] JOL 31838 (ECM) ....................................................................... 199, 204
Nqanoyi v Njombeni 1930 NAC (C&O) ...................................................................................... 43
NT v MT [2018] JOL 39794 (T) ......................................................................................... 199, 203
Ntlonze v Diko [2009] JOL 23266 (Tk).............................................................................. 199, 201
Ntoagae v Makabanyane [2015] ZANWHC 78 (12 November 2015) ......................................... 91
Ntsabelle v Poolo 1930 NAC (N&T) ............................................................................................ 43
Nxumalo v Mavundla [2017] JOL 39576 (KZD) ............................................................... 199, 204
Nxumalo v Ngubane 1932 NAC (N&T) ....................................................................................... 45
Nzalo v Maseko 1931 NAC (N&T) .............................................................................................. 43
P
Pasela v Rondalia Versekeringskorporasie van SA Bpk 1967 (1) SA 339 (W) ......................... 175
Peme v Gwele 1941 NAC (C&O) 3 .............................................................................................. 45
Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association of SA: In re Ex Parte President
of the Republic of South Africa 2000 (2) SA 674 (CC) ............................................................ 22
Pilane v Pilane 2013 (4) BCLR 431 (CC) ................................................................... 5, 41, 42, 227
Premier, Eastern Cape v Ntamo 2015 (6) SA 400 (ECB) ........................................................... 228
Pretoria City Council v Walker 1998 (2) SA 363 (CC) ................................................................ 71
Prince v President of the Law Society of the Cape of Good Hope
2002 (3) BCLR 231 (CC) .................................................................................................... 64, 70
R
R v Dumezweni 1961 (2) SA 751 (A)..................................................................................... 50, 53
R v Maharaj 1950 (3) SA 187 (A)............................................................................................... 220
R v Vass 1945 GWLD 34 ........................................................................................................... 254
Raik v Raik 1993 (2) SA 617 (W)......................................................................................... 65, 320
Ramalutchmie v Estate Ramiah (1909) 30 NLR 137 .................................................................. 282
Ramoitheki v Liberty Group Ltd t/a Liberty Corporate Benefits
[2006] JOL 18075 (W) ................................................................................................................ 5
Ramokoka v Ramokoka (264/13) [2013] ZANWHC 38 (22 March 2013) ................................ 236
Ramonare v Molly's Funeral Parlour [2015] JOL 33858 (FB) ................................................... 199
Ramothata v Makhothe 1934 NAC (N&T) ................................................................................... 46
Rampatha v Chundervathee 1957 (4) SA 483 (N) ...................................................................... 281
Ramuhovhi v President of the Republic of South Africa
2016 (6) SA 210 (LT) .................................................................................................... 96, 98, 99
Ramuhovhi v President of the Republic of South Africa
2018 (2) BCLR 217 (CC) ................................................................................ 5, 97, 98, 100, 108
Raphuti v Mametsi 1946 NAC (T) ................................................................................................93
Ratanee v Maharaj 1950 (2) SA 538 (D) ............................................................................ 282, 283
Robinson, Ex parte 1953 (2) SA 430 (C) .................................................................................... 320
Rowe v Assistant Magistrate, Pretoria 1925 TPD 361.................................................................. 53
Rubushe v Jiyane 1952 NAC (S) .................................................................................................. 47
Ruzane v Paradzai 1991 (1) ZLR 273 (SC) .................................................................................. 52
Ryland v Edros 1997 (1) BCLR 77 (C)......................................................................................... 65
Ryland v Edros 1997 (2) SA 690 (C) ................................65, 66, 67, 297, 351, 352, 353, 354, 356
Page
S
S v Lawrence; S v Negal; S v Solberg 1997 (10) BCLR 1348 (CC) ............................................ 70
S v Makwanyane 1995 (3) SA 391 (CC) ...................................................................................... 72
S v Makwanyane 1995 (6) BCLR 665 (CC) ............................................................... 28, 29, 33, 75
S v Maluleke 2008 (1) SACR 49 (T) ............................................................................................ 26
S v Ngidi [1969] 2 All SA 82 (N) ................................................................................................. 50
S v Phokoane [1962] 2 All SA 381 (T) ......................................................................................... 50
S v S (GJ) (unreported case 2014/05928 of 26 September 2014) ............................................... 374
S v Sihlani 1966 (3) SA 148 (E) ................................................................................................... 53
S v Vengetsamy 1972 (4) SA 351 (D) ........................................................................................ 283
Sanicharee v Madho 1956 (2) SA 94 (N) .................................................................................... 282
Santam Bpk v Henery 1999 (3) SA 421 (SCA) .......................................................................... 355
Sati v Kitsile 1998 (3) SA 602 (EC) ........................................................................................... 262
Sawintshi v Magidela 1944 NAC (C&O) ..................................................................................... 46
Seedat’s Executors v The Master (Natal) 1917 AD 302 ....................................... 63, 349, 282, 350
Sekeleni v Sekeleni1986 (2) SA (Tk) ......................................................................................... 204
Sekupa v Jonkman 1966 NAC (C) ................................................................................................ 93
Selomo v Doman [2014] JOL 31582 (LCC) ............................................................................... 199
Serole v Pienaar 2000 (1) SA 328 (LCC) ................................................................................... 200
Shilubana v Nwamitwa 2008 (9) BCLR 914 (CC) ......................................................................... 5
Shilubana v Nwamitwa 2009 (2) SA 66 (CC)................................................................. 40, 50, 212
Sibanda v Sitole 1951 NAC 347 (NE) 350 ............................................................................. 43, 46
Sigcau v Minister of Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs
[2018] ZACC 28 (11 September 2018) ....................................................................................... 5
Sigcau v Sigcau 1944 AD 67 ........................................................................................................ 32
Sijila v Masumba 1940 NAC (C&O) .................................................................................... 98, 120
Sikita (born Magiji) v Tiki [2009] JOL 23243 (CK) .......................................................... 199, 204
Sila v Masuku 1937 NAC (N&T) ................................................................................................. 90
Singh v Ramparsad 2007 (3) SA 445 (D) .........................65, 66, 67, 282, 283, 284, 295, 296, 297
Singh, Ex parte 1956 (4) SA 730 (N) .......................................................................................... 282
Sithole v Majeke [2011] JOL 27944 (GSJ) ................................................................................. 199
Smit v His Majesty King Goodwill Zwelithini Kabhekuzulu
2009 JDR 1361 (KZP) ............................................................................................................... 50
Smit v Maqabe 1985 (3) SA 974 (T)........................................................................................... 204
Sokani v Sokani [2008] JOL 22085 (Ck) .................................................................... 199, 202, 204
Soobiah, Ex parte: In re Estate Pillay 1948 (1) SA 873 (N) ....................................................... 283
Southon v Moropane (14295/10) 2012 ZAGPJHC 146 .......................................................... 93, 94
SS v Presiding Officer, Children’s Court, Krugersdorp 2012 (6) SA 45 (GSJ) ........................... 43
Standard Bank of South Africa Ltd v Betts Brown 1958 (3) SA 713 (N) .................................. 320
State v Mvumeleni Jezile Wynberg Regional Court, Case number SHM59/11 ........................... 82
T
Taylor v Kurtstag [2004] 4 All SA 317 (W) ............................................................................... 297
Taylor v Kurtstag 2005 (1) SA 362 (W) ......................................................................... 66, 67, 320
Taylor v Kurtstag 2005 (7) BCLR 705 (W) ................................................................ 320, 321, 328
Table of Cases 427
Page
The Traditional Authority of the Bapo Ba Mogale Community v Kenoshi
[2010] ZAGPPHC 72 (29 July 2010) ...................................................................................... 227
Thembisile v Thembisile 2002 (2) SA 209 (T) .............................................49, 102, 105, 114, 203
Thibela v Minister van Wet en Orde 1995 (3) SA 147 (T) ......................................... 110, 111, 112
Thomas v Ntantiso 1945 NAC (C&O) ........................................................................................ 157
Thwala v Greyling [2010] JOL 25381 (LCC) ............................................................................. 199
Titi v Titi 4 NAC (1920) 369 ...................................................................................................... 157
TM v ZJ 2016 (1) SA 71 (KZD) ................................................................................................. 369
Togo v Molatoli 1976 AC 20 (C) .................................................................................................. 43
Tongoane v Minister of Agriculture and Land Affairs 2010 (6) SA 214 (CC) .......................... 235
Tongoane v the Minister of Agriculture and Land Affairs 2010 JDR 0539 (CC) ...................... 136
Tongoane v The National Minister of Agriculture and Land Affairs
[2010] JOL 25446 (GNP) ........................................................................................................ 136
Trollip v Du Plessis 2002 (2) SA 242 (W) .................................................................................. 203
Tseolo v Maqutu 1976 (2) 418 (Tk) .................................................................................... 202, 203
Tshatela v Qendwana [2001] JOL 76722 (Tk)............................................................................ 204
U
Umndeni (Clan) of Amantungwa v MEC for Housing and Traditional
Affairs KwaZulu-Natal [2011] 2 All SA 548 (SCA) .............................................................. 234
Umvovo v Umvovo 1953 (1) SA 195 (A)..................................................................................... 43
V
Van Breda v Jacobs 1921 AD 330 ........................................................32, 42, 48, 50, 69, 180, 210
W
Warosi v Zotimba 1942 NAC (C&O) ..................................................................................... 45, 46
Wellem v Silwana [2016] JOL 35804 (WCC) ............................................................................ 199
Women’s Legal Centre Trust v President of the Republic of South Africa
[2018] ZAWCHC 109 (31 August 2018) ......................................15, 65, 68, 350, 351, 360, 361
Women’s Legal Trust v President of the Republic of South Africa
2009 (6) SA 94 (CC) ................................................................................................................. 15
Wormald v Kambule 2006 (3) SA 562 (SCA) ........................................................................ 49, 94
Y
Yako v Beyi 1944 NAC (C&O) .................................................................................................... 43
YO v ZW [2018] ZAWCHC 61 (25 May 2018) ......................................................................... 369
Yona v Rakotsoane [2008] JOL 21069 (O) ........................................................................ 199, 202
Z
Zondi v President of the Republic of South Africa 2000 (2) SA 49 (N) .................................... 188
Zulu v Mbata 1937 NAC (N&T)................................................................................................. 253
Zwane v Myeni 1937 NAC (N&T) ............................................................................................. 263
Index
Page
A
abduction ................................................................................................................. 81–82, 170, 288
accessory liability of family head........................................................................................ 162–164
administration of estates ...................................................................................................... 191–192
adoption
customary law .......................................................................................................... 41n, 108–112
Jewish law ................................................................................................................................ 329
adultery ................................................................................................................................ 167–169
African, use of term ....................................................................................................................... 10
African customary law see customary law
age of majority..................................................................................................................... 133, 162
animals
cattle see cattle
damage caused by .................................................................................................................... 173
apartheid ...................................................................................................................................... 221
appeal from traditional court ............................................................................... 250, 252, 262–263
artha ............................................................................................................................................ 274
ascertainment of customary law .............................................................................................. 48–53
assault .......................................................................................................................................... 174
B
Batavian rule................................................................................................................................ 7–8
best interests of child ........................................................................................................... 102–103
Beth Din ...........................................................................................66–67, 319, 320–321, 328–329
429
Page
betrothal
customary law
abduction .......................................................................................................................... 81–82
betrothal gifts .......................................................................................................................... 82
consequences .................................................................................................................... 82–83
lobolo ................................................................................................................................ 82–83
marriage negotiations ............................................................................................................. 81
minor....................................................................................................................................... 82
sisa cattle ................................................................................................................................ 83
termination .............................................................................................................................. 83
Hindu law ......................................................................................................................... 284–285
Jewish law ................................................................................................................................ 322
Bhagvad Gita ............................................................................................................................... 276
Bhe case .......................................................................................13, 28, 31n, 57–58, 188, 192–194
Bill of Rights
application to unrecognised religious etc laws .............................................................. 64, 68–69
culture ............................................................................................................................ 22, 41–42
equality ....................................................................................................................................... 76
freedom of religion ..........................................................................64, 68–69, 70–71, 73–74, 75
horizontal application................................................................................................................. 76
limitation clause ................................................................................................................... 71–72
minority rights ...................................................................................................................... 74–75
sex/gender equality see gender equality
Black Administration Act 38 of 1927
indirect rule .............................................................................................................................. 220
land tenure ........................................................................................................................ 128–129
recognition of customary law..................................................................................................... 38
repeal ...................................................................................................................................... 220n
succession ........................................................................................................................ 187–188
traditional government ..................................................................................................... 210–211
black people
ethnic groups .............................................................................................................................. 23
use of term.................................................................................................................................. 10
British rule ....................................................................................................................................... 8
bull-killing ................................................................................................................................... 50n
burial rights
burial on another’s land (where) ...................................................................................... 199–201
iter ad sepulcrum ..................................................................................................................... 199
overview ................................................................................................................................... 199
person entitled to chose burial site (who) ........................................................................ 201–204
visitation rights......................................................................................................................... 199
C
caste system ................................................................................................................. 277, 280–281
cattle
allotment .................................................................................................................................. 122
damage caused ......................................................................................................................... 173
Index 431
Page
cattle (continued)
farming out ....................................................................................................................... 153–154
lobolo see lobolo
marriage gifts ........................................................................................................................... 124
sisa .............................................................................................................83, 125–126, 153–154
stock theft ......................................................................................................................... 173–174
certificates of occupation ............................................................................................................ 190
cession ......................................................................................................................................... 149
change of religion .......................................................................................................................... 73
cherem ..................................................................................................................... 66–67, 328–329
chiefs see traditional leadership and governance
children see also minors
adoption see adoption
best interests ..................................................................................................................... 102–103
custody and guardianship see custody; guardianship
delictual liability .............................................................................................................. 163–164
dissolution of customary marriage ................................................................................... 102–103
choice of law
cause of action............................................................................................................................ 45
different regional systems of customary law ....................................................................... 47–48
different South African systems of customary law .............................................................. 46–47
distinctive cultural practices ...................................................................................................... 45
existence or absence of remedy ................................................................................................. 43
express agreement between parties ...................................................................................... 44–45
judge-made rules .................................................................................................................. 44–46
statutory rules ....................................................................................................................... 42–44
tacit agreement between parties ................................................................................................. 45
way of life .................................................................................................................................. 46
civil proceedings, traditional courts see traditional courts
civil union, where customary marriage ....................................................................................... 112
code of conduct for traditional leaders ........................................................................................ 238
Commission on Traditional Leadership Disputes and Claims ............................................ 235–238
Commission Reports ..................................................................................................................... 33
communal land tenure see land tenure
communal property associations ................................................................................................. 134
community courts ............................................................................................................ 15–16, 260
conflicts of laws
choice of law rules ............................................................................................................... 42–46
regional systems of customary law ...................................................................................... 47–48
South African systems of customary law ............................................................................ 46–47
Constitutional Court
application of customary law ................................................................................................... 264
ascertainment of customary law........................................................................................... 50–52
development of customary law .......................................................................... 40, 51–52, 57–58
Page
constitutional recognition of customary law ........................................................................... 39–42
constitutional rights see Bill of Rights
contempt of court................................................................................................................. 253–254
contract, customary law see customary contracts
coparcenary ......................................................................................................................... 291–292
court messengers ......................................................................................................................... 254
criminal proceedings, traditional courts see traditional courts
culture
concept ........................................................................................................................... 21, 23–25
constitutional right ......................................................................................................... 22, 41–42
customary law based on ........................................................................................... 23–25, 41–42
custody
Hindu law ................................................................................................................................. 298
Jewish law ................................................................................................................................ 328
custom
customary law distinguished ...................................................................................................... 50
proof of................................................................................................................................. 48, 69
customary contracts
cession ...................................................................................................................................... 149
concretising verbal contract ..................................................................................................... 147
delegation ................................................................................................................................. 149
dispute settlement............................................................................................................. 157–158
employment.............................................................................................................................. 155
exchange .......................................................................................................................... 151–152
farming out ....................................................................................................................... 153–154
gifts .......................................................................................................................................... 150
hope or expectation .................................................................................................................. 148
independent service .......................................................................................................... 155–156
isondlo ...................................................................................................................................... 156
loans for use and consumption......................................................................................... 150–151
marriage contract ..................................................................................................................... 157
parties
family/family head.......................................................................................................... 26, 148
representation ............................................................................................................... 148–149
substitution ........................................................................................................................... 149
pledge ....................................................................................................................................... 149
quasi-contract ........................................................................................................................... 156
service .............................................................................................................................. 155–156
suretyship ................................................................................................................................. 149
traditional healers ............................................................................................................. 155–156
ukufakwa .................................................................................................................................. 157
ukwenzelela .............................................................................................................................. 156
customary delicts
accessory liability of family head .................................................................................... 162–164
assault ....................................................................................................................................... 174
Index 433
Page
customary delicts (continued)
constitutionality........................................................................................................................ 161
culpable causation of death of breadwinner .................................................................... 175–176
damage caused by animals ....................................................................................................... 173
damage to property .................................................................................................................. 173
defamation........................................................................................................................ 172–173
overview ........................................................................................................................... 161–162
sexual delicts .................................................................................................................... 164–170
theft .................................................................................................................................. 173–174
customary divorce
children ............................................................................................................................ 102–103
interim legal assistance ............................................................................................................ 106
irretrievable breakdown ........................................................................................................... 101
joinder of parties ...................................................................................................................... 106
jurisdiction ....................................................................................................................... 102, 264
maintenance ..................................................................................................................... 105–106
patrimonial consequences ................................................................................................ 103–104
return of lobolo ........................................................................................................ 102, 104–105
sexual delicts with divorced woman ................................................................................ 169–170
customary law
definition ................................................................................................................ 5n, 19–21, 195
adoption............................................................................................................................ 108–112
application of, in ordinary courts ..................................................................................... 261–264
ascertainment and proof ....................................................................................................... 48–53
assimilation with common law .................................................................................................. 13
betrothal ............................................................................................................................... 81–83
body of law ................................................................................................................................ 13
choice of law see choice of law
conflicts of law see conflicts of law
contract see customary contracts
cultural and religious identification ......................................................................... 23–25, 41–42
customs and usages traditionally observed .......................................................................... 21–22
decolonisation ...................................................................................................................... 53–59
delict see customary delicts
divorce see customary divorce
expert evidence .............................................................................................................. 31, 32, 51
historical emergence .............................................................................................................. 9–10
indigenous African people ................................................................................. 5n, 10, 21, 22–23
judicial notice ..................................................................................................... 32, 37, 38, 39, 49
key features see features of customary law
Kwa-Zulu-Natal Codes see Kwa-Zulu Natal Codes of Zulu Law
legal theoretical framework ................................................................................................. 57–58
living law ............................ 5n, 10, 14, 22, 30–32, 40–41, 49–53, 55–57, 57–58, 180, 248–249
marriage see customary marriage
official version ...............................................................................22, 30–32, 40–41, 54–55, 180
property rights see customary property rights
racial terminology .................................................................................................................... 41n
recognition see recognition of customary law
relationship with legislation ........................................................................................... 41, 54–55
repugnancy clause/proviso ...........................................................................8, 16, 32, 37n, 38, 39
Page
customary law (continued)
restatement ................................................................................................................... 31, 52, 53n
separate legal system comprising various systems .............................................................. 17, 39
sources see sources of customary law
state-law pluralism ................................................................................................. 7–9, 12–13, 37
status .................................................................................................................................... 13–14
succession see customary succession
traditional courts see traditional courts
traditional leadership and governance see traditional leadership and governance
ubuntu ....................................................................................................27, 28–30, 158, 161, 267
women’s rights see gender equality
customary marriage
definition .................................................................................................................................... 84
abduction .............................................................................................................................. 81–82
age of parties .............................................................................................................................. 88
betrothal ............................................................................................................................... 81–83
choice of law .............................................................................................................................. 44
civil union, effect of ................................................................................................................. 112
consent of parties ....................................................................................................................... 88
conversion to civil marriage............................................................................................... 88, 113
death of spouse ................................................................................................................. 106–107
declaration as to customs applying ............................................................................................ 84
declining marriage rates ........................................................................................................... 125
dissolution see customary divorce
equal status and competence of spouses ...................................................................... 96–97, 162
evaluation of provisions ................................................................................................... 107–108
existing civil marriage.......................................................................................................... 87–88
first wife’s consent ...............................................................................40n, 51–52, 100–101, 125
handing over of bride ........................................................................................................... 91–92
lobolo see lobolo
marriage gifts ........................................................................................................................... 124
minor .................................................................................................................................... 88–89
negotiations .................................................................................................................... 81–82, 90
patrimonial consequences
change of matrimonial property system ................................................................................. 99
constitutionality ....................................................................................96–97, 98–99, 124–125
post 15 November 2000
monogamous marriage ................................................................................................ 99–100
polygynous marriage ......................................................................................... 100–101, 125
pre 15 November 2000 ..................................................................................................... 97–99
polygyny ............................................................................................................................ 84, 108
post 15 November 2000 requirements ................................................................................. 88–89
pre 15 November 2000 requirements
agreement to deliver lobolo .................................................................................................... 87
consent of man’s father or guardian ....................................................................................... 86
consent of prospective husband .............................................................................................. 86
consent of prospective wife .................................................................................................... 86
consent of woman’s father or guardian .................................................................................. 86
delivery or handing over of wife ............................................................................................ 86
KwaZulu-Natal ....................................................................................................................... 85
Index 435
Page
customary marriage (continued)
list of requirements ................................................................................................................. 85
non-existence of civil marriage ........................................................................................ 87–88
prohibited relationships ........................................................................................................ 89–90
Recognition of Customary Marriages Act ........................................................................... 84–85
registration ........................................................................................................................... 94–95
seedraiser.......................................................................................................................... 106–107
spousal abuse ........................................................................................................................... 174
stages .................................................................................................................................... 90–91
statistics ...................................................................................................................................... 84
subsequent civil marriage ........................................................................................ 112–115, 198
Transkei Marriage Act marriages .............................................................................................. 84
woman-to-woman .................................................................................................................... 107
customary property rights
allocation, other than land ........................................................................................................ 122
categories ................................................................................................................................. 120
characteristics ........................................................................................................................... 119
divorce.............................................................................................................................. 103–104
family head’s position .......................................................................................... 96n, 97–98, 119
family property......................................................................................................................... 120
house property .................................................................................................................. 120–121
inheritance ........................................................................................................................ 122–123
land see land tenure
lobolo see lobolo
marriage gifts ........................................................................................................................... 124
matrimonial property ......................................................................................... 97–101, 124–125
methods of acquisition ..................................................................................................... 122–126
personal property ..................................................................................................................... 121
sisa cattle .......................................................................................................................... 125–126
customary succession
Bhe case .................................................................................................13, 57–58, 188, 192–194
Black Administration Act ................................................................................................ 187–188
Codes of Zulu Law........................................................................................................... 186, 189
codifications ............................................................................................................................. 186
deathbed wishes ....................................................................................................................... 179
debts and delictual liabilities .................................................................................... 122, 181, 184
descendant: definition ...................................................................................................... 195–196
descendants in relation to women ............................................................................................ 197
disinheritance ........................................................................................................................... 181
disputes, jurisdiction ................................................................................................................ 198
donations .................................................................................................................................. 123
family head............................................................................................................... 179, 183–184
freedom of testation ......................................................................................................... 196–197
general and special succession ......................................................................................... 180, 183
general principles ............................................................................................................. 180–181
general property ....................................................................................................................... 186
house property .......................................................................................................................... 186
interpretation of Intestate Succession Act ............................................................................... 196
land ................................................................................................................................... 189–191
Law Reform Commission report ............................................................................................. 194
Page
customary succession (continued)
living and official versions....................................................................................................... 180
male children, order of succession ................................................................................... 182–183
male primogeniture ....................................................13, 28n, 122–123, 181, 188, 192–194, 197
monogamous household................................................................................................... 181–182
order of succession ........................................................................................................... 181–183
overview ........................................................................................................... 122–123, 179–180
personal property ..................................................................................................................... 185
polygynous household ............................................................................................................. 182
powers and duties of successor ........................................................................................ 183–184
property dispositions ........................................................................................................ 184–185
reform, background .......................................................................................................... 194–195
Reform Act of 2009 ......................................................................................................... 195–199
status positions ................................................................................................................. 179, 180
terminology: succession and inheritance ................................................................................. 179
traditional leader’s property ..................................................................................................... 198
wills .......................................................................................................................... 179–180, 185
winding-up and administration of estates ........................................................................ 191–192
1987 regulations ....................................................................................................................... 188
D
damage to property ...................................................................................................................... 173
death of spouse .................................................................................................................... 106–107
death penalty................................................................................................................................ 176
decolonisation of legal education ............................................................................................ 53–59
deeds of grant ...................................................................................................................... 128, 190
deep legal pluralism
concept ......................................................................................................................................... 7
current position .................................................................................................................... 14–16
historical emergence .............................................................................................................. 9–12
defamation ........................................................................................................................... 172–173
defloration of unmarried girl ............................................................................................... 164–165
delict
common law ............................................................................................................................. 162
customary law see customary delicts
dependant’s claim for loss of support
adopted child ............................................................................................................................ 110
Muslim spouse ................................................................................................................. 354–356
spouse of customary marriage ................................................................................... 65, 175–176
dharma................................................................................................................................. 273–274
dina d’malkhuta dina................................................................................................... 321, 331, 333
disaster management ................................................................................................................... 238
discrimination against women see gender equality
Index 437
Page
dispute settlement ................................................................................................................ 157–158
divorce
customary law see customary divorce
Hindu law ................................................................................................................... 67, 294–297
Jewish law .................................................................................................................. 14, 330–332
Muslim law see Muslim divorce
domestic violence ........................................................................................................................ 174
donations ..................................................................................................................................... 123
dual systems theory ......................................................................................................................... 6
Dutch East India Company ......................................................................................................... 7–8
E
employment contract ................................................................................................................... 155
engagement see betrothal
enrichment ................................................................................................................................... 156
equality clause ......................................................................................................................... 76, 96
ethula ................................................................................................................................... 120–121
evidence
expert evidence see expert evidence
hearsay ..................................................................................................................................... 258
traditional courts ...................................................................................................................... 257
exchange .............................................................................................................................. 151–152
execution of judgments
civil traditional courts ...................................................................................................... 252, 254
criminal traditional courts ................................................................................................ 251–252
expert evidence
customs and usages .................................................................................................................... 32
living customary law ............................................................................................................ 31, 51
traditional courts ...................................................................................................................... 257
Extension of Security of Tenure Act 62 of 1997 ........................................................................ 142
F
family courts ........................................................................................................................ 263–264
family head
accessory liability for delicts ........................................................................................... 162–164
female head .......................................................................................................................... 31, 41
party to contract ................................................................................................................. 26, 148
property rights ...................................................................................................... 96n, 97–98, 119
succession ................................................................................................................ 179, 183–184
family property ............................................................................................................................ 120
farming out .......................................................................................................................... 153–154
Page
farmworkers................................................................................................................................. 142
features of customary law
African community government and administration ................................................................. 25
concrete not abstract acts ........................................................................................................... 26
constant change and development ............................................................................................. 27
contract ....................................................................................................................................... 26
groups as legal persons .............................................................................................................. 27
marriage and family ................................................................................................................... 26
moments in time ................................................................................................................... 25–26
traditional authority courts and procedure ................................................................................. 26
ubuntu .................................................................................................................... 27, 28–30, 158
values and principles ............................................................................................................ 27–28
female genital mutilation ............................................................................................................... 42
fines, payment ............................................................................................................................. 255
forced marriage.................................................................................................... 82, 88n, 171n, 172
formalism....................................................................................................................................... 57
freedom not to believe ................................................................................................................... 73
freedom of religion ..............................................................................64, 68–69, 70–71, 73–74, 75
freedom of testation ............................................................................................. 196–197, 301, 333
G
Gandhi, Mahatma .......................................................................................................... 11, 280, 295
gender equality
constitutional right ............................................................................................................... 70, 76
customary marriage .................................................................................................................... 96
factors to be considered ................................................................................................. 71, 72–73
Harksen test ............................................................................................................................... 71
Hindu law ......................................................................................................................... 295–296
Jewish law ........................................................................................................................ 342–343
prohibition of unfair discrimination ..................................................................................... 71, 72
religious marriages ............................................................................................................... 69–73
substantive approach .................................................................................................................. 71
traditional communities ........................................................................................................... 224
traditional leadership ................................................................................................ 211, 213–214
UN Convention .......................................................................................................................... 76
get ........................................................................................................................................ 330–331
gifts
customary law .......................................................................................................................... 150
marriage gifts ........................................................................................................................... 124
guardianship
Jewish law ................................................................................................................................ 328
Index 439
Page
H
Harksen test ................................................................................................................................... 71
harta sepencarian .......................................................................................................................... 66
headmen see traditional leadership and governance
hearsay ......................................................................................................................................... 258
High Court ................................................................................................................................... 264
Hindu inheritance law
joint property
partition......................................................................................................................... 298, 300
survivorship .................................................................................................................. 298, 299
overview ................................................................................................................................... 298
schools of law .......................................................................................................................... 298
separate property
freedom of testation .............................................................................................................. 301
intestate succession ............................................................................................... 284, 301–310
South African law distinguished ...................................................................................... 310–311
suggestions for dealing with non-recognition .......................................................................... 311
woman’s property
limited woman’s estate ......................................................................................................... 310
stridhan ................................................................................................................................. 309
Hindu marriage
betrothal ........................................................................................................................... 284–285
consequences.................................................................................................................... 288–290
dowry ....................................................................................................................................... 294
dual validity ............................................................................................................................. 283
examples of marriage ceremonies ............................................................................................ 287
forms of marriage ............................................................................................................. 287–288
immigrant and passenger Indians..................................................................................... 281–282
kanyadaan ........................................................................................................................ 284, 287
maintenance, duty ............................................................................................................ 288–290
minimum age ........................................................................................................................... 286
monogamy, statutory requirement in India .............................................................................. 285
nature of ................................................................................................................................... 284
non-recognition in South Africa .............................................................................. 282, 283–284
potentially polygynous ..................................................................................................... 282, 283
prohibited relationships .................................................................................................... 285–286
putative marriage ..................................................................................................................... 283
requirements for validity .......................................................................................................... 286
sapinda relationship ......................................................................................................... 285–286
vows ......................................................................................................................................... 287
Hindu personal law
caste system ............................................................................................................. 277, 280–281
codification in India ................................................................................................................. 279
coparcenary ...................................................................................................................... 291–292
custody of children ................................................................................................................... 298
divorce.............................................................................................................................. 294–297
historical emergence .................................................................................................. 11, 280–282
Page
Hindu personal law (continued)
immigrant and passenger Indians..................................................................................... 280–282
joint family and joint property ......................................................................................... 290–291
karta (manager) ........................................................................................................................ 292
living and official versions....................................................................................................... 273
maintenance ..................................................................................................................... 288–290
marriage see Hindu marriage
non-recognition in South Africa .............................................................................. 282, 283–284
overview ................................................................................................................................... 273
persons who are Hindus ........................................................................................................... 273
principles of Hinduism ..................................................................................................... 273–274
schools of law .......................................................................................................................... 280
separate property .............................................................................................................. 292–293
social structure ................................................................................................................. 280–281
sources of law .................................................................................................................. 275–279
status of women ............................................................................................................... 311–312
stridhan (female property) ............................................................................................... 293–294
succession see Hindu inheritance law
untouchables .................................................................................................................... 280–281
Women’s Movement ........................................................................................................ 295–296
homelands ............................................................................................................ 127, 129, 221–222
homicide .............................................................................................................................. 175–176
house property
concept ............................................................................................................................. 120–121
division on death ...................................................................................................................... 186
human trafficking .................................................................................................................. 82, 171
I
incest .............................................................................................................................. 89, 101, 327
independent service ............................................................................................................. 155–156
indigenous African people .................................................................................... 5n, 10, 21, 22–23
indigenous law, use of term........................................................................................................... 20
indirect rule.......................................................................................................................... 219, 220
interdisciplinary studies................................................................................................................. 59
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.................................................................... 75
international law ...................................................................................................................... 73–76
intestate succession
customary law see customary succession
Hindu law ......................................................................................................................... 301–310
Jewish law ........................................................................................................................ 333–338
Muslim law ................................................................................................65, 358–359, 375–380
irretrievable breakdown of marriage ........................................................................................... 101
Islamic personal law see Muslim personal law
isondlo ................................................................................................................................. 106, 156
Index 441
Page
J
Jewish inheritance law
daughters’ rights............................................................................................................... 340–341
dina d’malkhuta dina ............................................................................................................... 333
disposal of property by contract............................................................................................... 333
intestate succession
classes of beneficiaries and order of succession .................................................................. 336
firstborn son’s double portion ...................................................................................... 336–338
impediments ......................................................................................................................... 334
order of payment................................................................................................................... 333
qualification as beneficiary........................................................................................... 334–336
overview ........................................................................................................................... 332–333
sisters’ rights ............................................................................................................................ 341
source of law ............................................................................................................................ 332
suggestions for dealing with non-recognition .......................................................................... 342
widow’s rights .................................................................................................................. 339–340
wife’s estate ............................................................................................................................. 339
wills .......................................................................................................................................... 333
women’s position ............................................................................................................. 338–341
Jewish marriage
betrothal ................................................................................................................................... 322
concubinage ............................................................................................................................. 325
consequences.................................................................................................................... 323–325
forms and formalities ....................................................................................................... 322–323
husband’s rights and duties .............................................................................................. 323–234
kiddushin and nissuin ....................................................................................................... 322–323
levirate marriage ...................................................................................................................... 325
marital rape .............................................................................................................................. 325
non-Jewish spouse ......................................................................................................... 327, 334n
polygyny .................................................................................................................................. 323
prohibited marriages ................................................................................................................ 327
property of married woman ............................................................................................. 338–339
purpose ..................................................................................................................................... 322
same-sex marriage ........................................................................................................... 326–327
sexual intercourse............................................................................................................. 324–325
sexual relations outside marriage ............................................................................................. 326
Jewish personal law
adoption.................................................................................................................................... 329
anti-Semitism ....................................................................................................................... 11–12
application in South Africa .............................................................................................. 319–320
Beth Din .......................................................................................66–67, 319, 320–321, 328–329
chained woman (agunah) ......................................................................................................... 332
cherem .................................................................................................................. 66–67, 328–329
child maintenance ............................................................................................................ 327–329
commandments ................................................................................................................ 315–316
Conservative Judaism .............................................................................................................. 318
conversion to another religion ................................................................................................. 334
conversion to Judaism .............................................................................................................. 327
custody of children ................................................................................................................... 328
Page
Jewish personal law (continued)
dina d’malkhuta dina ............................................................................................... 321, 331, 333
divorce (get) ............................................................................................................... 14, 330–332
guardianship ............................................................................................................................. 328
historical emergence ............................................................................................................ 11–12
illegitimacy .............................................................................................................................. 327
Jewish beliefs and principles ........................................................................................... 315–315
ketubbah ...................................................................................323, 324, 325, 330, 332, 338, 340
marriage see Jewish marriage
Orthodox Judaism .................................................................................................................... 317
Reconstructionists .................................................................................................................... 318
Reform Judaism ....................................................................................................................... 318
Sabbath ..................................................................................................................................... 317
same-sex relationships ..................................................................................................... 326–327
sources of law .................................................................................................................. 318–319
state-law pluralism ..................................................................................................................... 14
succession see Jewish inheritance law
women’s position ............................................................................................. 338–341, 342–343
judicial notice of customary law ........................................................................... 32, 37, 38, 39, 49
judicial precedent .................................................................................................................. 33, 279
jurisdiction
Constitutional Court ................................................................................................................. 264
dissolution of customary marriage ................................................................................... 102, 264
family courts .................................................................................................................... 263–264
High Court ............................................................................................................................... 264
magistrates’ courts ........................................................................................................... 262–263
small claims courts ................................................................................................................... 261
traditional courts
civil proceedings ........................................................................................................... 253–254
criminal proceedings .................................................................................................... 250–251
winding-up and administration of estates ................................................................ 191–192, 198
K
karma ........................................................................................................................................... 274
ketubbah ......................................................................................323, 324, 325, 330, 332, 338, 340
Khoi-San .............................................................................................................................. 239–241
kings .................................................................................................................................... 224–225
KwaZulu-Natal Codes of Zulu Law
codification of customary law .................................................................................................... 30
customary marriage .................................................................................................................... 85
repeal ........................................................................................................................................ 52n
succession ........................................................................................................................ 186, 189
territorial application ................................................................................................................ 47n
KwaZulu-Natal Land Administration and Immovable Asset Management Act 2 of 2014 ........ 239
Index 443
Page
L
labour tenants ...................................................................................................................... 142–143
land
customary succession ....................................................................................................... 189–191
customary tenure see land tenure
land tenure
assigned or delegated laws ....................................................................................................... 129
Black Administration Act ................................................................................................ 128–129
Communal Land Rights Act
overview of provisions ......................................................................................................... 135
purpose.......................................................................................................................... 134, 135
unconstitutionality ........................................................................................................ 135–136
Communal Land Tenure Bill ........................................................................................... 138–140
Communal Land Tenure Policy ............................................................................................... 137
communal property associations .............................................................................................. 134
deeds of grant ........................................................................................................................... 128
demarcation of communal land ................................................................................................ 132
family property....................................................................................................................... 128n
former homelands ............................................................................................................ 127, 129
government department ................................................................................................... 134–135
Green Paper ...................................................................................................................... 136–137
historical background
different land control forms and legislative measures.................................................. 127–129
traditional areas ............................................................................................................ 126–127
Interim Protection of Information Land Rights Act ........................................................ 140–141
labour tenants ................................................................................................................... 142–143
occupiers’ rights ....................................................................................................................... 142
overview ................................................................................................................................... 126
permission to occupy ............................................................................................................... 128
permits...................................................................................................................................... 128
proclamations ........................................................................................................................... 129
quitrent ..................................................................................................................................... 128
reform ............................................................................................................................... 133–141
spontaneous reform under Constitution ................................................................................... 141
traditional communal land tenure .................................................................................... 130–133
traditional leader’s role ............................................................................................................ 132
women’s rights ......................................................................................................... 132–133, 141
Law of Evidence Amendment Act 45 of 1988 .............................................................................. 38
Law Reform Commission reports ..................................................................... 16, 33–34, 264–265
legal centralism.............................................................................................................. 6, 27, 57–58
legal pluralism
broad interpretation ...................................................................................................................... 7
cultural pluralism and .................................................................................................................. 5
narrow interpretation ........................................................................................................ 5–6, 6–6
legal positivism.................................................................................................................... 6, 57–58
legal representation...................................................................................................................... 256
Page
legal tradition ................................................................................................................................. 22
lekgotla ........................................................................................................................................ 259
Lemba .......................................................................................................................................... 11n
levirate marriage .......................................................................................................................... 325
limitation clause ...................................................................................................................... 71–72
Limpopo business registration .................................................................................................... 239
living customary law .............. 5n, 10, 14, 22, 30–32, 40–41, 49–53, 55–57, 57–58, 180, 248–249
loans..................................................................................................................................... 150–151
lobolo
definition ............................................................................................................................ 20, 123
agreement to deliver ................................................................................................................... 87
Black Administration Act .......................................................................................................... 38
civil marriage ......................................................................................................... 45–46, 93, 124
constitutionality.......................................................................................................................... 94
delivery during betrothal ...................................................................................................... 82–83
economic aspect ......................................................................................................................... 93
female family head ............................................................................................................... 31, 41
function ...................................................................................................................................... 92
Law of Evidence Amendment Act............................................................................................. 38
negotiations .......................................................................................................................... 90, 92
ownership ................................................................................................................................. 124
requirement for customary marriage.............................................................................. 91, 92–94
return on divorce ...................................................................................................... 102, 104–105
termination of betrothal.............................................................................................................. 83
theleka custom ......................................................................................................................... 92n
ukufakwa custom ...................................................................................................................... 157
what constitutes .................................................................................................................... 92, 93
women’s view ............................................................................................................................ 93
local houses of traditional leaders ............................................................................................... 233
locations....................................................................................................................................... 127
loss of support see dependant’s claim for loss of support
M
magistrates’ courts
appeal from traditional court ............................................................................................ 262–263
application of customary law ................................................................................................... 262
maintenance
adopted child .................................................................................................................... 110–111
Hindu law ......................................................................................................................... 288–290
Jewish law ........................................................................................................................ 327–329
Muslim law ...................................................................................................... 356–358, 369–370
pendente lite ............................................................................................................................. 106
Index 445
Page
makgotla ................................................................................................................................ 15, 260
male initiation .............................................................................................................................. 239
male primogeniture........... 13, 28n, 122–123, 181, 188, 192–194, 197, 212n, 213, 228n, 336–338
marital rape .................................................................................................................................. 325
marriage
definition .................................................................................................................................... 63
customary see customary marriage
Hindu see Hindu marriage
Jewish see Jewish marriage
Muslim see Muslim marriage
religious marriages see religious marriages
minority rights ......................................................................................................................... 74–75
minors see also children
betrothal ..................................................................................................................................... 82
customary marriage .............................................................................................................. 88–89
moksha ......................................................................................................................................... 274
murder ......................................................................................................................................... 176
Muslim divorce
approach to divorce .................................................................................................................. 364
deterrence ................................................................................................................................. 370
forms of divorce ....................................................................................................... 366, 371–373
husband, by .............................................................................................................................. 371
judicial divorce................................................................................................................. 372–373
maintenance and inheritance ............................................................................................ 369–370
mediation and arbitration ......................................................................................................... 368
mutual agreement ..................................................................................................................... 372
overview ........................................................................................................................... 363–366
Qu’rƗnic provisions ......................................................................................................... 364–345
remarrying former spouse ................................................................................................ 370–371
revocable and irrevocable divorces.................................................................................. 368–369
talƗq ................................................................................................................. 365, 366–371, 373
waiting period (iddah)...................................................................................................... 367–368
wife, by ............................................................................................................................ 371–372
women’s position ............................................................................................. 363–366, 373–374
Muslim inheritance law
intestate succession, recognition of Muslim spouse .................................................. 65, 358–359
overview ........................................................................................................................... 374–375
suggestions for dealing with non-recognition .................................................................. 381–382
Sunni law of intestate succession
basic principles ............................................................................................................. 375–377
classes of heir ....................................................................................................................... 377
distant kindred ...................................................................................................................... 380
residuaries ..................................................................................................................... 379–380
sharers ........................................................................................................................... 378–379
Page
Muslim marriage
cases calling for recognition and regulation .................................................................... 360–363
choice of law .............................................................................................................................. 74
draft Bill ........................................................................................................... 15, 67–68, 74, 374
duty of support, recognition ............................................................................................. 354–358
mahr, quasi-recognition ................................................................................................... 353–354
maintenance of surviving spouse ............................................................................... 65, 358–360
marriage contract, recognition ................................................................................... 65, 351–353
non-recognition .................................................................................................... 14–15, 349–351
potentially polygnous ................................................................................................... 14–15, 349
Muslim personal law
application in South Africa .............................................................................................. 348–349
dependant’s action for loss of support ....................................................................... 65, 354–356
divorce see Muslim divorce
historical emergence .................................................................................................... 10–11, 348
jamiats ...................................................................................................................................... 349
maintenance ..................................................................................................... 356–358, 369–370
marriage see Muslim marriage
scope ................................................................................................................................ 64n, 347
sources of law .................................................................................................................. 347–348
Shari’ah.................................................................................................................................... 347
succession see Muslim inheritance law
Sunni and Shi’i traditions ......................................................................................................... 348
ulamƗ................................................................................................................................ 348–349
N
National House of Traditional Leaders ............................................................................... 230–231
negotiorum gestio ........................................................................................................................ 156
ngquthu beast ............................................................................................................................... 124
nkomo yobisi ................................................................................................................................ 124
O
occupiers’ rights .......................................................................................................................... 142
oe gapa le namane ....................................................................................................................... 109
official customary law .......................................................................22, 30–32, 40–41, 54–55, 180
official legal pluralism ................................................................................................................ 6–7
onus of proof, traditional courts .......................................................................................... 254–255
P
patriarchy .................................................................................................52n, 93, 97, 124, 136, 213
people’s courts ......................................................................................................... 15–16, 260–261
people’s law ................................................................................................................. 5n, 12, 15–16
permission to occupy ................................................................................................................... 128
Index 447
Page
permits ................................................................................................................................. 128, 190
personal property
concept ..................................................................................................................................... 121
division on death ...................................................................................................................... 185
phuthuma ............................................................................................................................. 101–102
pledge .......................................................................................................................................... 149
polyandry: definition ................................................................................................................... 84n
polygamy: definition ................................................................................................................... 84n
polygyny
definition .................................................................................................................................. 84n
customary marriage see customary marriage
Hindu marriage ................................................................................................................ 282, 283
Jewish marriage ....................................................................................................................... 323
Muslim marriage .......................................................................................................... 14–15, 349
primogeniture ................... 13, 28n, 122–123, 181, 188, 192–194, 197, 212n, 213, 228n, 336–338
proof of customary law............................................................................................................ 48–53
property damage .......................................................................................................................... 173
property dispositions ........................................................................................................... 184–185
property rights see customary property rights
provincial houses of traditional leaders ............................................................................... 231–233
putative marriage ......................................................................................................... 101, 114, 283
Q
quasi-contract .............................................................................................................................. 156
queens .................................................................................................................................. 224–225
quitrent......................................................................................................................... 128, 189–190
R
rape ..............................................................................................81n, 82, 161n, 165, 171, 288, 325
recognition of customary law
constitutional recognition..................................................................................................... 39–42
historical background ........................................................................................................... 37–39
regional authority courts...................................................................................................... 258–259
registration of customary marriage ......................................................................................... 94–95
reincarnation ................................................................................................................................ 274
religious demographics ................................................................................................................. 63
religious entanglement, doctrine ..................................................................................... 66–68, 297
Page
religious marriages
ad hoc relief ......................................................................................................................... 65–66
application of Constitution ............................................................................................. 64, 68–69
common law ............................................................................................................................... 63
doctrine of religious entanglement............................................................................... 66–68, 297
Hindu marriages see Hindu marriage
international law................................................................................................................... 73–76
Jewish marriages see Jewish marriage
lack of legal recognition....................................................................................................... 64–65
legislative amendments ........................................................................................................ 65–66
Muslim marriages see Muslim marriage
religious demographics .............................................................................................................. 63
sex/gender equality versus freedom of religion ................................................................... 69–73
representation ...................................................................................................................... 148–149
repugnancy clause/proviso ..............................................................................8, 16, 32, 37n, 38, 39
restatement of customary law .......................................................................................... 31, 52, 53n
restorative justice ...........................................................................................26, 28n, 173, 265, 267
S
sale contract ........................................................................................................................... 45, 158
same-sex relationships......................................................................................................... 326–327
scholarly works.................................................................................................................. 33–34, 53
seantlo ................................................................................................................................. 106–107
seduction .............................................................................................................................. 166–167
seedraiser ............................................................................................................................. 106–107
semi-autonomous social fields .................................................................................................... 37n
service contract .................................................................................................................... 155–156
sexual delicts
adultery ............................................................................................................................ 167–169
defloration of unmarried girl ............................................................................................ 164–165
impregnation of unmarried girl ........................................................................................ 166–167
seduction .......................................................................................................................... 166–167
ukuthwala ......................................................................................................................... 170–172
widow or divorced woman............................................................................................... 169–170
woman in ukungena relationship ............................................................................................. 169
sexual equality see gender equality
sexual violence .............................................................................................................................. 82
Shi’i tradition ............................................................................................................................... 348
sisa .................................................................................................................83, 125–126, 153–154
small claims courts .............................................................................................................. 261–262
Index 449
Page
sources of customary law
customs and usages .................................................................................................................... 32
judicial precedent ....................................................................................................................... 33
legislation ................................................................................................................................... 33
scholarly and other writings ........................................................................................... 33–34, 53
spoor law ............................................................................................................................. 173–174
stare decisis ........................................................................................................................... 31, 279
state law and non-state law...................................................................................................... 68–69
state-law pluralism
concept ............................................................................................................................. 5–6, 6–7
current position .................................................................................................................... 12–14
historical emergence .......................................................................................................... 7–9, 37
step-parent adoption .................................................................................................................... 109
stock theft ............................................................................................................................ 173–174
strong legal pluralism ...................................................................................................................... 7
subpoenas .................................................................................................................................... 254
substitution of parties to contract ................................................................................................ 149
succession
common law ............................................................................................................................. 179
customary law see customary succession
Hindu law see Hindu inheritance law
Jewish law see Jewish inheritance law
Muslim law see Muslim inheritance law
Sunni tradition ............................................................................................................................. 348
suretyship..................................................................................................................................... 149
T
talƗq ..................................................................................................................... 365, 366–371, 373
Talmud ................................................................................................................................. 318–319
theft ...................................................................................................................................... 173–174
theleka custom ............................................................................................................................. 92n
theoretical framework for customary law ............................................................................... 57–58
therapeutic jurisprudence .............................................................................................. 26, 28n, 267
Torah ........................................................................................................................... 316, 317, 318
traditional courts
adjournment of hearing ............................................................................................................ 256
advantages and disadvantages.......................................................................................... 257–258
appeal from ...................................................................................................... 250, 252, 262–263
Chiefs’ and Headmen’s Civil Courts Rules ..................................................................... 256–257
civil courts ........................................................................................................................ 252–254
Page
traditional courts (continued)
constitutional status .......................................................................................................... 246–248
contempt of court ............................................................................................................. 253–254
court messengers ...................................................................................................................... 254
criminal courts ................................................................................................................. 249–252
default judgment ...................................................................................................................... 256
draft Bill ................................................................................................................... 239, 264–267
evidence ................................................................................................................................... 257
formal (official) and informal (unofficial) ............................................................................... 246
hearsay evidence ...................................................................................................................... 258
historical background ............................................................................................................... 245
initiation of proceedings .......................................................................................................... 255
Law Reform Commission reports .............................................................................. 16, 264–265
legal framework ............................................................................................................... 248–249
legal representation .................................................................................................................. 256
living law ......................................................................................................................... 248–249
lodgement procedure ................................................................................................................ 255
makgotla ............................................................................................................................. 15, 260
negotiation stage ...................................................................................................................... 255
onus of proof in criminal matters ..................................................................................... 254–255
overview ..................................................................................................................... 26, 245–246
payment of fines ....................................................................................................................... 255
people’s courts ..................................................................................................... 15–16, 260–261
personal interests of traditional leader involved ...................................................................... 256
procedure, overview ......................................................................................................... 254–255
record of proceedings ....................................................................................................... 256–257
regional authority courts .................................................................................................. 258–259
regional legislation ................................................................................................................... 248
subpoenas ................................................................................................................................. 254
trial proceedings ............................................................................................................... 255–257
ward heads ....................................................................................................................... 259–260
traditional healers ................................................................................................................ 155–156
traditional leadership and governance
apartheid era ............................................................................................................................. 221
authority system ....................................................................................................................... 214
Black Administration Act ........................................................................................ 210–211, 220
code of conduct ........................................................................................................................ 238
colonial influence ............................................................................................................. 210–211
Commission on Traditional Leadership Disputes and Claims......................................... 235–238
community assembly (public council) ..................................................................................... 219
community court (judicial council).................................................................................. 218–219
constitutional recognition......................................................................................... 211–213, 222
courts see traditional courts
democratic dispensation ........................................................................................................... 211
disaster management ................................................................................................................ 238
dispute and claim resolution ............................................................................................ 235–238
female leaders .......................................................................................................... 211, 213–214
gender discrimination............................................................................................... 213–214, 224
homeland phase ................................................................................................................ 221–222
Index 451
Page
traditional leadership and governance (continued)
houses of traditional leaders
local houses .......................................................................................................................... 233
National House of Traditional Leaders ........................................................................ 230–231
provincial houses .......................................................................................................... 231–233
indirect rule ...................................................................................................................... 219, 220
institution of traditional leadership .................................................................................. 211–213
king- or queenship, recognition ....................................................................... 224–225, 228–229
king- or queenship council
establishment and recognition .............................................................................................. 226
functions ............................................................................................................................... 227
leadership positions .......................................................................................................... 228–229
male initiation .......................................................................................................................... 239
modern government distinguished ........................................................................................... 209
partnerships with municipalities .............................................................................................. 235
pre-colonial phase .................................................................................................................... 210
principal traditional community............................................................................................... 225
principal traditional council
establishment and recognition .............................................................................................. 227
functions ............................................................................................................................... 228
private (family) council............................................................................................................ 217
role and functions ............................................................................................................. 234–235
royal family: definition ............................................................................................................ 228
service delivery agreement ...................................................................................................... 235
tradition, concept.............................................................................................................. 209–210
Traditional and Khoi-San Leadership Bill ....................................................................... 239–241
traditional community
definition ............................................................................................................................... 221
recognition ............................................................................................................................ 224
traditional council (community council)
composition .......................................................................................................................... 218
establishment and recognition ...................................................................................... 225–226
functions ....................................................................................................................... 218, 227
terminology........................................................................................................................... 217
traditional leaders
allocation of role and functions .................................................................................... 234–235
attaining position of authority ...................................................................................... 214–215
deputies ................................................................................................................................. 229
performance of functions .............................................................................................. 216–217
powers, functions and duties ................................................................................................ 220
property excluded from deceased estate ............................................................................... 198
remuneration ......................................................................................................................... 229
replacement and regency ...................................................................................................... 216
succession to position ................................................................................................... 215, 216
types ...................................................................................................................................... 228
woman as .............................................................................................................. 211, 213–214
Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act................................ 223–224, 241–242
tribal levies ............................................................................................................................. 218n
White Paper ...................................................................................................................... 222–223
tribe, use of term .......................................................................................................................... 221
Page
U
ubulungu beast ............................................................................................................................. 124
ubuntu ........................................................................................................27, 28–30, 158, 161, 267
Uitvlugt Committee ....................................................................................................................... 12
ukufakwa ...................................................................................................................................... 157
ukukekeza....................................................................................................................................... 87
ukungena ..................................................................................................................... 106–107, 169
ukutheleka .................................................................................................................................... 174
ukuthwala ................................................................................................................ 81–82, 170–172
ukwenzelela ................................................................................................................................. 156
UN Conventions/Declarations
discrimination against women ................................................................................................... 76
religious discrimination ............................................................................................................. 75
unofficial customary law ................................................................................. 5n, 10, 14, 22, 30–32
usufruct ........................................................................................................................ 190, 324, 338
V
Vedas ................................................................................................................................... 275–276
virginity testing............................................................................................................................ 161
voetstoots ..................................................................................................................................... 158
W
ward heads, courts ............................................................................................................... 259–260
weak legal pluralism.............................................................................................................. 6–7, 37
widow, sexual delicts .......................................................................................................... 169–170
witchcraft ............................................................................................................... 8n, 153, 172, 258
woman-to-woman marriage ........................................................................................................ 107
women
discrimination against see gender equality
family heads ......................................................................................................................... 31, 41
land rights................................................................................................................. 132–133, 141
traditional leaders ..................................................................................................... 211, 213–214

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Introduction to Legal Pluralism

First Edition 2002, Reprinted 2003

Editor: Beryl Kirsten

Legal Pluralism within a South African context reflects the re-

Bernard, NM BA (Humanities) (Yeshiva University) Rabbi Emeritus of The Oxford

AHRLJ African Human Rights Law Journal

Part 1 Legal Pluralism in South Africa

Part 2 African Customary Law

Part 3 Personal, Religious and Family Law Systems in South Africa

1.2 Theoretical overview

1.2.2 Broad interpretation: Deep legal pluralism (strong, unofficial or non-state

1.3 Historical emergence of state-law pluralism in South Africa

13 The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996.

18 Edwards (1996) 65.

1.4 Historical emergence of deep legal pluralism in South Africa

What terminology to use:

1.4.2 Islamic law 39

31 See the discussion of living customary law in ch 2.

1.4.3 Hindu law40

1.4.4 Jewish law 41

1.4.5 People’s law

1.5 State-law pluralism in South Africa today

1.6 Deep legal pluralism in South Africa today

1.6.1 Unofficial customary law

1.6.2 Islamic law

63 South African Law Commission Project 76: Working paper 45 (1992).

is potentially polygynous) as a marriage. In Daniels v Campbell,73 the Constitutional Court

1.6.3 People’s law

2.1 Separate legal system consisting of various systems

2.2 Problems of definition

6 Hamnett (1977) 14.

2.2.1 Customs and usages traditionally observed

17 Pieterse (2001) SAJHR 373 and 381.

2.2.2 Indigenous African people of South Africa

2.2.3 “Form part of the culture of those peoples”

37 Whiteford and Friedl (1992) 56.

2.3 Some key features of customary law

2.3.1 African community government and administration

2.3.2 Moments in time

47 Whiteford and Friedl (1992) 66.

2.3.3 Traditional authority courts and procedure

2.3.4 Marriage and family

2.3.6 Concrete as opposed to abstract legal facts

49 Also see discussion in ch 11.

2.3.7 Groups rather than individuals as legal persons

2.3.8 Constant change and development

2.3.9 Values and principles of customary law

54 2006 (10) BCLR 1237 (N) para 53.

71 The word ubuntu has been translated with “humanity”.

2.4 Living and official versions of customary law

2.5 Sources of customary law

2.5.1 Customs and usages

89 Van Niekerk (2005) Obiter 474–487.

2.5.3 Judicial precedent

2.5.4 Scholarly and other writings

100 These documents are all accessible at http://www.salrc.org.za.

3.1 A brief overview of the earlier recognition of customary law

1 Following Campbell v Hall (1774) 1 Cowper 204.

3.2 The new terms of recognition for customary law

14 Act 200 of 1993.