Technical EckKlliooo' Slnll

Hidden page
 AUDIO AND VIDEO
ENGINEERING SYSTEMS
Principles & Troubleshooting

R G Gupta

Tala McGraw-Hili Publisbing Company Limited

NEW DELHI
Mru"".'_Hill Offi<n
&"",
N.... Oolloi N.... YorI: SI l..o<Ii< Sa" r, ...doco .o.uctlond Canal
Lisbon LorwIon Madrid MexicoCily Milan Montreal
San Juan Sma', • Sydn<Y ToI;yo T..".."o
 M<:Graw-H111

C 199~. Tata Mc<iraw-Jf'll PIlblishing Company Limited

23" rqorin~ 2007

II~RLYRXRU.

No pari oflh1s publicltlotl can be leplodoeed in any fonn Of b)I

any me",," without !he prior~ permission ofllle publishers

This edilion can be uponed from IlIdia only b)I the publishm.
Tu. ~cGraw-Hili PIlbli.hing Comp8Dy_Limiled
ISBN (I-07-462141l-8

PublisMd tri T.II. Mc<iraw_HiII Publishinj Company Limited,

7 Wnt Patel Nagar. New ~lhlllO 008. typeset ~ Shivl/II Am,
Locknow. and printed ~ A P Offoet Pvt. Ltd., ~Ihi 110 012
Dfldicateti 10 the ffl8ff1Of)' 01
my lather,
Shri MiTthan tal Gup/a,
the Freedom Fighter
 About the Author

After M~ Iw: hcc'mc Clwtcrcd Fnsi-:er (Fi«t.ooica and Ridio

Fnaineriag) 01 the COWIciI 01 FaW=- IU. lmlihtDon·, UK, and Member,
IERE (UK) itt 1971, Member IFEE (USA) in 1969 and Fellow Member
lIITF (lndia) itt 1979. W_ "P'"_ed by Gcmmft'i!1 01 !ftd:iII for ~
.. . "'- . --~,- ..
Inln". . . ~Xij>G" 'iOWU ... ,,"'"" ....""" IJ$lo;aI$.

Had becII • .. hnr 0112 papcro. out oIwbkh OIIC " " " the State Award
(197..7S) and the otbcr 1ETE A.......d (1987) .

Retired _ DirMor, ~ 01 Police Tclcoommllnic1lion, UP

(IJwIia) in 1987. Tool< post rctircmc ... . "i&'''''....11 u Sc"ioor Coaillboal ill
Td - """",oje,,;"" ('emh .n" !ftd:iII Lid (IClL) (G<wt.. 01 !ftd:iII

~ Dcparttnellt. ia Maharaja Surajtnal lutitUk ol Pharmacy and

TcclutooIow:Y. DdIU. Also worked u Head 01 Complller F"";ne"Uos
DcparunenI ia 1Iw Institule.

H.-.uro rc<:cMd iDcludc Police Medal for mcritoriou. ocl"o'icc

_dec! by tIM: Pre. ideal ollrKlia, Slate Award for OUWandiDB work by the
Chief MinisI~I ol UP. m-hl for valuable ..... tribution •_ _ ds pI' ''''ina
clcaronic &yIIemI ill Asim G.-. 1982 by the G.-. Orzooi· i"ll
Committee, ~ Gaun Memorial A..ar<i by the hwitutioa 01 EledI"Ollica and
TeLcw ..... gnjeal'lll F..,,; ......I'I (ladia) for the best paper 01 ~al interc..I
pubIislIed in I£T!! JOIil1I8k during 191J7.

Has bc:cn " """;'6,. orith IIw: IE'll!. oi.J>Ce 1970 and was Chairman,
I .... know Ccntu for 1978-79 and Jaipur Centre for 1980-81. W as usocialcd
with the Board ol Techeje' l pd ...., , : ' -• Delhi from 1989 10 1995• and hal

EqK'riclK'C 01 aboni 16 yean 01 \ccbni.caI ed"""tioa, 1 )'C..... 01

""'inteD ....... of radio SOI>deJradio IhcodoI~e and rcscarch work and 17 yean
01 lelcrommll"icNine m' UlC_ Had bee .. chairman and member 01
~al _'line'! and.state IeYol COIIlIIIiuccs penajnjos I" ledD je.1 " ...dlrdo,
Ick.ctnwvonkllina. pbnnine: and ..... haje.! ed"""tion.
 PREFACE

Wotb tile wide apread we 01 audio IDd video eqQil 'n'''' he ca, the
ruiject _ introduced ia c~i, 'ias diplom' 1Dd" GJ"'" k¥cl WIU_ by
r

tile Boards 01 T ... hnica' pd,.,,;.. aDd UIIivcniho&, Thill boot ocm:n tile
qoIIabus of 'ADdio IDd v...... SyltCIIII', '&olcrtaiamcat FIr, "onic.' and
'ComwDcr m....rooUa' of tile diplom· and the d wot: IcYcI councL The
book abo expIaiDs tile ~ piCJiCc,lore 'II'itb tile help ollJow-.dwb
IDd poe. the COITcctive m'jnknl"'" "bIN for service enginee.. and

The book ooat,;n. 15 cluopkl'L For .udio, it w.w. clw-aaui&tica of

.5OIIIId, mlcr~, Iood lpCatcn, iOIIIId !'CQlI'dcn, ....pliflCn, !Ioise .t
dialortion, hi&h fidelity, 1kf'eOphaay, PA ')'ileal pl,nn;ns and C<:II>Cepla 01
reverber.tion. For ndco, it 00"" TV lIandards lIWi video rocordiag. The
WCSI S)'IlCIIII of WlIIpact diM: for audio TCCOfdiac. CEO and Luer Visioa for
¥ideo rcwrding. Dolby a)'llem aDd "P""ri" effect lOGe COfttrol$, sound
syn!hc.jc and clottroaic mOJSic, HDTV, iOlid lIate camera lIWi optical
'''''lII0I}' diM: have abo bcea included 10 make the on>dcllll """versant Mt.Io

given 10 help the 1Iudwm,

It is hoped that the book WOI!ld pi<m: iIclpCullo the 1l1Mien($ P"'puiag
for diploma. aDd bOot: enminllion•• wcl1. to tbe ",rvi<:c engillUf$ and
'cchen·. c~ in Iroubld"""ill& and repair of ~ widely used
<:Oft$wner equip- I

SUM! die! from lIudc.toU II weU • leech.n ..... J>f¥'''ill& c"Sineen

WOI!ld be _ wekxoc

LG.GUP'TA

,.
.,
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

r .1Ii thankful I" the engillCeri"ll r.lllI.Icn15 woo. by persir.lenl 'equau.,

inspiud me lQ "yile Ihi! book to help them .... the boob of foreign authors
w.:re nOl ooly ...:ry ~()6lly but no oow: book CCI''C' •• d all the topic. of the
pno><:rilx</ syllabu ...
I r ako • • prOM my grateful th"n~' to Or. P.S. Lamb>., F,or mer Vic.:
Chancellor H i~r and Udaipur Uniw '.Iities and the Founder Director,
Maharaja Sur~jm"1 lnr.( iluic of Ph.,mucy and Technology for his
encouragementlO me for writing. book.
J rJuoli be failing in my duly if I 00 nOi thank myoid $I udenl, Rajcoh
Praka,h ( p<eKn lly employ<od in li T, Delhi ) 01>11 my $1)1\, Ba...nl rrabhat for
p«:paring &orne of the illuwations f.om the roug!! . ketche ... given 10 them.
Thanh are .I<C) 0.1"" [0 Shri Aftob An ..."" lhe Commercial Ani;.!, l.ucknow
who prepared ,"" iliuo.l ral ioru. in the final form wit.ble (1)1' printin&-
I !inttrdy expreM my deep gratitude hi Sh,; Shail"ndra J)..-j·.cdi and
Shri r;yush J)..';\'C di of Shil"m Ans. Luck",)\'.' IQ la ke up 1)]lC selt ing of Ihe
manuseri", ";Ih dedicalion and et""pteling il in lime inspile of Ih( ir hu<y
.d."dule of wor k,
I . Iso Ihank lhe m.n'b",.nCnl of IETE Libu. y, D,i, i, h Council libraI)'
and USIS Library ((11 mating Iheir ,,,I,,oble referentt bonk, available . nd
also 10 Ihe Publi ,hcr.. T.I. M ~C,.w·Hin Publi'hing Compltny. New De lhi
and in particul.r 10 Shr; Amil Dhallachljcc f"" laking up publicalion ollhis
book and gi'ing useful Moggc~,io," wkn lite manu<cri", "'" ur>de,
Pfcparalion.

R.G. (;UI'V.
 CONTENTS

A hqw !M A wlw iy
I"f/ac, •
Cupter 1
I.l
CHARACfEKISTICS m'SOUND
No! u.., o(Sollnd.. J
•
1.2 P.=ur~and Im.rW!yof Sound Wa''C.O ...... ... ... ... ... ..... .3
1.3 SeD$i\ivily of H um;m.J;.;u for SooDd .... ... ............ ... ... ... ...5
I4 J Omlnr« a nd Phon S
] 'i SOJlC . .... .. ..... .. 7

i nlOrvaL., Octa .... and Harmonics .... ,... ...... ................. HI

19 Pilch ]I

J]O M"<je.1 ""'Ie 12

1.11 Sound Syrllh<:si> ... ,................ ... .............. ........................ 12
1.12 Re>oDaDCC Effed in Sound S),slems ................... ... ... ....14

Cbllpttr 2
2.
MICROI'IIONE.'i
Characteristics or Mir.opbooe........................ ... ... ... .... 18 "
22 RcquisiJ .. of a Goud Mic. opboac .... ..................... ... .... 22
2.3 Moving Coil Micropbone ............................................... 23
2,4 Ribbon MiaI>JlhQlle ..... ,.. ,.. ,.. " .. ,.. ,26
o .. , .. .. .. , ..,,,,, .... , .. , ..

2.5 Crystal M icrophonc n . . .. _ .30

........ . .. . ......... . ......... , . ...............

2.6 Con<ka$C. (or Capacitor) Micropbone .. ... ... ...... ... ... ...33
27 Elca.e! MicfOphOf>C ............... ,.. ,............... ,.. ,.................35

Chapter) LOUDSPEAKERS
3.I Characte. istics of UJud,poah n .................................. .45
3.2 M",';ag Coil Cone Type J ....d.pea);e ... _._._ ................47
3.3 Ek<1'Cl-d)ltl.llmir L;md<rx:al«: . ......................................50
] .4 Horn Type UJudspcak ~ ..... _..... ...................... .............. 52
3.5 Compariwn Between Cone Type and
Hom 1)pc Speake ..... ... ... ... .... ...... ................... ... ... ... ... ..55
16 B.!Drs and Fado'!"'"
3.7 Multi·way Speake, S\'Io!cm· Woof... and ~e .. _. ..62
] 8 CffiM''''''' Nc] wm l;. 64
... 3.9

Mia..,...,... .... _. ____.. _______ .. _78

..
'.9
...
O".." ..... jon olCutler Stylus._ .. __ .. __ ........ _..........81
N.- dlet .......... _................................................82
or Piclr.·u UIliU _._ .. ___ ._._ ... _._ .... _.• _... _.84
•. 10 ia Disc Rea>rdilWP\ajbacl;; System< .... Jf1

5.1 Prindp'" of MlgIIClic Rc.cordUts aDd ReproductioG .91

5.> Reoorded WIIYdeDglh, Gap-Wtdth aDd T. pe Speed .92

,..
53 Need £or
D.C.
.... _........ _._ .............. _........ _......... __ .. 96
.. _._.n. __ ....•.. _.. __ .......... N ................ . . n.......91
,.
5S AC
Partl olTape Recorder _._._.. __ .. _.. __ .. _._ .................. 98

,.5.' T T MW.n j·................... _............... _...... l01

5.9 Biodt [Ii ' 'UII of Tape ReoordiD&&Dd

Re od S III ....... ___ .__ ..... _..... _.................... 103
5.W Cir<:ult Diagram .... _m ...... __ ....... nn_._._._._._....._lOS
511 'WrrfIlnd ' Fl,Yter' DisMi<m 11)\
512 Rumble JQ6

... •• ••
..
..
 6,5 Opi;cal RerordinM 011 Di..,., .. ,......... ,.. ,.. ,...... _. ,.. ,.. ,...... IM
M PlIoybad PrnuM ., .......... .. ,.. ,.. ,............ ,............... ,.. ,.... .. 124
6.1 Comra,""" of Compact and eo.",,".in ....1 0;",,_ ... 126

AUI)I() AMPLIfiERS
CIaII,*r 7
'"

ClNlpto:r 8 NOiSEAN Il mSTOKTION ' 52

8 I
82 Envi, ono>cn ,al W'"
83 F' rad,,1 Noise
8.4 Mc.hoo. of Rcdu.cing Noi.., .......... n n .. n .......

...
II S Disrorrjcm
TIP'" of Di.l.l.onKm ... ".. ,.. ,.. ,.. .... ,.. ............. ,.. ,........ ".. ,.. IOV,

"'
Clulpkr ')
Mclh<..J., of Redu.cing o;5I OIlio,," ............ ,.. ,.. ,.. ,......... I (~ )

meal .' II)ELJ1Y (OK lIi-Fi) ,OJ

9.1 fidcr ly " ,,, ''' ''' '''' ,.. ,'' ', .. ,'' ,.. ,...... ,.. ,'' ''' ''' ',,. ,'' ''' '''"" ,,, ,.. ,.. 1(,3
High Fldelly 01 Hi-Fi " .... "". ,,, .... ,, ... ,.. ,......... ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,,163
" High Signal 10 Noi"" R.. ,io .... ,.. ,"''' ''' '".,'' ''' ''' ', ,, .. ,...... IM
_____ __.. ,.. ,......... ,.. ... .. IIjS
F1al Frcqucnq Reo"""", ...
l ow Non_linear Diuo"ion 1M

, ... ... ... .

9.8 C'~"ling Pleasing Environ""'.1 .... ,... ,.. ,..... ,.. ,.. ".. ... ,.. ,167

Clul pllr 10 STEREOI'HONY

10.1
10.2
Meaning of Stercophllfly __ .. _.. _..................... ___ _,, 171
Slercopboooy in Human System of Hearing ................ 171
'"
10.3 Dilfercl>CC belween Slercop/lony and Monop"","y .. ,171
lOA Ideal Sler ... SY:Uem ......... ... ......... " .. __ .. _n n .1 72. . __ . . . . . . . . __ __

10.5 Practical Slcrco ,y:uem ''' ''' ,... ,.. ,'' ''' '" .. " '" .... ,, ,............. 172
10.6 Q uadTllphllflie Sou...! SY:Ucm ...... ,,, .......... ,,, ................. 174
10.7 Ste, ewh""is; RC<1"din8 ,," Di<c _nd Rcr>rodu"ion 174

••
•
10.8 Stereo R~ "" Tape and Reproduction .......... 177
10.9 Tape: Cutrid" ud c ...·peT.pc .............................178
10.10 H i-fi Ste reo Rc produc:iD& Syotem .. _.....__ .__ ........... 180
10 11 Stcu!! Conrrt!l. " " " 181

Cbapter 11
11.1
PUBUC ADDlIFSS SYS I EM
Nwl . nd UK ""
,..
" un •

. .

11.7 ........... .....

,t> PA Sptem for • F"",hall Stadium _ ._._.__ ..... _........ 197
PA Syotcm for CoIIegc Sp0rt5 ...................................... 198

Chapter U ACOUsnC REVERBERATION

12 1 R c w:.bcooKm '"

12.6 Growth ud Decay of Sow>d '" lOll Pn cl ""itC .... __ ... .206
127 .",,,,'ie.1 Fe""''''' of Aw1j'orinm . 208

129 ! n,,,lotion . 112

Chapter 13 T'EI..t.'Vl.SION STANDARDS "6

131 Ip'md'lCtjpp " . ... 216
m
a nd !bei. SoI"rion. 211
13.3 SeIDD;" aod PerslotcDCC olVio.ion .... _.• _ ._ ............... 211
13.4 Frame:, F"dd aDd Li>Ie Frcqncndcs __ .___ .. ___......_.219
13.5 Synchrooo;... ioo .. _ ..... __ ..... _ _... _ ... _.......................... 220
13.6 Ratio ................ _" .................................. "'" ..... _..221

138 RrHl"uinn " n . ....

m
139 .. m

-
 ... .
.
.
13. I~ ... ...
n IS IV I [l n.mi"er and RraDr'
1316 Vidro M on ilon
\3.\7 TV SUndard. ... _._ ..... _.... _.................................. _........ 2<43
13.18 Need ol . T V Slanda,d .......... _._ . ~_ .. ___ ._.~_.~ ........ 243
13.19 Rcasoft$ of TV Standard. Beina Oi«...,II! ................243
13.20 Oilfcrclll. T{! Standard ................... _........................ _..244
13.21 Dc:taiLW Specifications of CCl R 8
Standard Adopted by India ._._........... __ ._.................245
13 n IV ChnDe], I ['cd i8 (n.t!;.
13.23 H iKb Dc:fillition TV S!"1CIll .__ ._. ___ ._mm_,.,247

. . ...

...
. ...
... .. . . ..

".
14.10 I'riDcipk of Reproduction of Video Sip'" .. VCR 263
14.11 Block Dilctam olVCR _ .__ .. 264
14.12 Vl<ko~n c P111J"1" (VC!,) ._ .. ____ ._. __ ._ ... _ .269

14.13 SimultalloCOU$ Rea.di"l of One Channel on

VCR and VIC";II8 . he .. me 01' "'1 OIher ChIonnel
in TV RcceiYer ,._._._ ... _._. __ .~._. __ ....... _............ 269
14.14 Connection 0( VCR (0 TV Receiver ... _........ _...........:1fh

14 16 VHS
" 14.17 Bet"mal " . . . " . 271
1418 yw~moo zu
14.19 The Spodfical;(IIl< <.>l Thr~c VCR S)'SIcm ................ ,m
14.20 V·Mj!lic """",,"""" ,,' " """' " "" " "" .. 274
14.21 Ekaronic Nc"'~ Galhcrin~ ( ENG) .. ................ ... "..... ,21S
Un VC R Nomc nrlaw.c
(In "VCR. 3/4 ' VCR and \ ' VCR) ...,........' ...... ' m ... ':n~
14,23 VCR CO!!Lr'~S. ,,!1(j

14.24 Diffcrtncc bc:!l\1:cn Audio CUg!!" R c:mukr

and videQ a m,.!!C Rcrordet " ",", ' " ' ''''' '' ""g.2D
14.2S Vide<> Re.:otwng 0<1 O~ ... ,......................................... 279
\4.26 TeD Sy>tcm ... n 21!0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , •• • • • • • • • • •

]4,29 Oplica! Memory Oi'"' ,.. ... .... ............. ....................... ...... 286

ClulplU IS

15.1
TIWUBLI::SIlOOTING IN
AUDIO AND VlnEO EQUII'MENT
G..,.ul T'OIIbk Shooting Pr~u~ .. _........... _._._..:9J
,..
1 " , ... .
on on ••

15.4 T. "'ing of P""l" Su pply Un" ...........,......................... ,2'Ji

155. l<I<olil);ng the F~ulty SeClion
( FunC1ional Area AWro;oc;h) ............ ,.................. ... ..... 293

u.s I nle . millt!!! nulla .. " " ' 9 " .. .. . . . " " M""" " .. " ",,'" ". ". ".301
15.9 Dclc.mjn;uion of l be Ooll'C f auk or )()I
15.10 Rep.oi. ......................... _.. _..... _.......... ,..................."•..•...302
15.11 Servio;ing ........... "..... "................. " •. _ .•. _ ._._" ... __ ._ ..J03
"'.12 Cbc:<:king Specification. ....... ... ".)()3
M ..............._ . .." ...

15.13 Mairucn.!lCC .....""...."",,,,, .. .... "' .... "" .. "•.• "..",,, ....lO4
"'.14 T'QIIl:>lcdl~ills in Pllblic AcldtCM S)'5Iem" ........... ".)06
15.15 T roublesbooJinc in Stereo Amplifoer: .•" "..... _ ..._.. " .)08
"'.16
Tape Reoorden .,, _ __ ..... _"._ ....... "...... .313 M h . . .. ..." "....

U .17 Troubieshoolillflill VCR ......... _ .•. _ .... _ ..... __ ... JI1

" •
 1
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND

1.1 Na tur\' of So und

Exlern"l lo . h& c'f. "'lUn<.! i, a longitudinal "",,, motion C<!n!i~ing
of ., 1<3;"
of "'<Jrnpr<:>.<i"" , and r.rcf"~I;"n, " ,,,,, 'ling in " ",,,,J 'nm . Whe n ">Hnd waws
Slr ikc the cur.J,um, ' hc>c arC ("",,,,,ed in'" tlcd riu l . i!:"al" T ItI: "ndiull'Y
",,,,", c~rry Ihc"" ,ign."
tu I he m',,;n ",hieh ;""'prell ,hcm in'" " 'hO! we ul!
5< .. ,"d.
Be ing a " ." 'c mo.ioo. >0",,<1 hal all Ihe charact eristics of a "'~"". i.e.,
.mpli' ""'" ' «quen,),. rh,,;(O. ,doxily and ...."".I<ngll"
An.pl lt uM CO" 00 defIned a, Ihe int en, il y of coml)le>,.,jun, and ' . fcf"Cl ion!
psQduccd in Ihc medium . The in'cnlily "r.
,'u, c ,,,,, e can be c>qlfc=d by"
~n e \" "," ~\ in fig. 1.1.

t
1-- . . .. ......... I em 1""""" Ii""
'11 "", - -•

•• _•• _ •• _________ .'.~~.'_•• __ •• _._ •• , •••• M.. im"", """r.....,,, ..

FI'<1I~ncy is dcliJ>Cd., tbe number of .ucee'live compressions anJ ' 3.efac-

lio ns o<xu rring in One ,""cond. and is . xp . .... d in Henz (0. sim ply H l.). f re.
q uency , . ng. of sound """"';. 16 H7. 10 2I'lOl)) Hz.
Time (T) laken in compie ling o ne c~lc ;' ca ll ed Tim~ P.dod. and is gI''t n by
Eq. 1.1 for frq ucncy()f f Ih_

T .
, ( L1 )
r
PbaK i»dic.U:1I tbc IUIC ol!llQfioa al a partitular in"a"1 relative 1<> OOIIIC ref-
erclloCC. II is czprca.ed ;" l=ns of ugLe, prulllllin& lbal OIIC complele cyck is
equ.allo ph..C diffcrence 01. J60 degreu. II CID aIao be Upreoscd in hadioa
01-..: length,)., or of u- period, T_Phase differcncc oIa quattCt cyck CID
iI.o be mentioned as phase differc""",, equal to 9lr or JJ4 or T/4 .
Velodl1 "'Call'lhc diuano: "avelled ill one second. So\lnd wavca move in .i.
wiIb a velocity of 344 metres per seCOl>d at 1ifC (degree «Willi) or m
metrc.o pc. lOCO""
al O"c. Eq, 1.2 giyco lbe .elatlombip bctweca vekx:ity and
tCttlpc.ature.

(1.2)

VI - velocil:y at T I degree kelvin.

vl - YCIodty at T1 degree kelvin.

Thc length 01 opaa: cove •• d by one cycle of variation is calkd _ft .. n..... and
is . cprcsclllcd ill mctre1. Eq. 13 gives rc1atioruhip bet ... een frequency,
wavelength .... d velocity,
v _ dist~ _ J.Jr _ fA (13)
V _ vclocily in 1I1.lre" per ,""nd,
f _ frC<jucncy in H z, andA _ """Ive Icugt..b ill mclru.

Velocity ollOUllo<! ill air is 344 mil, in atu~ 5500 m/s and in ....,.,.J., J500 mi. II
.oom lemperalltrC.
Example U
Ir velocity ollOUllo<! at adegree «Willi (C) is J32 mil, calcu1ate~ (a) velocity 01
2O'C, (b) .... velellf!l.h for 5IIUl>d 01400 Hz It (i) 2O"C and (ii) II"c

<fC • Z7l K.and ')de • »3 K

AppIyingEq. L2,
• J32 (293m1) '" • 332)( 1.Q36
" • ' " mi.
AppI~ Eq. 13,
, • .,
A<>tc,
,• • ,.. "" ... .
"Therefore, • "'I'''' • "'=.
 _ 332/0100
- .!13m
- 83 ~m.

1.2 Press ure a nd Intensity of Sound Wa"rs

Sound '''In,,, produce , '.. ialiun, of pre",u," in li>c medium, Medium .. ai r for
'nice "nd musiral i"mumonls. T h...", "~rial ion., arc compr~ion' and
rardaclion. in 'IU;ok . u=.";on, Greale. I he inle""ily of sbund. g>Clle r will
be Ih,' comprc",ion and conseq""nl , ,,,cfaaion. AmplilUde of a sound wave
i,. Ihrrdore, represen led in unilS of pre,,",u •• . i.e. newton por ... uare mel'.
(N/m' j. Thi' unil of r'essure i, de'ignaled as pa>eal (0< s.imply r a). Sound
p.c'>Su . c ,,,,;.tiuns .re al!.<) rep'.senled in miero-b<o' (QI' dIne po .... em).
One r a L. equal, ,, ten micro-bar.

In lcrm' of ene.gy. i",cruil~ uf sound ""al'C, i. defined.s Ihe .'-erage .. Ie of

now of w und energy Ihr<)u~ a rru:<s-seclional .rea of one ... uare melre 31
t;ghl " nglos lu Ihe direCiion uf l1>OIio". 1"lr nsil y or loCI"nd energy-is repr.-
",",od i" 11'.11 per >quare n"',e (ur Win,'). and;' pr""",lionallo the ... ua«
ul "",plitude. Inl en,il)' of , ,,und is generally indic~lcd in decibels (dB) " ilh
.eference to Ih,· thrc.shold of hea.ing. Dccit..1 i, defined "" 10 tim .. the
loga rilh,n " I' ,,,' io of t"" I""'",s.. ur 2tl time. the logarithm of ralin of Iwtl ,,,1_
lage •. '" currcn" ur P,"»UlC 1'lIlue, as indicate<! in Eq,. 1.4 and 1.5

..
,
101og-l (1 .4)

D~(ihd (dB) ru' .m"lituJ~" A,'" A,

"
.ollle,""",;ng mI13ge$. or
A,
(Urre nl, Or prc!." Ure amplilude, '" 20 log - ( 1.5)
A,
I nTc ns lty ur .'''m~ lyp icMI . o und.'
When SQund pre~ure il 20 )( 1(1'. Pa. it gi''t:s ju~ audible sound.nd i! called
'Threshold of hearing' , This much <ound pressure pc:n ainllO I pil;o." 'all/m '
of .. 'u nd inlcn,ity. The sound prc .. ure le,,,1 al which pain .. feh i,63 Pa. r"
ir.l c o,il~ i. !O ""'"1m', Thi, intcruit~ is can.d 'T!tr."hold of pain' or
'Th ..,huld of feeling'.

T he ",unti pres., ures .nd inton!ilies between In'c>hold of hea'ing and p.i n
:ore !Ii"en in Tabk I,!.

•
 Example 1.2
PrC5Sure and In1crW1y of ""uod of an aU1omobile arc 20 x 10" P. and 60 dB
respc:cti'-cly. Calculatc (i) Prtssure of onuDd foo- thresho!ol of hearing: (ii)
Pressure of ""und fur DUTmal oon\l<:rsa1iun level (74 dB).

(i) Let Po be: the pressure foo- threshold ofhe:.ring

Then,
"''''.
20 x 10'"

'. - .,
0<.
20)( 10"

'. - W'

Therefore Po
-- 20 )( 10" /10'
20 )( 10-" Pa
(u) 60 dB OOfTCipoilds to 20 )( 10-' Pa
'Therefore, 80 dB will t<lrI'CIp04IIlo:2(J )( 10-' Pa _ 0.2 Pa
RedUdion in prCi&ur~ ol6 dB haMs lhe vallie
Therefore, 14 dB • 0.112 Pa _ 0.1 Pa

1.3 Sensitivity orlluman·Ear ror Souad

Th~ human ~ar is very Kn·j'M: 10 ooWld iAlCJ>SiIy, It can dctw; ooww;I
intensily as low as 0.1 pW/m' (or 10 dB beIcw the t.hre&boId of hearina). This
much intcmily 01 oound IIIOYCS the ear-<lrum diaphr.gm. 10 10- " melJ1: or
one·millionth part 01. nticroa, which is oIlhe order of atonUc diono:tuion$.
Funher, the ear is KtlSitive, noI to the absolute value.s oIintcnsity, bulto the
ratios (or dB). The oound power JICllCrated br alarzc orchewa ill. I'ract"""
of microwall al the soIteIt tOOCl and about • ,,",,,,·.nd milliwatt aI the Ioudat
01leS. Similarly, _peed> duriJIg whioperi,,& is ill. picowatu, and while """'tins.
it i1 several milliwatl.l. " is l1<li ocO'!f'T}' for .""""" reproduO,,& oys/em to
prod\>tt 50Wld of the W"Ot magaitlKie 01 J'IO""I" .. at the 1OII1CJC, but the
rcplOduciDg systcm should be eapable 01 hndti", the m..im\llll and midi·
mum PQWe' in the ...... ratio. For cumple, ir • oource deliYen J'IO""I" from
100 pW to l00J pW, tbc rcproducing oys/cm may give power OUlput in the
... me ralio oIl00:IOOJ (or 1:10), and tberefore:, the,actual OOIpul may be 100
I'W 10 100J I'W , Of c""" 1 wall to 10 wall. or any other values but in the ......
ratio.
AlthoU&h ear i5 quilc KnWVC to IOIIod, it c·ft"'" di'\ing>,j'b difference of in·
ICJ>SiIy of leu l!wl 1 dB between two sound.. Minim"", k:vcl whicb can boo
comfortably detccted over thruboId 01 bearing is 3 dB for speech or mllSic.
The e .... can introduce '!Im .nd diffcrenc:e of two tOftCi, as it i1l1(1n.tinear lik~
• miller stage in cled:.oruc rommtmication citcuilJ. The ear also p"'·c .... s
chaucteri&tic of ", .. king A louder oound reaclti"8 tbe ear can suppress the
weaker sound. A4o, the ear judges direction of """"" from the ron l """""
=ived C"'n if it is voukCt. If we r«eiYc dirw; 5OW>IJ from the .ugc as also
a .......d but delayed from aloovl' p" k..., OU . .... wiI1 iIllctpret t.Iw the IOUOd
c:omiog from the Iood speakers is frotd the dirCdion of the stage aIId I)()( from
the a.c:IuaI dirCdioa oflbe kludspeakcr.

1.4 Loudn ess and Phon

loudlless is tbe inlcmily of sound u judged br tbe: ear. Ear .. leu Knli'M: "
low frequenci.,. than at high frequencies. It, therefore, needs higbcr intcas.ity
al low frequencies 1!wI at lUsh frequencies 10 impart ...1IUIw.. of the ......
IoudnCi&. Thus while Ioudncu is related to int~as.ity, it is not tbe intc:ruily
 aloae but it depcods OD the frcqllCllC)' abo. The iDt~ of 60 dB It 40 Hz
IIId of 0 dB at 1000 Hz imput the AllIe Ioo,.!""" The INvt""f! of ilIteJ>&ity of
50IIAd ;" dB DYer tllmbo!.! of beuiJIg u petDciw:d by tbe elf at 1000 Hz is
c.llr d 'pboa'. It the ilIt~ of IOW>d at 1000 H>: is 0 dB, it is zero phoo
loud""., If it is 40 dB, the 10"''0"'' is 40 pboa . If ... ;"tc".iJy of 60 dB It
40 H>: a:i'IeI the ....... I"",bll IS 0 dB inlCII&ity at 1000 Hz, tbc.o Iovd",," It
40 H>: is = 0 pboa, IDd DOt 60 phM Th\lt Ioovt ...... ;" pboas II 1000 H>: is
always eqllll to ioteosity ollOW>d in dB. Bill at Illy o!bo:r frequency, the Irvel
of loud",," an Ix fouod out oaly by <Iet_ini", the jnlensjty ollllWKl in dB
required at 1000 H>: 10 imput tbc ....... Inndom

•,
I•
]

FIclcber IDd M'm'OD stl!dicd Iovd""" kvds II audl'bit frcqueodes IIId pve
graplUc ICJH ,.ulatjon of equal JooIvt""q for diffCI'CIII frequeodes IDd intCll'
, .it;.., The typical F1c!cbcr M,"pOO" cvrvea ~..,.... in trig. 12.

The joIvtoes' ~ obuw the f~ ",=","'r''-o» [ ',Ie[ .10 to._

1. At lower .1Idio freqUCDcie&, tbeu is a ' mlller chI"&,, in rclalive
intensity cx.nparcd to hip' .udio frcque"";'" for I give.o chlOHC in
the Ioovt ....,,1eYcl (pbOD).
2. LoI>d iOI.HIdI 0180 dB Of IIIOfe inteasity bave .1........ llat rClpoosc
with rupect [0 freq~.
 'SS:I1IPfIOI II! -xe~DII! ~~I ~~I~ 01 JnSII q ,~. IJUfl '~IO\I'
SS~UPflO'"J
~~a~~J l~nJJ!P .IOJ I:),\.~ .. ~apolO! ~ -;ued...oo 01 pO!I1 s! aoord ~

;lUOS i"I

'P<'JIOI' :lWn ~I'II'! ,Aa.~, :m-qd 01 :),\.!I!W~ q 11 'spun", IU:IJ~JJ!p

0I0.l a»lO.lXl ~ -xeqd :M!lt[;l,i ~ql "~l'J!I Ur.> .... "Il'IM 11
'lUIJ lI!~ ~ ~I

n<[~.:IJ 'f'!1i'O. pan", :>ql ""'''J plQ\O\O JO aO!J:>:IJ!j) :)1[1 ~n[ 'lI!~ ~ .~
"1'''''''' ,~~ "'II ~ punos '''P''o[ ~ "t
'!"'W "'J III' E pIN 'punos AI""'I' 10j "'"
~l .\q ~!~JI!P XI "II:> lX1P~ [ ... """I ... JO """:IJ~JJ!P Al!""'I"! "(
"( na~rs.(s: Supnpoxl:IJ
ptnI iu!p.ux>:I' II! 1KI!I"'l"!!' JO :>d.{\ _ _ 'II'! $II) 1l1!~ :)ql.(q \J~J XI
osr- """ punot :><1m :)ql'11'! I H .0 JO IPI!d JO 1KI!lII!J1IA "ZH ( n MOl
.. :>:>u~nJJ!P k>I<~b~uJ '!i!'" 'Panos Q~~XI qt!l1Iu!1V!p Ur.> rJT3 "l
"panos JO ;):l,nOS ~)O lKI!~!p :)\[1 -nlpn!...., rJT3 "\
:~lI! lI!~ :)\[1 JO ~"'!'~I:""V~~ IIIVl-lOdW! ""110 2IIIOS

"ZH ron:
0\ dn ~J!.,,,,,:IJ. 1.11"0 '."'up~'P .... ~l$iuno.( "') ZH OCUlI poohq
pIN ~[d~ PI" "'j ZH IlXl'> puoA:>q ~=p "'" :)\[1 JO A\!'o!J!IU:>S "t
"(lI!(II""P><k
'! ,,",,~J~:><[1 '\l""OS)O ~"'" [OII um!p:)W 1'''' MOl .KIJ) ZH 00!t ""'I:>q
"""""'~ ~~J n ,-xe~D~ dv IP .(0) lI!~ "II JO ,\jJA!I~ "t
~do:ld PI" "'J -'lUO "l[-11lXl'> 0121'1 IllS"
IIIWJ lnq ..... ~rSl:!UnOO .oj ZH 00001 01 IH 00!t UKUJ .\lJA!1!ftDS pool
nq A'3 '~:laIrnJ ~~ JOJ ~1111 ~J!M ~ ,n "'!lJOA1!,-!1!1U:>S "l
T.I8I It- JO)ZH'[ t OJ2 H~ ( llIOJJ '"!I!"""" _ S! Jr.i "r
"""Il«l ~a:xa ~"'1['>!qII\ .... ~ """"q
JO ""!I'!'~~IP \1I.).I()dW! IY.'II:)'\'~' .(poll' S!'I.L ~ ao """"I"':Id~ ,!:)ql
pal $[:I.'o:)[ ~ JO Apnl'l ':I<[IJ"l ~PIW")I"O '.uoI'"""l""1 1~1(d IV",,!l'!N

~ (Jlp JO punoii'" P"""I XI IJ!i" ZH 001 JW IIPO')" ~JO punoo ~

'Al!"'~t"! [VIIPC lJ! JO :),\.!~~'" ,ba-.nb:lJj mp "'j II01jd 01> - XI ~ n!'" I!
'hoI"''''''J "''110 Aal\1 w~apnol JO AI!fU'I'II'! ....... "'II ~-' u~"I "'!l JI
Qoqd o\p - w.lapno["'!'I1 'uo!J!mJ~.\q 'os
'2H 0001 '" 'II' 0\<" '! ""'p""ttV
"lii 001 (~) zH 0001 (!) 11I aoqd 'II'! ~ '1"1":>P:)"ZH ro:n
I" ap (It JO Al!!IIl~la! ft """1"101 XlI ... "'II ~ zH 001 I- ap 09 JO Al!SU'11I1

£'I3l dw \n3
L _""'!JS!.'n>OnIO
 KDUlioa prooueed by HXXl Ht_1Id of 40 dB (ie. 40 phoo) is calted 1 sooc.
Increue iD lODe value Po dB is given by (P - 40) log 2, where P is lbe \oudneu;
iD phtvI. RelltinDs~ip be\llleC1l KJDeI (L) and ph<w>. (P) is giYe>I by Eq. 1.6

lOklg L - (P - 40) los; 1 (U"

1.6 Frequtncy or Sound Wavu

The .udible frequencies are 16 Hz 10 200XI Hz. Two radon tb.at dc:termine
the> freq\ICncy rlllgC required for .. tWod.ory t..... mission of ,peech ue:
1. 10kltl&lbllliJ' or Ar1kIolillo- lOAd 2. herIJ'
I
lQ/.ell igihility is dele",u!led by opeciallUt.;cctive teotl f", articulation on.an-
dom syllable bIsis. The person ...iIoK miculotioa is 10 be leoted is made to
Ipuk $yIbbks iD.udom order. Sc\-cral pcrSOJlI ....Ib normal hcarins,. Ji&tcn
1o and record wholtbey bear. If aU pe ........ of !be voup make 0\11 aU .)1lableo
corrcctIy, the artindalion is 100%. Articulation efficiency of 90% .. ron·
side~ the miDimlUll f Of pc ........ engaged in bmack ..1 allDOUoa:mcnt .. AI·
ticttl'tioo of abollt 80% is foI1«ptable in tclephonc opeech.

Energy di5tributioa ill IIOWId cu be determined objcd.ively by teot insI. .....

_nIL l"be dee<:!, of oound-wave frC<!1>Cncles on ene'gy and 'nlelli&ibil~y ""'
U>own in Fi&- 1.3
II luis bee.. established that low frequencies CODlai .. "'0$1 cllM ene,BY, while
IUgh frequencies gil'C betiC!" articulation. If all upper frequeocieo abooc I kHz
arc ouppreucd iD a IIOIJOd ')'tem, the energy aVlilable at~. f.C<!uc..ac. is
75 pc. ceDI cl the lotal eoergy contained ia full frequcDCY .pcarum. Simil..-Iy,
if we IUpptess low.:rfreqltl:acla, 1 kHz and 1o",""" the energy available in the
m"ainin8 Ipcctrwrl ;1 only 1.'1%. If "'" ' UPJlfCM all freq ... ocieo lower lhan
300 Hz. the .cm.,ning Ipcd.nPn hn about 80% of the lot.I .....gy.

For maintainin& b;p articulation efficicocy (about 75 pc. cenl), """'" Wln"C$
of bighet frequellci« up 10 U kHz Uo\Ild III)( be IUPJlfc"td If walU
beyood 3.4 kHx are IUpprcs&ed, the artituIatioft efficic:1IC)' would be about
80%. The ......". bel"", LS kHz c:u be I UppreiKd withoul aay appreciable
.edu<:tioa ;n iIIteifigibility Of articulalloD. Thus inlclli&ibility is mostly oon-
taiaod;n l.s to U kHz range of ,udio freqUoCncle.s.. Based on tbeoe result ..
the frC<!UoCI>CY .ang. 01 300 - 3400 Hz is conUde.ed quite adequat. for
lelcphoDc: speech. This range cor>tam. abow 80% or lbe 100al energy and
gives aboul 80% effocicllC)' of O1tict.Ilatioa. Howeve., speech tran.minion for
entertainment pU.rpOSea requira a baQdwidtb of !r) to 8(0) H~ and for high
fodc:lily (Hi. Fi) <'At<rllliDmclll. prograrem-., a pnaical haudwidth 01 811eu1
40 10 l.5CIXl Hz is desirable.

•
 Cllar><l,ri>lin of Sound 9

Ie) __________ __ _

.. .. . -----
m ,
", ,,,•
•

" ,
,,.
,• •

,••
,, ",.. ..
'" ,
•
I'ia. I . ~ I" "q".~i>o ~;"r'ob.r"'" of '""'11"" i."nisib,lj" in """ ...
(. ) ortot. to".,. <f!"",<"'Y ~ "W' ""oil' 1""1"""" (.hi<\: .."")
(h) ."",,1,,_ .rroci<"" ..._r " ' -'''''I'''''Y (,hOt ",...)
rf) ~"' .. ,.,oIf /t<q'"''''Y{....'-'<I "',...)
<1,<'11' .... opper
(. ) .... ,.j ''''''II' .... _. ' ''ofl l""l'.""}' ("""'" ,.".,,)

Example 1.4
From F;g. 1.3. dderm inc pc. ccnl"8" "f a. liculal;on and pcrccnlag~ enc'I!Y
for frequency range "f 1 kH" 10 S kH,
The pmhkm indicale. that range of frcqucl>CK:s ;. 1 kHr. to S kH l. Hence
cu""" (a) al\tl (e) give <JO% arlie"lotion errICiency a1\tl93% energy .cspee·
,i,,,ly, and "Urve< (h) ~nd (d.) give!!S% articulali.on effieio""" and 15% ener ·
gy, rc'pc<1iwly.
The nel e(feci i, 10 gel the I,,,,,,,,,, ,.. lue, i.e. we .hall get!!S% articulation ef·
licicncy and 15% cne.!:y.

1.7 Overtones and Timbrt

S<>und wave' I'r"du<'Cd I>y _pc""h and mu.>c..1 i"'lm"",n" arc n'~ p ure ";ne
"'·"VL"<. hUI arc complex wa~ ctJtW.ling not ooly ,0( the fund.iomental
frequencies (lonc~) hUI al", of Iheir harmoniC!. and othe r frcquenci.u.
Frequencie, other than lhe fun.d;,menl. 1 a.e called ·,wert"n.,'. The
1'''1O'I,rti,," of lone> and ,,,'Crtoocs in a ""und form Ihe ,pecial characteristic
hy which a particular o.ound c.an he rcoognio.ed. When we he.r the "",uod of.
rd.li(ln or • friend. "" ,ulomatic.ally n:cognillC =n if the pcr",n ~ no!
visible 10 us. Tb.io quality 01. sound ;s called 'Timbre· lJ>d ;s relaled 10 tbc
proponioa in which ovcnones are prCKJ\1 in tbc~.
Humu ~ !.ave 'f9"'bmcntal freqllClICies belweell U O 1<> l5(X) Hz.
Womell" speed! OOIIIaina higher freque.III;iQ from Z20 1<> l500 Hz, ..tille
1tICl> •• 001II';", from 110 10 I(BI Hz. o..:rall freqllClIC)' range ind"dinl """.-
IOIICI ;s UO 10 80ll Hz rOl" DIe", and Z20 to toooo Hz rOl" """""". Pemale
voice ;s low in inteD$ity bcausc 01. lad< 01. low freqllClIC)' OOIIletllI below
'''''''-
10",,",:
Room-...:KK JO.I6(Xl) Hz
MacItitw: noise •• 16- 2(0)) Hz
HlIIIiclappinll ·•• tOO - L'iOOl Hz
80 _ 151X1l Hz
Poot Sle", •

"""'" • tOOO • 2O(Xl1 Hz

The fllJ>damclllal frequcllcies .... d ovcnOOCl 01 ~ mll1lcal insttumelllS ar~
given in Table 1.2.

..... dml ............... , Dtum

Strl., 1' -...".n1 , Voolirl
Wl ................ 101

~" I7IJ..ISOOO

.."""
,~

150-16000

1.8 Inten<aIJ, Octnes a nd Hannoni cs

lIItc ..... II liN: ratio 01 .... ~ For example, lbe inte.val betwcelt 400
Hz lIIIi 100 Hz ;'4, lJ>d lhal belween 400 Hz lJ>d. SOO Hz is 0.8.
...... Illta"Y11l 011:1 II adled .. 'OCTAVE'. One O<:lave 01100 Hz will be 200
Hz, or .., can ... y thai the rrequellC)' ruse of 100 10 200 Hz ;s ~ oct.ve
..-ide. Two octaves 01.100 Hz will be 4()) Hi!. Malhematically, ... oo:t.ve for
two freq\ICncies, f, and r, ;s defined b)' Eq. 1.1.

"
 . ~(::) (1.7)

II_Ollie II ... 1o.!'Itr ..II" bclooua twa ~q""IOCI... n.c,e is a clear dis-
~i""lion between octave. and hannonia. For cumplc, with rc'pectlo ]00 Hz,
• ff<'qucllC)' of 200 H~ wiU be 2nd barlOOnic, bu! in tc ...... of octcl.-cs, iI will be
one octa"" ""'<k. Similarly, • r."",,,,,ncr of 400 Hz will be 4th harmonic, but iI
wiI1 be two octave...;.de. The barmoDia arc alwaY" integer IDultipl"l of. fUll.
damenlal f'e<juency. but odave can be in fractiom also. For exampk, 1.40 H ~
rdati'te \0 100 J-b; wiU be 0-'1 oct."" (beca1lSe log, 1401100 .. 0.5).
The lerm OYCrtODC describer; all rrequcacics bighu than lbe fundamental, m-
cl,,,ling ~ The car judst:o ilItcoYah (ie. fre<jucncy ratio) ami DOl the ac-
tual dift'erenco in frcq""""". For example, • rh". fr.... ~ to 1!iOO Hz will be
f<'mgnieed to be the: ......... ch·.
from 2IlXIIO 6000 lb, .!though the dit·
fwUItC in the lint CI5e illOCl) Hzonly, while in the IICCODd CI.E it ;'400) Hx.

ExalDple 1.5
CakulaIC itllcrvai, oda\U md harmonics for freqllC""Y r.... ~ of 62.5 Hz \0

"", lntcrnl '"' 62..'l ; 1!XK)

.. 1 : 16
Odroa .. log, 16
.. log, 2'
• •
1 kHz is 1~ harmonic of 62..'l Hz

Enmple 1.6
CaIcIIbte intCl'lal ami bannoaic frequency for frequencies 01 SO fu and

IDle""'" .. SO: 123

.. 2:5
Harmooic: US HL is DOl • harlll()Oic of SO Hz be.:ause I barmonk hu 10 be
an integer multiple of the f"nd ...... ~t.lI r"'queJ>q.

1.9 Pilch
Pilch is • clwactcn.tic of IOOnd IrWDIy related 10 frequency. When the
oound ron' ;'" of • pure lone: (DO hanaonia), pitch is dei.,.,.,incd by
frC'!u.ou.cy alooc. Bw in opcech and mllSiot, plch of sound del"'nds alii only on
f"'qu.o""Y buI on inlensity as ...,11. 1k unil of plch i$ ' MEL'. OJloC mel is a
tone of 1000 Hz and 40 dB iAtc.wty (Le. ;"'Ie.wly of I ..,,,,,). The rtlalio<l>hip
between pitch and fTequeu.cy is not 1iDear. 1k reason for t.hi.! non·linear~y is
that the ear ne.tda higher i,ue.wty at low sound f.cqueocW than al high
sound f,C'!!Jtocito 10 give the ..,.... lion 01 cqu.olloudnet.s.
Relat;'" ph .... of component toaeo oIa compla wave do not afTe<:t I~ ear',
petccpOOa or qua1ity or liIIIbrt. Hence it Clan be .aid lhal the buman car ill in·
..,.wl;'" 10 pIwc: cha'W'.

1.10 Musical Scale

A mUllicai JcaIc compn.e.. or 8 '...".... .. h-c note£, increasing ;." frequency,
m· ki"l! the JcaIc to be ~ ocu.ve wide:.
"The m"-ical scaIc i$ de-ign_led usirIf; Roman alph.U>cu. C D E F GAB C. II
COtfUpoods to the 1.!!diM ocak 01 Sa Re Ga Ma 1'1 Dba NJ Sa (Do Re M.
~-a So t.. T. Do). There are 10 Kala. C;IO C, (c.
D, BoF, G, A., B, C, ) is
the lowes! scale, which.wu rr"", 16.352 Hz (al Col and eJ>C4 after OIle oc-
lave al 32.704 H~ (al CJ. The !tighe. m~,kal salc:s at<' designated by sub-
""riplll 1.2,J... .«c. 1k hiShed mUllica! scaIc i. deDOl.ed by .ubscript 9 and
coven f,om aboutS kHz (at C.) to aboUl16 kHz (al C").
A high grade musiciaa can &tart with II low note, ....y C, and can talc it
gradUlllyto hieher 1IOtes. M",ici· n', c..... o;an .~ tile .small inlerval
bctwoen , "=" ive DOl", ( .. y, C, ,OJ and lhis . ",ults;'" immellOC
pleasure ;" danieaVmwumental mU!lic.

1.11 Sound Synthesis

Sound syntbc;.;" is Ibe term used for prodUdion of comple! wave forms of
music by tltdrOllie means. Audio wave f(ll1tllO arc ~"C"'led elcaronicaUy,
mired by eLectronic circuits to give compla ........... to .imu1ate m1Wc. Delay is
inlroduced to give de5.ired l\":YCrlIcration. The fault i$ that high q\1ality m",it
is prnduc:ecl . . . tbcse audio ,;pats...., fed to a Ioudspealer . ystem.

TbU&. alll"''''''dUtg clectrocbt:a has now calered the world of mWlle by making
artirocial music (or eLectronic mWlk) pouiblc immit.ting any muaical instru-
ment Of e""n orchc~'. or illSltumutlL Virt....uy, any audio ....;11.\01" (having
a periodic fWlctio:r» can he used as. 5OIII>d IOIUCC oimply by feedi,,& iii out-
put to a Ioudsl"'alcr. All dcaroalc: "";1I>t<>< can be set to prod,,", a variety
of musical pilchca 10 give a mconingful m>Uical p<!Tformance. The j"""nlioas
Qf transistor and integrated ci,cuit ( Ie) ha..: made cay the <>the"""", COm·
pie;< meth<><l, <Jf ...,und gcneraliQn and .yntlla;'.
There "'l>< ~
hTeakthrQugh in $001>(\ $ynti>es;. in mid .ightces when r.oun<l
~mpling "'3.5 introdUoCtd, aU<lWing digitisalion (If sound. which could be
pr,)ttO$ed "nd ront.olled by microproccuolS. Delay un al", be e."ily intr.,.
duted in digital i)"lem. giving the appropriate re'~rberat ion to make the
electronic sound rich and reali<.tic to .. Woe more pIc .... ing .ffeel. The whole
proec,"" ii ~n in I b.uic form in the block diagram, ''3.1 .4.

C.""'n~
I
I
I Audio os<.
I di,;....•""". - ,~.

Doloy ok ..
L'

The "".rl of ea.ly mtWc .ynlhesis ....... a volt~ controUed O!.cillator (VCO).
It, pitch w... determined by ''l>ryin8Ihe input voluJe wilh the help of a clulin
of 'e,iOloU connected 10 I • .,ilable key board, or Iny <>tber mtWcal device.
The <redil '" dcrnonstuling Ihe r,,,,, mtWc ')'nl h•• itt" ba..c:d on vollagc ron·
trolled dcc\.onic IUnc" '"""S 10 Dr. Robert Moog.
In an ~I«tronk IUMl' the frequency of "" ...all",,,,, or the centre frequency
of. band J>a'S r,ller is COIlllollcd br varying the d.e. voltII&<' <lilly. eon""nli.on.
al lu""" arc of elec\r.,."",chanical Iypc: which vary the capacitance of •
capacilor m""hilllically by moving the """,able plotes rela(i"" 10 $Iati. ploteo.
1'lIc.", cannOi be ,,<Cd in electronic music where f, cql>Cnc;"$ ha"" (0 be regu·
laled by (ouch bUlIon , wilche •. Modern IU ....... which are operaled by touch
bun"., ,,,ilches. change Ibe \TIh~e IlCfOO$ l ,-araclOl diode lu chan~ ;1'
Clpacitance. The value of other UlaIJlCllCIIU (like ruislon in W>ea BriodF
,.,...;n.lon aDd ooils in fillers and RF ""';DUon) CIII be reduced by thorti1I&
wiLb a forward biased diode, or CIII be iAcn:ued by "'.......... (be slIoortiDa
bias and usim& r CVl'rIC IX-. E\cc:<ronll; t lJllCl'S ~ widely IISCd ill DOdem TV
receivers and the same techniques have beca used for ch'''&ing the valuu of
comJICIICIIU ia. .....;11 .. 00'$ and filIcrs ia IOUIId I)'fllhesia aDd filtcrins ')'iIcnu.

I.l~ Resonance Meet iJi Sovltd SY5teJlls

AU """M Innyhlen, (whicb roavcrt 00IIl1li iDto eIcctricity lile micropboncs
aDd canridgcs. or which COIIvert electricity inlo tl"'dani...1 vibrations lile
Iouwpoak ..., recorilifl3 unils) bavc med'nnl pam CI~ olvibrari.,. AU
these r)'iIcms bavc a natural rCSOD' nt frcqllClI(:)' dcpc1lding on tbe "'&loS and
COCI!pliance 01. the ",,",Iins; r)'iIelll. Similarly, the aboorbiag aDd ",lIca.ins
surfaotS CIII bavc a natural reSOD' ''' frcqllClIC)'.
The ",.""am f.cqllClIC)' ol.uch Iystems is given by Eq. }.8,

f _ (,:.) (~)j ,,.,

f - rCSOD,nt frequency in Hz,
S - Stiff_ - l/compli'nee,
M _ MI$I..

Concept 01. .,;tf.u,.. aDd mass in a

n>«banical r)'iICIII is illuwale<l ill F"1g.
\.j, Aa compaud 10 .... e\carical
'CSODJDt circ:uiI, mass (M) is equivalcnt
10 induct Ina:, aDd iliff_ (S) is
eqllivaleDi 10 l/Clpac:itma:. Rever.., of

be cqWvalc:nt 10 capri''''''' n us,

rc.oo<Wll freqllCn<:y iI directly propor- ·:{·z·: _ Il l
tiooal to the lquarc,OOI of lIiff_ and
inversely proportionl! 10 the &quarcrOOl FII- U r I' " .. of. z . - . . i='
of .IIl.IIA. ..,.,.....

,.
 Summary
S..und: II i. " kmgilud in"1 '",ye m(~i"n ~~""i<l ing of a ""« ,,cncc of
c"nl p'~"i"n' "nd .~.cf~Cli"n' 1.",,,lIing wilh a w io<:ily in " medium " I"
Ir"nsmi~",. II> velocily j, 332 mi. al eft: arwl frequency range i, 16 Ht 10 21l
kill, lnICn,il\'. of sound , ..,,"" f"""
20 dB 0"" 1 pW. for wlli' f'Cr 10 120 dB
for In.. d Rod 'n' R,~I 00"'1. Inlcn,ily of 1:10 dB ;,. called Ihrcohold "f pain.
K"nd,,'i dIIL " f "" u,..j wa'''. arc:
(I) F", le kphOlU: 'f'Cnh: 31~·llu.l4l1O H7.
(Z) Fur nmmal proWa mmes: 110 It, fn_1 H1.
(J) Fur high fotldily: .j() h,l :;'U) H>

It h'l> Ioccn cMHbli,hcd ,II",high fre'l"""';'" <(In,,,in I,,,,' cnc'gy hu, high in_
IdTigihiTil)', and ...... f""I".:n.,;.·, cOnl:. in high cnc,"!;y hu, """ in' clligibili, y,
Fr<'<jucne "" "f " " men 's ",ice 'ore high.·, ,h"n Ih"", of ",,·n .

I::Hr: It , ,,n,'crl S s<.und f''''-'-'u," "", i"l iun, i"hl clcclrio;al <;gnab wh ich a. c
fed In 'he brain Ih",ugh audit",)' ne'"e •. The b..in inlc. po-els the sW>al' inl o
\\'h,,' We hear, Ea, ', . e'ponse to ",und ;,. io'l:'lfithmic,

1'1"",: T he loudness <Jllh~ intcnsily of <.Q\lnd in dB ~I per",;""d bv the car at

a'
UH, ~I /, ;" c"lIed pl'i)n. If60 dB 010 H,. gi,'cs the "" me loudness OdD :., a'
1101 ~I >. Ihen loudne ... ;, lew phon in IlIxh ca><:~. fltl.he.~".j Mun",n drew
C<IUalloudnc", ronl",,, <un'C. f". differ,' n, pIIuns.

s("'~: lo"dness """«I,;':'" proth,ttd "r lOOt) H>. ~.und of '"' dB (i.c . .j1J phon)
;, c .. lbl I '"nC, E,-.:: ry incr,-.'" of .\ dj, in 'he "."" ""1,,,' ,., k",dnc,,-' "m"un',
In an inc real<: .)f 1ft rhon.

In' .....·al ;, Ihe ,at i" of 2 f'"'1u< n.i~, An inter..-"I of 1:2 i. ""lkd one ''''1~''•.

II""",,,,...,;: These: arc imcb",r mu lliples of. f.nd,menlal frcq lltt><·y, Sou nd
of all mu,ical ;~""menl' conI"" of fundamen' al ood iti hrm<mi",-
0. ...... "".. F«qutn<i •• his!>or lh.n li>c fundamon'al fr.quen,·;., arc .~)ltd
(""nones. Thu" ow.lones indude ha.moniu al"', Cunl(lO$ilinn of fun-
damcnlal and ha'mon ics in • ,ound gi", ind;"; du:.lily h . Ihe sound. and Ih"
q ual ily is h own a, Y,lnb...

I'll.h: Pitch is a eh •• OCl.riMit of snund mainly ",lslcd 10 f. equ0"'1'. In pure

,one, "'ilhool ha'moniC>, il rcrre!>(:nlS frcqutncy "lune, hUl wil h ha'mnnics i1
is rda'ed 10 inlcnsi' y aJ&<> in addilion 10 frequency.

Mu,ical ""~k,, Th • •e are tcn musica l seale .. Eoch scale is one OC1 a,,, wide
and con";>!. of . igh' nOle. "f <t1 ".1 ;m e ..... l, (8:9) .
Souqd .,..,lheab: SoIuKI tal> ~ .ymbr·i....J dcwoakaUy by ,.".rating .I>dio
freq ... ncy.;pa1s., miIing!hem aDd muoduciD£ delay, Electro"ic luneR arc
used MUch can change the &cqucDcio.s by varyiD£ lhe voItagu. Elcdrootic
I"",,", II$C varaclor diodr. 10 ch.,,1" the ~pao;:il"na:i Resislana:s aDd coill
can be introdUCC<l for band chlng;nB by changiag diodr biases.

~ dftd: M ... and axnplima: of the . ;b..linS J)'IiCm5 give rise 10 .

f1:5()11 .... fieqUCDCY whose value depcDds 011 !be nwa and <OIIIpliana: of the
Ylbr.ling p..u.

QUes tlOD S
L. DdillC ampiill.;!e,~, P'*t. wr.ocleaph for .....nd 101M. Wl>al • IIIe
....1ionIItip bot ...., """*Y, fm!umty 0Dd ......1enJIlL
2. IklIIIo 'pborI'. DrIw FleUfIor ..... MulllOll 0.. ..... aI>Il diocull tho I<IfOlcr.:c:s
wtIich _ be 41."" from Ibex ' 'oJ a<I'U. •
3. PII lain """ iDtoJli.&lbilily aI>Il .... Ob' <O!\t<liocd III • _..:I wave arc .. latc<! 10 "'"
1req\Icncy. ~!n \bat • J. ... I"ldtb ot .... tIwl • Ulz illUllicl<nllor tdepllone..

•. --
WTlto -.. bAIodoridtloI .... td or""'" Of T h. IIOI'IMI proa:racn:nes aI>Il bi&h
ExpI"in tho ~,lumopaUioln,to_nd.
L.lntoMII
3.11.. " ... ,;- •." - -
2.Ort · ·...

5. TImton: 6. l'itm
7. lbraIooIo:I olllearVt, 8. 1'1:ta/o;lkI olpain
5. DiocuIs_..:I1j'N1 I I..:IF!Ia'ItIoIIotarlillcialmusit.
6. WtitOl1ban notc <XI 'cIcct1'tXlio:: tuncr'.
7. Wtitolban ""'.. <XI II.. 1olkJoooWtg:
(I) QIanc:tcIiIIlcJ otbuman oar
(1.) Mo.cW:ai Q)e
(J) 11 ..... 000 cffco:l. .. tranId ........ related 10_..:1

Objtc1in type q..atlou

FU! up ,be blanD:
I. SwDCI.. "*""
maiotl (loII.pt1Odilllol, 1t _ . IIt .... "~IV""ic, po1loe)
,..,
u._
2. VoIocI" of nmIIlt a"c iI mJo ..:I 1\ 1I.fC iI mJo (34-4, 3)2, 0, J "

J. 1....-,. 0 ( _ t:r " " _ 0(1 ID& iI_tml""" t:r 01 pain iI

_tml(O.lpW,lnW, tmW, I W,tOW, trow)
•. lti&fl aIdIo fMqI_ ......... _
bw'aIdIo froqo- ,_. {......e,1o:M, "'I""IJ
''''''&1'"'''' _
Wd'igllilic,. <Ullj&ullO

5. Old 1" '" ate inIe_ 10 8IKIio tnoquenc;oea .. <Omf*red to cblIdn!"

(hlp. k>I<)
6, S<oo,DCI of 60 <111 imellOity It 40 UZ """' tho oamo leA, IS _n<! of 0 dll at
1000 IlL "Ibell, b o1 . us It 040 Hlil pbDII (0, <10, 60, 101X1)
7. Sonc: iI. U"~ 01 (It.... , " in Ioudnoa, qlllllilyof...,lId, pit<:II. timbre)
8. I'n>quency range b ldo.jb:lolC opW;b iI ancHor JIj·fillOlllld Is (1610
20 kHz, 100 .0 1000 Hz, lSOO 10 2500 Ill, 300 10 3400 111, 80 to 8IXM) liz,
<l()..UOOO Ill)
9. ~mlllioal",*is DCta.e...,;,x(\l.I,2.3)
10. 1110: ""~ 01 pit<:llill (..",.,. phon. "",I. mc.~)
!I. Wi.h rnpW .0 1000 Hz, 1"MI ..... _ wide note ill _ _ Hz IIIICI 2nd _ iI
",~lll(IOOO. 2000. JOOl.-4OO1)
12. DtI.,. in m""" ""em illntl"<llluted 10 ...... til< elf"", <Jl ('Y'"1iCsil, .......
revert>enrticlt, Implitlca.icIt)
11 Freqt><ncy 01 an oocillalor <41" be <banJnI ck<;lronic:aUy t". ..sins (pnpi
"'p"'Mtn, varactor _ . diaI.cljustmen!. inle",,'''' ctrcu~)
\4. syntt of ....1Id bocanIC eaIier mil 1iCt •.,. t". ullng 'eo:IIniq\a (diJillI,
anoq. pu<II-pup. OaIbf)
IS. M- . axr>pr;...... mil I'ric:Uca 01. vibratina .)'«m Is equlvakn. 10 •
mil • '........,..aNeIJ of_rica!
cbatJe....... nl. e.m.1.)
""mi (.eaisIanc:e. c:apac:iw>Ce, InduCUilCe.

Numtrh:al questions
\. Ihclu:ity of .... nd ;. 332 1M at O"C, Ibj itt ..... lot 773"C. (46.'i m.I»
2. ~1n<I 1110 .......ImJIII "r ....
n(! ct 1000 III prauming ju, ·J:1,. i'l' to bee J.4<I mil
(34 .• an)
1 Inlemil)' 0I ....11d 1'" "'J"e 0120" 111"' Pa il 0 dB. "'bat wiD be ill inlensily for
""........,010.1 P"(14<10)
•• In q,.. 'I .... No.3. O&Icul3le.,.,"" "" ...... ~ lor lI,u"",," ......... In1cmiI)' il 100 dB.
(21'1t)
5. Wha. will bee IliC loud ..... level in pilon at 100 III lor ...,"" 01 i'"'mit, 110 dB
wbi<:b pes tbee oamt _ _ .. .,.,"" 0(40 dB a 1000 Ill? (-40 phon)
6. WIa iI tile .oo.eofbA "" inn1e Iorqo ._..., NoH (I ..,.,.)
1. cu:utat. """"'" .,1aYlIi wiIlt tUj*1 to 100 liz IiJr \be ~ IOUrA fnoqI , ie.
ISO Hz,;m Hz, JOO IIz,IIOO liz, lOOX1It. (U. 1. 1, 8, 100)
8. Ok"I ... _ _ ilqo .... No.7 (Lcc> I.5. 1. q,1,1,q,100)
9. Calcula .. harmonb In q'7rion No.7. (Nil, 2Dd.lrd. 8<lt. l00th)
10. In I m\lllk:al ....1e """ not"" an: 0( 16 mil 18 H1... rapeclively. Calcullte inlet\1ll
1iCt"","" the twO nota. (8:9)

,.
2
MICROPHONES

1..1 Chancteristks of Mlcropbones

Micropbone is • traasdUQCf wbicb ~ oound pr.... urc varlatlon.! iII!u
electrical·;gt'·'· ollbc umc frcqllCllC)' aud phase and of amp~u.des in the
o.amc proportion IS ill ptCSSure varWtou.

0uaIity of • microphone is de!crmiDod by the r~ <Uratlcristics:

• SeJ>siIMly
• Signal 10 BOisc: ratio
• Frequenq rc' po"lC
• Distortion
•• Output
Dircc::ti-.o!IJ
""ped.......
'These (b.arattcristics arc dcrJlled as WIder :
SauIUY\'r. It is derIDed ... output in mllIivoIu. (or ia dB bclow 1 vult) for the
IOUOO prUOUfC of 1 mlcrobar (or 0.1 Pa) a' 1(0) Hz. The Britiob oIududs
dcImc the sen.i'Mty for ""WId preuurc of 1 r a (or 10 microbar). AI the
~ IeYel olilpeeclo pr<Mda IOU1ld prasu.c ofl mlcrobar, the oensitMty
baxd OIl t.bio criteria is more appoopowc and W beea uoed in thir. book.
Output (and hc:noc SCl>Sitivity) for 10 microbar prWlure (or 1 Pal lc~l would
~ 10 tim" the vallie for 1 mi<:robar pressUfe.

(Some manufatturC!'S qllOte the scasjlMly ill ICIlIiI of dBltI. i.e. pcI'<I'er OUtput
in dB below 1 milliwatt. )

Examplt Z.l
ScAlitivity "fa microphone is 120 dB below I V, calculate ill OUlplll.

20 log..!.. ~ 120
'\,
Therefore, ~ • 10', or Eo - 10"' volt - ] /IV

SIpaI to n_ ..Uo : Some DOisc (allcd &cl!.IlOisc:)

is generated in.$ide Ibe
mlcr~ d ... 10 raiotancc of the ci, cuit, bwlt-m transformer, etc. It is
rcpr'SCnled U. Ie...... cl sound pressure level (SPL) wbicll would give the
same output IS the noise output. The OIIlpul is meuurcd by passing i(
 ,
NIc,.-" , 19

throogh a weiglrting fdier wIrith arxor.rnu for the rcdllCed scrWtMty eX ~ w-

al hiP and low audio frtqUUlcies. The aroo, .. ically ....,;gb(ed OU(pul is
rcprcaeoted in dBA. In.tc.,1 of q\"";ng the rKli5e akrae, mmwactW'Cl'$ q\lO(c
. , 1 to QOisc: ralio. II is rkfioed to Ire ratio in dB eX tire outpul (with SPL 0(
11'b¥) to the output in tire abocna: or 5Ol5fI<!.

Eumple2.1
Output or the arboa mitroplror>e is 100 mV wiI.b "",nd pre&&UU 0( l,..bar. la
the ~ ............ of IOtPl>d, the output redlKrA to 10 mY. C.lorlote '-V'I to P>Oiae
ratio.

_"'dB
r ... q~ _poaH: The frequ.c..cy:-capoaae of. mitropbooe is rkfmed by
Ibe baadwidl.lr cl aucOO frequencies in tbc output of mk:ropIrone wilJUa ::1:1
dB of the OIIIpUI ar: 1000 Hz. All ..... ,&!: tbe complete I\:diblc freqPlCJ>Cy rar:rgc
of OOUPId wr.'CII is 16 10 2fWl Hz, • mkropbollC MUcb lives nar: rupo!lle
wilbin ::I: 1 dB f!ll freqPICncies 40 10 15000 Hz is considered good for bigb
f>delity audio ,ystems.. I..ower barrdwidtb 0( 80 10 8IXXJ Hz is aca:plable for

MMS of the vibratin,g system and iI.s wmplia ...... are equioalc:nl 10 elearical
iod"c"""" and c:apacilUlCC, ~y. Mass c:auoe& Rlteoulnoo al bigb
aad complj'5I(:(: at low IPIdio freqPICDCie. Also, due 10 m<J"o"abIe parts there;'
• ".Iura! resona.nP frequcp>cy for. mitropbo<le and 'ip'l is boo&ted lillie
reoonaal frtqUCJ>C)'. Hi&Ir boau empha,kCI tbe problem 01 f«d bad:: f,{PIII
Ioudspeo1er 10 microplrotreo in PA &)'Ilem.

Frequcp>cy r""poasc.IP cl various micropI>ones arc given in fie. 2.1.

DlItonIo:o: Beside" frequ.c..cy diotonion ( ~" frequcp>cy ,e.ponsc)

described above, lbere are lwo types of diotPlltitoo>s in mietDP''',.,C6, _ly,
nonlinear diotonioa, and pbue diotPlltion.
N"",-II. ear rllilortirMI rliatortr. tho: IJDP~lude
or the .udin o.ignal, which r e.rulu.
in procilSdiOll of oucb bata:.oaics in lbe output that are DOt prClCot in the
inpul o.nund. For quality microphoocs, .ucIr disionioa .bould be leu th.oa 5%.
For bigb firk~ly .......d systelD!, disionioo 5bould not be more tban 1%.
PIuoH dlrtortl ... l!1I.y ClIP2 change <:A ph..., rcb';.... hip buwccn differeDt
componcots or. compla oound .....,. Phase distortion occunr when mulPip\e
 ,
" - ,"
liGl HKU
•

t
0
0
0
O
,••
C_
",", ... J" ..

•,-
d
•

,
•
• ,
0

"'"'........
"""
• ,
0

I I- •
i
0
0
0
0
C~_
",;.c",. ~.'"

I •
0

,
0

•, - • •
•
, •
•
•
> • 0

• l- 0

,
0
•
•
,
•

,
•
"S "-';1
m",*, .>ho ...

l- •
0
•
Ri""""

"r-A'" '"I I I
,ro
II I ;$.l
'I I I
'" ~ 320 MO IK loS K Sk
fmIucn<y in lb. - ..
I ~K 21) 1(

F'" 1.1 'IYf'.«1 '''''locO<)' _ _ of ~ff<f<"' "' ~'" 'vo""

microphonefi a' e U$W C3.wng rclalM: palh difference from Ihe ".,urcc of
sound,
DirwtJ~lty: The d:rtC1i';l~ of a mieropbonc is defined with the help of a 1",lar
diagram. The angle for half power points in a p,,;"J diagram Jc p,c""nls
JiJ~ctivi!l' of ft mi",opbonc, as . hown in Fig. 2.2.

naif POW«!"i'"
 N"'I'_lI

Matbcm.oljcally, dirCdiYiIy i.s dc:fmc:d .. tile ratio rA .alia! Oli:put when

placed in • dirCdioo> of m.,;m ..... ",sponsc :0 the OIilplll whi.cb aa
omnidirec:tion.>l microphone i::: tile wne dircdioa wolild haw ~ kuping
lbe ;"Iell$ily ohound OOIW..,:' Directivity, D, is givelIo by Eq. 2.1.
E
D .. - (2.1)
E.
where, E .. .aual OII:pIII in the dirCdioa rA mujmWII output
E. .. Ouiplll ill. that :lirecfioa bel the :nicropI:ooe
bee" 0ftUIi- dirediolW
When repreoe ..:cd ill. dB, directMiy would be 2lIiog D.
MicroplKx:e. wiLh tile followiDj direaMiics are \lied in practice:
I. ornaidireaioaa!
2. fl8liJe rA eight direc:tMiy, and
3. cardioid Dr hurt wp:d direc:tivity.
These diredivily i»Ilet12S ate &howa ill. Fog. 2.3.

lIi-<li""" itoooal
fiJUl'<o>i'';Jh'
--
Canlioid or

,.,
'" '"
_ ·' ,,1, '
All pr~un: micropho:1 haw 1;>e<i(:.11y omnidir:dioaal patten>. , ..
Omnldirection.ol mic:rophoDco, .ocuw.i wavt:I off tbe main am
belId roullll dllC
10 diffrKlioa and ouike 1be di.ophrqm. Pr ...",: gr..ne", Dr ""Ioc:iiy
mkrophooe. ha."" figure rA cigbt pattern. Cardioid plttcrn is obI_jllCd by
oombiaiag .., onmi<llrectioaa1 miaopho<oe wiLb • figure: rA eight pattern
tnitrophone in aeries.. Sharp dircctioa CIJI be obI_;"..! by combiruotioo rA
mu.ltipk miaopboaes..
 Examplel.3
The OUIpul or • ~ micropboqe .. 0.3 ",V, when tM 0II1pui or ...
DfDfIi<Iiruticx micropI>onc placed ut>der idelll.ical coaditioa with rC<P'X'IIO
sour"" ;. only 31'V. Calculate direQMty ofl.hc lWO lllicropboDcs dB. u.
O.3mV .. 3OOI'V

DireaMty or tM ~ micropboae .. 20 log.£..

'",
.. 20 log 300

.. 20 log 100 .. 4Od8

DirCClMty or ... nmniditeclioul microphoo'C will always be equal to ze.o dB

(u it il equ.ollo20 log ~ .. 20 log 1 .. 0)

Oooq.t ."",In:z A miaopbooe has III. tUput =1""'....... which io

rep .0:<1 ill ohnn T\is io • impon.t I*' p,...,.. ..taclI io IIsed 10 dcl:crmiar;
wIUdo type or mgcbi"8 uamformer ...,..)d be needW to transter the jlOAV
cffrir..lyfr"", ...0"1 • ...,.. to the ir . ......;.·· -.,. line aod lben 10 the .mplir,.. •.
S<:mc II2itropI>oaa lile dyn'mic o:Ucrophor>es, ba~ quite low DUlpUI
imped.na: (Oftly • rew ohms), arod therefore haoe buiIt·ia slep Djliransrormcr
10 mIldliae imprd·...,. .
(When there is. built-in trUifOtmer, maaufadWctJ generally quote output
in millimIu .vailabk aaou the ........t•., orlhe tra>W"OImcr).

l..l Requisites of a Good Microphone

A good microphooe .......'Id ~ high RmitiYity, high .,110 """" ratio, flal
frcqllCDCY rapolL5C """. mOIl 01 1bc .udible rrequcncy range, ....Iura!
r......·nt f""l"""")' oodlide t.hc: .udibIe ungc, arod very low distortion. It
&bo\Ild ~ (lOI"O'(".Q OIIIpuI imprd'lI(lC (wilh 00: withovl buiIt-;" " ......<lnIX.)
to match with. the Iinc impcd·rooc The o:IirecIMty or the micropbor>c obould
be o.uch al lo meet the requircmclll. or.~ioD.
PrO!'! the poilII or view or impcd'rooc, the mic:ropl>oaes are divided ;"to three

1. v~low imp''! , (&om. r.- Ii .. Ii ... 0 10 aba..r -'10)

2. Medium imprd· ...... (100-600 0)
J. Higbimpodanc:c (750kO ..... hit;bet)

•
 Mia'1 . ":0

Ribbon ... d ~ o;oiI mk:ropItoncs are Low imped·nce micropbOflt' and

nud a lIcp up Ir-ansformcr 10 iDcrusc the impedance looking ;"\0 the cU(o,Ul.
Oystal and capacitor miaopboDc.o are high impedaDce miaopbooe&,
needing an emitter foUuw.:r ....plif"'. for malclUns- Carbon lIIicropbmoc:s are
medium impedaqce rnK::ropIIone..
[n •• biddcd cable, the ' hield and the conductor ad as shont capacitor which
allcnuates Iligb audio frequencies. This 11Iellllalion is obYiously IIKlI'e
effective ;" bigh impedance miaophones,

2.3 Moving Coil Mierophonf

The ".,.;.,g .oJ micropboal: (abo ca!kd dyIwNc miaopbone) ....,. tIo::
priDcipk of ~ induction, When""""" J I ' = ",,;aljoos """'" a
coU placed in • magnetlc 6dd, tbut ;. a chang.: rL m.....;., 11m: r 755;0fI through
!be coil, An e.mI, io., thud'"' induced in tIo:: .nJ and tm. e.mI. bmo OIYlpIYI rL
the mkropbone. (DIIC to sjmil.~ in COOHlnlClion •• mo::Mag roillooo:kpcaker
an also work as mcMIIg.nJ mic.opIK" The ume ur:iI is rLh:n used boll! as
microphone and lcud.lptaker in office intercom J)'5ltmL)

Construct1on
The main componelll.l oIa IIY<l"o'ing roil micropbooc are ::nagnc:1, diaphragm
...d coil, Th"", are """- in Fill- 24,
The ""'&7'ct is a pcr:ssancnt magnet of POT type with a cenlr;zl pole pi.ca:
(Sooth pole) and the periplw:r;zl pole ~ (North pole), This type ofmagncl
giva a uniform sugDeti.c: field iD Ihe go.p belween the pole ~
Diapbragm is • lhin circular r.bect of nocsmagactic: maleri;zl and i. of light
weight, It is oIightly domed for ext.. . igidity, 11 is rlXed 10 the body of lbe
magnet with the help of springs. T1se springs provide compliance (equivalent
II) electrical capacitance) to !be motion ol diaphrogm, MHIT of lhe
diaphragm and coil a.sembly provide inductM: effect,
Coil is wound 00 • cardOOard cylinder wbich is attached to Ihe diaphragm,
The coil is &i.ngle layered thin enamcUed wire.
A P<OtcdM ctM:r (a 5JIC:Ial grill) is used lo ...ve the delicate diaphragm and
coil HlSCmbly from being mishandled. A &ill; cloth partition is used 10 separate
tbe upper chamber from the Lowcrehamber.A smail lube is used iD lbe Lower
cJwnber 10 give aa;e .. to lbe free atmosphere.
The 1110$< of the diIopingm rcstricu tbe high audio freqllCYIC)' outpIYt, and lhe
Sl iffllC5$ (a~citive ructance) eoused by the 1prU!cs' compliance, re.<lricts
 "
,,'
, ",

,,
, ,
I \"'pk~" -+

Audio
~,~

1 - 1_ _ _ _ _0

,he low ludio frequcncy ""tput . Elccuical oqu'V"dknl circuit for •

mie.opb"", i••k"",,. in Fig. 2.5.

t'"ncllonln g
When soolld waves lolr jke Ihe diaphragm. i! rI\O\U and hence, coil moves in
and out in ,he mag""li, r.cld. This m.,.ion cltang<'$ (he nllI through Ihe coil
" 'h ich " suh. in e.mJ. being induced in the coil due 10 ckClromagnc:(ic
,,,duel;o". The value of c.mJ. depends on thoe rale of chaD~ of nux and hence
"" the motion of the coil. The displacement of the coil depends on tbe
pIOMo.e of sound wavel; on lhe diaphragm. ThU$, it is a pre .. ure microphone.
The induced vollage, c, a<:.OM ll,e coil of microphone is given by Eq. 2.2.
If B is lhe fill' denUly in 1<:$1& (or Wb.'m'J, ~ lhe length of coil in metrc,
", the v.:locity of diaphragm (ud benee coil) in mI.. then

e ., .!r. .. B "
• OIangc of an:. per ....on<!

., B" l.cllglh of COi>dlltlor" distance moved I"'r $CUdId

or, e_ B"I"" (2.2)

Characteristics ot the moving coil mitmphone (typical value$)

SHslth1ly: 30~. (or 90 dB below I ¥OIt) for.ound pn:o.Iun: 1"",,1 of
0.1 Pa. A step up transformer is IJ5Cd 10 match the cable impt:dona: of about
200 ohm. The OUlpolloCrol.lllho ......""j.ry is abow 90 miao¥oIt.

Slpal lO DOIs~ ratio: 30 dB ,

. 'reqHIIQ' ""Sp"""": 60 Hz I" 1o:Xl1lz for :2: I dB. (Law f""'l""lIC)' ",' P"'''' is
further iml""'Cd lip 1040Hz by usina • ...wI lube in the ~ chamber rL tho
miaopbmc 10 gM N' ' I,,!be [r"" atmoophcrc). It has. natural raoaanee
be!"lottn3 and 4 kHz. Thetefore it is more proae (Q ""'"" and fc:edback.

Dbtort1oc>' L=; than j%.

D1nrtlvll)" The """ins coil microphone is basically omoidircctional ... il is a

preMurc microphone. By U$h!& ribbon nticrophoN: in ..,ni:.
with ii, the hearl ·
.u.aped cardioid panern is obtained . This panem gi..,. half p<l'WCr points
directivity rngle of 'XI' in tbe front. As bigbc. audio frequencies canool
difJract arOUlid the micr<lphtmc case, the dirutivity irw;:reases as frequcllC)'
inet<:.SC'l5 This is showa io r'8-
2.6.

Output ImpedaD<-e: Its outpul impedance is Quile low and i< nboul 2S Q/tm.
Hence, to matcb I line <lf200 "hm, a step up Iranslonner or
.bout 3:IIU""
.atiQ is buill in the microphone case. This iOCJC:&seI the oulput 'o'OItagc 10
aoout90"V.

Olherfeaturel

(1) As magnet is Quile be_')', it can be encased in a hooa')' protect;""

case, and hCDCC it is very robust and reliable.
(2) 11 doer. IlQ( nced czternal bias.
(3) 11 can be spoken inlo from _ distance of aboul 2S em.
(4) Iu. CO«! is "'" high. It is Io>wcr in CQO\ than .ibbrut and capacitor
microp!>ooa, but bigbcr lhan crystal and carbon micropb""cs.
 ~ .

. ,.
HJJ fl'
~.

..w. It i. suil.ble for

Appliclll .... " M,,,ing coil microphone: is moo.! ...-idcly ...
~ in public add . .... ')"I<1Dli and t...oadcasl Mudi.... When it is coupled with
,ibboo micropbOCle in ""ries, it. cardioid paue •• make. it n.d"l for dram ..
and ronecru.

Z.4 Ribbon Microphone

In m""';ng coil microphone, high freq ... nq . e,I"l"<C is poor beau,"" of tile
IIIlIM of the diaphragm (i,.duding coil assembly), Mcch&nical rn .... i,
equivalent 10 dectrical inductance:.• nd this aUen".le, Ihe higher frequencies.
Hence:, h> increase the f' <qucll(:)' "'-<j)<"",, for high audio frequencies.,,, '~ry
li&hl aluminum ribbon is uoed in p1.ce of diaphragm and cuil ~""mbly. Tile
ribbon acto .. a rondUdo< (placed in a magnetic field) 40 "",II as a
diaphragm. Such a micr"l'it(MlC ;Halled rih/:loIl m;",ophnnc.

Construction
The main pa'l< Qf a ribbon micropi>u.'\e. r.hown in rlJl. 27, ate: l. permanent
magnet. and 2. ribbon co..duaor.
TIM: permanef\! magnet is a specially designed I>or",-.hoc magnet "ith
CJlJcnded pole piece .. It providc$ '.!rong mag ... ti. field.
T be ribbon is ~ liglli alumin ium foil. II is corrugated at 'ight ang~ to its
lengtll to p,O\'i<.le greate, '.'(4"" ""' •. The main leotu,e ;. lightnc.o.s 0( the
'ibbon, which .. only about 0.2 "'3 in weight, I few mic,,,,,-, thick and about
3 mm wide , H is .uspended in I"" magnetic rICk! of lhe pe,maDeDI magnel
aDd lhe wffne"" ol .... pellSion is &mall.

The ",hole unil is cDCIoocd in a ci,cula, 0< ,"",angular bame. The , h.1'" of
lhe bame is l>1li J'U.ely ci,eula, Of .e"langula" bUI ;" 'alhe' i' '''gula' ond
~Dds oa lhe SlrtldW"e of Ibe magnet.

Wo rkil1l prlndple
When lhe ribbon (aD elearic co!>doctor), placed in I mllP'clic field. is mad.:
10 move al righl anglc.o 10 Ihe milgl\Clic field by lhe f",a: of ><lund pi"cssure,
Ihore" a cllange of magnetic n""lhrough {he ' ibbon conduclor. Due 10 Ihi,
change of m.gnc1ic nuX, an e.mJ. is induced ",;rD!.S tbe ribbon. Th" e_mJ...
I'l"Oportionollo the rale of ch.nw: of RllIgDctic n"" wbicb .. ptopor1ionallo
lhe ro.o:: or ...... "" wa"-'S ", ,-;ling {be "bbon.

[n Ihe ,ibbon miaophOI>C, lh. driving mechanical fo.-o:: is propo<1ionallu Ihe

di(fcfCna: of Ihe prc!ISures .cling "" IVoU .ides of Ihe ribbon, 0' Ibe partick
,"'ocily of lhe sound _Yes. He""" il is .1"" caned 'Preuu~ ( ;'-"dietol'
mierophoI>C Of ' VelocitY' microphone.

C hul"lkleri. lia; of ribbon m icroplwnt

.... q ...nfY rn ...... ~ ." rl bbo," ·mkrophonr: In. micr"phonc. high f'«Iucncy
,ign.1 js anenualcd due (0 ir>dl>Cli"" effeel of maso of Ihe moving >ysr.orn, ami
low frequency 'ip __ il due 10 low c:ompli."«O (",«h. nic. _
altcala&lcd
caparit&DCe) or hi&b otilf_ (aopacitivc 'cod· ....... ). , .. tlw: ribboa
micropbooo:, mill of tlw: IIID'I'iq "YU= ia ""ry ......u (1)IIly .boUI 0.2 .mg) and
betIoe medlnic.l indlld&DCe (M) io low raultina;;., plOd , .. porw: for hi&b
. udio ruquc:1Icica uplo 12(0) Hz. nc pi/I"CI! al tlw: ilJlpc,.jm of lhe
ribboa il a1so......u aDd rallka;" aood relpclllle for low freqUC"ncicl . h·.... l
Ai low Ai tlw: IowesI audible frequellC)'. nc CM:.aO frequeacy fespotUe al
ribboa micropbor>c io 20 to 12fO) IU for :!: 1 dB. NaJlU"al r"l()IInt freq",,!>cy
ia below 20 Ih aDd 10 doca IIIlIlic ;., tbe audible rIllF'.
[)I1"ft1lvll1 01 riU I_ ID:ropolo_: AI forfe of lOIU>d (:III be appli.ed 10 lbe
ribboa from lbe frocu. Ai "",U IS from lbe relt &ide, this type or .micropbollC is
bj·dired.ion. l aDd ill polar palten> is ligute or eipl IS !holm. ;., F"'I. U.
p,uems ia<idc the .... d" are of ribboa microphone, ...t.iIc lbe ouuldc circle
repreva" oami-directioa of pre.u1ltC type micropbooc.aDd bu beea!holm.
for eomparisoa..
~ ....... lIfllCilU"cu ~ dc' igncd . ribboa microphooc ;., ouch . way that
lbe uPlX-t part is velocily ~flt=<l and tlw: lower part io ",...ute operated.
AI tbe two vction. ItC from • li,,&1e COGIiD"""" ribboo, lhcy Ite ill ",ria. and
Ki>1! u rdioid p"'ltera.

,~ -

............

1 1i~·': ,
7-" , "·.\. I~
i ,
I , -
- - -- ---1«
llXOl lI ,.
./

"'-
'"
•
 Mklql,",= 19

I",ptda-. ]mpedalloOC of a ribbon mi<:ropbol>c is 00IIy. fractioro of.n obm

(aboul 0.25 0). It has • built·in Iolep up traasl"onacr with secoadary tn
primary tllrtl! ratio 01 about 30:1 to IIIIl.cb cable imprdaDOl' 01200 O.
So,IIMiT- Tbe sc"';tMty 01 a ribbon mlcropbooe is Le.. thaD that of •
moo;ing coil type baa...., Lc~ of ribbon is \e$s thaD the Length of coil wire
of.1I><IYi<>s wi! type ll>icroploone. It is.bout lJl. V or ]10 dB below 1 V for a
souad pressure 01 0. 1 PL Although low, this autput is aa .... a very low
impedaace. At the occoocIary 01 the ma1dtin& tnmf""""'r (30:1 turl\! ratio)
lhe DUtplll wouJd be abow 90 mictOYl)/t, and he""" is comparabLe with that of
tbe moving coil microphalli:.

Sipal to a. ...tlo: Due to the ditCtIiorlal poopcrties. Ihe ribbon

migophonc: has much leu twkgtOlU'd o>OiK thaa the movilIa coil type.
H~noe ';gnlt 10 ooisc ratio is higher than the IIWI'iin& coil mlcrophollC. It is
about SO dB. Therefore thia type of mlcropbooc: u more suitabLe thaa moving
coillype for biWI tiddity O)'II.c .....

1)I. lor1l .... ' Low (about 1%).

Other fn tuR'S
1. The ribbon, bciq: very li&ht. is deijcale alld CIl1 be eas;1y da~ by
droppO"II. He""" it uquirtl careful bmdling. Ribboa migophonc:,
when 5ubjCded \0 any mecliaaical oboek, CIl1lutrcr from. displaced
ribboa whicIo willll1b 1m the mognetic poIe~. The rCJulI is IhiD
$OWld.

2. A d.c. cum:ut through ribbon from I baUery 01. meier can Iolrain
lhe ribbon. Hence rcoistll>CC or CODlinuity of ribboa should IIOt be
mcuured with 1 meter. It 1obooJd be checked by visual i .... pectioo.
). A ribbon miaopboae .booM 10 bc bLwn mlO. It will causc stnUa ;.,
the n"bbon. 1\ is ...... itive to the _ a t of air ae." it and to the ohocIo::
vibration< It is aloo sensitiYe 10 breathing. It IhoIIJd, lherefou, be kept
abow; 50 em or more away from the IOUI"CC 01 0!lWIIi N ~ disaimiaat""
against '-kgrouoo ""'"" by • £adO< 013, the spcal<cn caoI stand .1 1.7
lime!. the dist'nce pI"eiCribcd for prasllfC mictopbolles. From I
di<I""", of SO em., ';gnll 10 noise ratio cJ this micropbonc will be !he
same as from """"r dist3llCCO for mO'o"i!lg roil Iypc. s... OUlpUt is
in<:rUKd if the _peal ... is cIooe to !he mitropboo:oe
4. Slightelol wind cau"", rumble ooisc in the output.
S. It bas excellenl transieat reaponsc.
6. II doe.o IIOt Deed eXlema! biu.
7. Its COOI.;' hig!>.

'VI ate
......-
II if ¥U)' 1'''obIt fof dum. lu lipre r;I eipI polar di·S am aIIooo1_ to
r.-
I.llt 10 fKe wiIiclI iI_1WUnII tlt.u.a',, " C aide br oicIe.. f't&rtIoer, doc
two dud .... ia. tjlio"" . . "i~'lH ~ III iIapr'CC;M 01 !up "P"'"
bcauae ¥Oice of • penoa . , .ti. ia the dQd area, nao quite dole 10 the
n

..uc.",. T, will _ be pd..... lip dDoctIy, but ,.;0 rudt. lite miool'Oo .,
I h r . rdledio:.s from It.: . . ....us and hence wilIlClWXI Wtllll.

Canlioid .kiOp!t' .,.

When I ribbon IIIicropbooc aDd .......... coil ~ botb or<: _led
ill the _ pu;"a. ax> ......ia&!bcm ia ~. cardOd (or beart Iha~)
pauctL 1'Cf"~! Thil iI """"" ia Y,," 2.9. SI>I;h mlcr~ 1m luiubic for
QK"U'. UId coutt ..... a. dnmao wIocrc alarJC """'ber olpt:...... He
r eS

pr ......... Oac: 10 prw1ia 11y _;p'les' ,Uq . ,.iI siva the: bat I "il,.;u,

....
;''''.n",,",,' i' to the minute chv • ia 11M: _pIic.oIcd Wl"Cfona alladl

,.~ • $ ToIL '0111)"''' , ;, I i : "ooiI__ I'

A ayQJ ...... ojA1P , iI b;;; 1 .. Lbe P iDcipk of '''-' tIedrlc: DIed',

.....mdo ;. dofixd III:

-OilfuIHC 01 piMeIIu.I bel: 11& ~ ...1"'fJ1I'_ III _ a)2',I, Ia

pr..t."d ..... dooR ~ ,_'oj: r . . . . t. -u.-.... ,..,...rt".
~ c:ryUli whldI Pow IhiI clfca arc quartz. \OW1ILI1iIoe, rocb<lk ..all aDd
ccr...uc. "'' ' ' ' 'Lr
sail bas lUsh piuo electric: clfcct but iI IWClCprjhlc: 10
moe.tllrt, Abo, it CI1IDOI. wilb&laDd high lemp<ralllrt of YfC met ia ouldoor
U5C. 0uMIz and 1<>I1f1JIa!iK ba~ low pOcZCKIectrlc cITca, Ceramic is me.!
suilabk: rO' Q)'Slai mk:ropbolles as it is I\Ot l~ptibIc 10 mW!\Ife and ean
aho withsland high Icmp<ralllrCl up 10 100' C,

Wbca preosu' t is applied la tht Q)'Slal, il ddormJl and momealary

dioplocemc:1Il. of char&e lakci pbcc wilhin lhe Cl')'lIaJlIIl1Ictll«:. This Cleale. a
diffeR""" of potenlial belween two slIrfaccl of Ihe Cl')'lIai.

CoDSlructloll

A lypttaI «)'IIIai mk:rophone is""""'" ia F'", 2. 10.

The cryMai is cut aIooog cen';n planes 10 form a slice. Metallic foil cledrodc:s
are atlached to Ihe two ollrfaccl to carry the potenlial diffe, eace to tbe OIJlpIII
lermiuok ,
n.o Ibin Q)'Slal slices suil.Ny cut arc placed in an u.sulatiag hoIde:r wilb an
air 'P,,:C bet . "en Ihem. A large number of oucb eLemenl. are combined 10
increut lbe e.mJ. A diaphragm, made of aluminium, .. 'UlChed 10 lhe
cryoIal l llrf.oc through a pusl! ,od. The whole unil is er.c ....... in. protect;"'"
cut. There ... procca;"'" rove. (racsh) <We' the diaphragm.

f ulld.lolllaa
Wh.e!> \here"'1<1WI<I "'a~ of compraoion, it CQDlpreMtllbe Q)'Slal. In cue
of .arefac:tiotl, COiD~"" tHe. place and Ihe cryoIai is wended and is under
te"",,",. D~ to thio compreYioa and ate"""", , varying poteftlia! differell«
is gene.""" "'hklI ir. propoc1i<>llalto t be mccb.lnical pre ...... e applied to the
cryolal by the iOIIIWl_vu. (It i&, thererore, 'pressure micrnpbone').
3: "_,, Vld<o En.!:i",n.,:SyI!=-

~ crysI.ol e1emCllIS arc COMected ;" IIICh a ""'y that the potential
diffcrcllCCll d C"odoped in the e1e!llC41S arc added up Illld we get a good
voltage output (about 50 mV) for feeding to the ampIif'IC •.

Cbaraderlstks of. t:ry5UillllkropboH

Sea. IUYI!y: Crystal m~ bas ,ood ..",.jtmty, about 50 mY (or 2ti dB
below I volt) forO.1 P. pr .... urc..
SIena! to a olH ntio: It is DO( prot>e to pick up background noise. Gcncratioo
vi while noise iuide the miaophooe is also low. Hence its ..ignal to noise
r.I.tio is high, about 40 dB.
~'l"nIlOCDQ' raJlODH' 100· 800J H zfor ± 1 dB
DlJ!O<1lon: to.., .I.bout 1%
Dlrec:l.lvlty: Omni<lit«tionaJ.
Output IIIIprdaDcr. High. about 1 M 0

OtMr features
I. Not as rugged as moving coil ODe, but more rugged tban ribboo type.
1. CaD be spoken into al close range.
l. Ito high impedan<::e reql1irco relat.ivl::ly sbort leads 10 the input circuit
of the amplifier to prevent 100.0 of high.. .I.udio frequencies, or pick
up o f bum. The leads muSC be wdl sbicldc:d .nd IlOl more than about
6 m«rcslong.
4. Mixer circuit MIl load it and call!<: $CV(:'e 10M o f bass. Hence it
cannot be...e..t in multi·micropbone >)'IIem.
5. Unlike IIKl\>ing coi.I miaopbonc .... d ribboo micropb~ it h .. no
frequency di=imination with direaion.
6. It does DOt need. bias supply.
1. It should IlOl be txpo5ed to diru:I sun light for long time.
S. II. cos.t is low.

Applkatkla5
It is used for t be following purposes
1. Home r ecording -')'5Icms
1. AmatCIlt communication
3. M obile oommunication

HOWC>'Cr, due: to variation of the acouscic charactCfi..lica, this type of

mic<opl>otte is not used in b.-OIIde ..cinS and rC<:Ording lIudios.

,.
l.6 Capadtor (or CoDdeDser) MkrophoDt
Prhadple
When capacitance of I capacitor changeo, the c:Iwge 011 tho: capacitor tends
to '''''''in tbe WIle, and bellCe 'IObage Mangel in aceordlllCe with Eq. 2.3.

('-')

...... v .. Voltage _0611 the ca!),cito. ill. vokJ

o .. Charge in couIombo
C .. Copacitaaa: in farads

will ·
-.
Equation 2.3.00... that if C iJ>creua V will deerease and if C deer_aw, V

Diaphrlpl of tho: mic:ropbooc acts loS one plate of the capacitor. The other
plate, called bad: plate, is. rl%ed. WJ.c,,, IOWld prusurc move$ tbe diapbrq:m
in, tbe capacitaaa: inc:reasca, and when it IIKrVCI out, tbe capacitaaa:
dcaeaseL The Gange in cap"';t.1ICe rcoWt.o in cb'''''' in ooItage. The
capacitor mic:ropbODe iI a presourc miaopbone, loS sooud """"_ oomin!l from
all oldcs strike tbe diaphragm oa tbe f.oat &ide only.

Colli lructk lli

A capacitor mltrophone is. shown in FS- 2.11. It ~ of. ligbt wci&ht

metal diaphrq:m (ge1lC. a1ly alumi.uWII) wbicb is iUSpcDded abOve a rued
metal bad: plale.

,.,.1.11 ~". .! ",._

•
Tbc plates an: ncar eacb otlx:r and form a capacitance of a row picof.....ts. A
fixd de.¥OItogc of.rout 50 to]OO ¥OIt" applicd bet.....,n tbe backplate and
lhc """",bIc plale. n..
diapbragm is in W'etcbed condition as it remaiM
attached 10 lbe wPJMll1in3 rlll\utQ wilb the belp of spider spriDgs. 1'Ix I"",
pial" an: insulated from eacb otlx: •. Capacitanc:e oflhis mlcrophooIt is

"'.........
.rouIJOpF.

When sound .... _ 5lril:;e tbe diaphragm., il IEIOVU. Compr.woa ina ........
capacitana:, and rarcfaai"" deere ..... it. Change in coopacilar>a: .Qults in
duoage in mltlgc ""'.... lbe coo","cilo., as ohown in Eq. 2.4 Let C be the
capociunce oflbe microphone plaIa, V, lhc vo~ acr .... lbe plale., I:, tbe
dieLectric <XIMWl\ 01. 1M medium between lite plaIa, d., the diuantc
between them, A, tboi. area, ed 0, tbe cbargc beld by the capacitor, Iben
kA 0
C- d ,and V - C'
Q Od
lhcrdore. V - k AId .. k A

AI Q, k and A are CODOUInts for the cap;ocito< microphone,

k~" COMiant '"' oar, K

Then, V _ Kd

Differentiating. "V .. K )( "d (2.4)

ThIlS variation in tbc output volt~ depends on the cbange in di!.lancc
between the plole.!, wbich, in tum, depend. OIl the preMure variation! due 10
$OIIlId wa"" •.
Cbal'llCkri5tics or at plldlor mkropbolK'
s....ltiTltr. The output is ""ry \(,w . ad an .mplirlCr is built·in in""'" the
mic.ophooe ease. The IlbpliflCr OIllpul is.rout:) mV ( aboul50 dB below
I V) at $OIIlId preu~ 01'0.1 Pa Of I}O bar.
SlcullO ~_ ..110: High, .boul 40 dB.
Freq"""'l mlpINIK: Ew1Ic",. 40 I-b: to IS kHl [0<1: 1 dB. Its fll'quency
response is 10 good lhat it .. wed "" 'otandard' micropbom: .gain.! ..i\icb
otlx:r micropbon .. an: calibrated and Iolldspeaken ue IC$led.1t is thetdore
....,d in oound Ic>..t IDClers. Its II.llural..,sonant frequency ;1 al>out6000 Hl.
IliIlortioa : low, about 1%
Dl~¥l11 : Omnidirectiooal
o..lpull ... p ' anee: High, aooullOOMQ

•
 M"",oIw: p.l5

OtJMor Seatara
1, It 'lCCdI CIItrlIIl d.c. biassupply.
2. [ t is de\lcate bea...... of tile narl"QlPo' "parat"", betv..:co tbe mQ'o"ing
plate (di.phragm)..-d tbe rIXed b.ck plate.
3. It eoOIlQl "';tb't,nd cwo!! ive he, t. Moisture is .uo barmfu[ IS the
ooade ..... tiCla eo....,. crKklins ooond.
4. It iI 005I.Iy bea....., of the ""ceuity of d.c. bias.

I. It is I15Cd .. ,UD<hrd m;crllpMoe for eoLibrating Q[1Ie' micrQPlwrres.

2. It illlSCd ;" 0<>WPd leve[ meters.
3. II is IlSCd in p.ofeMi<ro&l bigh fKlelity '=>filiog.

1,7 Electret Microphone

Extera&l <i.e. bias ;" eoparilor micmplwcre make$ il C<ISI.1y ud Ilft$uitab[e for
focld work. [n cleetret micropb<>n<:, exte.naI d.c. bi.u is d;.p.1l$ed with. [u
tcftS\1"\?Ctton.! f""....« are ~ F", 2.12.

,.. 2.11 """_ ... , ........

The electrtt ~ is also • orpacitor mic>ophorlc, but it bas built·in

dwge. llIslPlating materials cat! trap Large q ........iry of rJlOd ~e .00 cat! retalo
iI: ilIdeI"mitely. The ;"'''[OIi08 ~ I15Cd iI teflon. The bad: plate cJ the
mi.o::rophooc: is rooted with • th.ia 1a)'C. of teflon. Tb.is th.ia 1a)'C. is dwgcd
DCgatiIdy." thr: time of m....ufatturidg. This negaliYe dwge . emai ... tllpped for
Ioor& period. The -vc Wrge inducc:s + vc dwge DIP the diapbr ..... The +vc
dwgc 011 tk diaphragm aJ>d I>epUve dwgc 011 lhe leflotl e&labIish an
clcctrioc roeld _ 011 tk fliP of tk Cllpacitor platcs, The clwge ,csulla in •
lermiaal """..- Whca the Cllpacitancc chongel duc 10 1OU!\d prCIIIlrC, lhe
dwgc lends to fflIl·ia .;:on,..ot &J>d bcaa: the ttl1Jlinal voltage ChoDgCS
It bu the I&DIe c:hvlCteriaticl as Cllpao:::OI.or mic:ropboac =:IIpt that it does
DOt need CX\cnW bias supply &J>d i& Ic&s o;l&Ily, It i& abo ......nr.-e to
tcmperatwc &J>d bumidity whicb QUSC leakage of charge. II is used in IOUAd
Ic>d_cn,

~ the tlccttet mic:ropIIone is cbcIop, hal &ood (rtquc"t)' ,csp01lSC, is nagcd,

&J>d does 1101 need bias IUppIy, it is abo IISCd. '" IJIl.aII PA l)"Iema fOf clubl
&J>d IJIl.aII haIb, to keep tk CO&1 low. 1\ bcilI& very ligbl, is abo IISCd. as tie clip
mic:rophooc (Of lcaurc.. &J>das • .wo(wirdcu) miaOflb<-, in IpOIU mecu..

Carbon MleropllOtlof

Prhtdple
Wbca rme CIIJ'hon IP'llDules cnckwcd in a case IrC lubjected \0 variations of
prcIIure, tk ' = ;"lI,,« of 8'IlDules cb'''IV'" When ouch device of carboa
IP'llDules io con......,ed ill ..,rico with a Io.d through • de. IUppIy, the """,,nt

...
through the Io.d will vary in _dtaa: Vl'itb pressure vuj.\ jc"" 011 lbe
"""" ..,

~"u c..- " j ' b

•
 1>1;'." I _'" 31

CoIIItz ..duM

The COI!&lnIeIM:rn 01, ~ micophoDe io ""'"'" in rig. 2.13

f"me catboII p ...1Lkt ~ cndo5cd bu ......, two mclal plalea. The upper plate
lIlltackd to ,1IIOYabk IIIeIII diaphrlpll ~.metaI pislOII or plunger.
The lower _II plate • flKd ud • iO'llI•• td from tbe d;.phr..... A
~ O(M;r wilIIlIob allied 10 pratccl the UJlit,

A b.tlay iI .....mMed betw«" fWO _tal platca. \\'beu load iI to"lI«'l«i,

c:urnaI n....s IbiD ah the ~ ...... ulea IUId tbe \old The path 01 currect
if .a.c- br ......... in f"... lo ll. f"maI OUIpW it; oh!.inM through •
trust... Er 10 CI;"';U'I~ oU, ccIIICct oflbe miaOjkww

f·lldk>tliIII
Wbea ,"",M __ IIIrike the diaphnpI, it IIIOI'CI 10 and fco. Durirc
" "'1" ' )h condiricc. it pruICI the cuboa fIJ*I',\et II>d duriQs rard¥'ion, it
Iogy=m tbcmEWbea <.alb pMuIca arc p"' ....... the ouiIl_ dr:aeaoeo and
•• e , \be _. u lt thrcugh \be ciraoit btcnMCS. Wbea cuboa .anukll!:loloD,
\be , . '._ iou "M, cIea-euirI8 the C\II'Tt:III throu&h the cirwit. I .. the
. . ._ d ~, • 5Ic.dy CIIrTmI 110M, Thill '0""" IotIIYCl supcrinlpDIC a
..".,.. c;um:D1, ..... udio curreat 011 the .. cady cLe. cum:at.

The Del rW5I--= dlbe carbon .mules iI Ii"". by Eq. z's.

, .. Ro +6. (25)
, .. Net ruilt. "oc i" ohms..
Ru .. Steady reaisllI\oCe in oh.... fer 110 iCIIlId
6. - Variatiolt. d rcaiataocc due to IOUIId pressure
(It will hoe pDlitM IIlItoCU IS DCPh"" ftIuc)

Tbe<kw~ , . '. ,It u"',gr V aa-oul Do:! .e = ....... Ro.ia illulrMed ill rog. 2.14.

..
• , '.
1
,
I
"-,1.14 "".,'_ ' . , _ ..... _ . . . .,.' _
If E;' ~uery voIt~e and Rl. ;' Ihe load ruistancc, R.., + R,. i. represented
by R, IIlW.I the R~dy currenl '. iI equal 10 E/Ro, lhen lbe <:II/'TCnl I in R,. wiU
be given by Eq. 2.6.
1_ E _E( I+ 2..!)-'
R +dr R R

nus cbnagc in current, and hener: "hang<: in ...... hage I ..... Ihe load i,
Pl"Oportio<W to the chaag<: in ,e,im..,.,. of carbon granules.

C.... noctcristks of. carbon mk:rophoM

SoIlStUYil1' Very hig/I. The output of. carbon mlc:ropbone ;. about :21) de
below I V (i.e. about 100 mV).
Slpl 10 1101..... Un: Poor. Random variation of resistance of arbon
uanulC! g<:oerl les a roo\in1lO\l$ hiss..
)'nqve1lCY ra_ .... Carboa microphones hayc a frtquer>ey ""'1"'_ of2OO to
S(Xll . 17.. IIlW.Ilberefon: arc WI.citabie for hi&h fidelity work. The re5OIIl1IOe
peak is 01 2000 Hz IUId overall frtq=><:y bMldwidth isl1'Ually up to S Uk

DlstonJoo: Higb. 1bI: rootc'" is rid! in barmoni<:$ link" varial"", in

ruistancc (6.) m.ado: is • very IJIlall percenlage of steady resistaoce Ro.
Distortion is oflhe ordo:. of 10%. Also, carbon IVanul.. h."" I tendenC)' to
Slid: to "ach other which further illen:asu tbe distortion.
Dlrt<:tlvI'T- A carbon mkrophorw: iI.uh$tilllliaUy omnidi.«:tio:xtal. However,
bigb freq""lIC)' rupmue 0YellOO Hz falb beyond an angle of 40" from the
fronl of the microphone.
Output I..JWdaDtt: 11 is about ]00 C.
OtMrfulurn
• 11 iI m.,.,han;"aUy very rigid.
• It is prone 10 moisI ure and beat.
• II iI $I!t.Ill in dimc:Mioo.....
• Cost or tbe microphone iI tbe lowest of aU other mlcrophooc:.&.
",pplkalioos
Du.e to limited freqllCIIC)' .lIDge, it is "",fill only in Iclcphooc:s. II io abo
sometimes used in portable radio eommunkalion sel$.
 ),I~39

2..9 Comparison ofVa ri ouJ Types ofMitrophonn

PUamc:lcn .... differelll micropho""" ba"" bcea compared in Table 2. 1.

Tablo 1.1 Coonpar;.. "'III;.. oFI ••

,
1.IO Special Microphones

LaVIIlkr IIIkTophoH
A......u Iramducer IwpeD<led 011 ~ chc.u by """..... or II chord around lhe
neck .. callesl LavaIicr .ruaopbooe. II is a small """UIs <:Oil ~, spcciaUy
deaisnW 10 work as Laval;". microphor>e. II Iw iu applicabilily wherc
mobilily is D«("ury, for e.>:ampk, for a ledurer.

TkH:lip rakTopbollf
II is an Elcctrellypc liay micr~ whlcb aD be clipped"" 10 a ' ie, lapel
or ;myothe. """",ruenl part of ~ clothiDg. An a1er,w amplif... mad. "" a
liay chip of ,~icoo is ...w iNide the microphone. E ¥CD with t;ny amplirICr
and its cc:1I, iI .. very liglu.

Rlldlu ( wlrfleu) lII k:ropbollf

II \ISoCI • ...,aU frcq ... ncy modlllaled VHF 1r. "",,;\ler of low power (I few
milliwalll) . Cable from amp~r1C' 10 mi<ropllon.e is IlOl !>Ceded. The signal ..
rt«:i,-ed by a VHF rccc:iver placed at •• uilable distance, !bell amplif"cd .nd
fed 10 lbe 10Ild'pel\::CH.. II .. useful ia lpons for QAth taki"3 ceremony.

Nul .... rR"",mq IIIkropboae

III this typc of microphone t'lllO rna\clu:d. Iransducing ckm.:n!& arc II$Cd.
n.e..e are mo\III\cd • fe w ccnlimclrCS apart ia lhe microphooe housing and
are COIl4CCIed Iogetbc:. ia !be oppos.iIe phase. Sound ...·bid! orisinale.< 50 <m
(or more) away fr(l1ll IIw: mi.cropbooe will actuate ~b Ir"""'Ott.. equaUy.
The OUlput l:>cifI3 ia opp<:&ile phA$e will C"' ......l. Sound. "hkb originate "';lhiD
• few centimetres will affect lhe ncarer de"""nt more and her>ee the lwo
OIlIpull will be unequal, and 10 will oot completely caI>CC1 each other,
resulling ill oignal Olllplil. The speaker Iw 10 USC the micr~ "'ry c:kw;:
10 hi$ lips.. SuclI microphoDe.< arc luilable: for U$C;n noisy cnvironmcnll like
oporU meet, etc.

Summary
Mkroplo.... ;,. • Iramd""", whi<:b ""...... ru IOUnd 1"== variationo iato
electrical signab. of the ....... f.eque..cy and phase Ind of amplitude.< in lbe
... me po""", tion as in Oficinal prcs.sure variation<. A good m;otopllonc
Mould have bigh ",... i!i';ty, high signal 10 noise ratio, IIat fteq ..."" '''PO''"''
for .I>diblc beqUCl>ciu, low ru.tortion, ","leJUne im("'dance """ direaivily as
per .equit~Dl.

,
 M~4 1

Mm'lnKcoil mkropho... : Wbcn ""un..J p,,,,,,,o,e "",ialions """" a coil placed

in a magnclk lick!, m""",eic flux through lhe coil dLiIngc.s. This in..Juc« e.m.f.
~Cf'''' ehe cQiL Iu sen!il;";ly is ~ dB bel"", 1 V. signal 10 noise: <alio of 30 ..JB.
frequency '''''JIOII.'C
60 liz !o fO)Il H" di".nrtion loss Ihan S%, di.ecti,,!y
omni·..Ji,eClional but depend~n! on frequency and impedance 3(jQ, It il; mos t
wl/kly uoed in P.A. 'j'SIem and b.oadc.ul.
Ribbon m~: It 11SC< a ligh! ,ibboJ<o ,,r aluminium in place ofhe.'ycoil.
D.iving forcc i. equal 10 differen« of [l'e""ur<: on tl'l"() side> , He""", i! K
called pross"re gradient micropllOnC. E,M,F. is [1fol',,"ional h.. !he race ()f
change of ,,,I()Ci!y and hence ie ;" al"" called '" , ,, I<>city mic.ophone.
0 "1' 10 [ighl weighl of r ibbon, high f.equency . esponse is exce llent and is or
t<> 12((Xl Hl.. li S dirceli';ly is bi ·di'Celional 'IT fJgUfC of e ight (8). [IS
impedance: is 100M Ihan 1 11 ""lh()U! Iransf()fmer and hence matching
t.ansformer is eW' nl ially .equired. It h .. a sens itivity oS 110 dB below 1 V.
signal 10 n,rise .ati<> ()f SO dB. In commnal ion uilh omn;·di.celi()nal
micr""honc, il gi'''-' ca.dioid pa\le,n ()f dircC!;"ly, liS main applicalion i. in
dramas ond $Iudios.
CI1~taol mit;roploon ~, h UWll on the principle of piew-eleC!ric effcC!. When
a ce<amK: e<)"'tal is .ubjected !o meeha ni""l I"c" u'e. e .m.r. is goTl<:tatcd
"crO$.S op[lfl$ite f&rei ,

I....,:rl<ili\ily i< ]{, dB be:1ow I V. >igll.id 10 n~ . 3100 of 40 <lb, ["''IOU"\,,

rc.sponse 100 to lOlO H,. di>lortiOfl low, dircai"';!y omni·diTOClional and
imJlCdantt 1 Mil. It is USC<I iII borne recordiIlg s)'Slcmo and in communicalion
..,l<.

C"nd~a ""r micro ph ..... , II, "",.king is based on the prinei""" thai V - OJC.
Wbcn C chang:c$ dill' 10 5O.lU nd p<= urc "",ialions on the mOV"dblc plat e of a
""pae~'''', V a1", change.<, Hence, il give, OU!p<ll vollogo co.n::'flonding 10
change o[ capa<itance ond henre, chango in pr .... u.e ,,,.ialions.
It has lbe: be:M frequency . c.o;ponsc (40 H, to 15 kH/). 40 dB r.ignal 10 noise
ratio. low diM"",,,". I(j() Mil impcdane<;. It, «:n, iti"';!y is ""I')' low and hence,
an amplit",. is in-btl ill ",'!lien gi""" an outpul of SO db bel..... t "ule. Dirccti';1y
p.o.llern " omnidi.ectional. II is w;cd OS .. anda.d for calihralil)ns and al"" in
pI'()f",,,,ional high qualily reco.di,,!!, 115 main di.. dvlOntagc is !hal it needs d,c.
volt"", ()f aboul 200 volts 10 eha,!!e Ihc capacilo.,

A_he. "" ... il)n of conden"". microphone is H '''I'''1 Mkrophnn., ....hieh ha,
in·huHI eh~'gc and her><:<:: doc. I>Ol need en ernal bauel')'. It$ charaC!clis liG
a.e l.imilar 10 Ihat of <. mden .. , micr""honc, It is u§cd in ~mal1 PA 'j'SIe m. as
in club&. II is also u5<:d as Tie I;Jlp Mi(ropb"" •.

,
C.rbooo IIIIcrepb..... : WMn fir>e carbon gunule. ore enclosed in a etiC and
!tlbject~ 10 va. iation! ot preMU.C, 1M ,wo.lana: otlt..: granu1.,.. changeo.
When a lIIWl ballo.y is conllCCled in ..ric.< wilh lhe mic, op/>onc and load ,
the varying current th.ough tbe load &ives Ug:nal OIIlpul.
II has m. higbc:<l suWtivily (20 dB below 1 mil). Signal 10 ..we .01;" i, poor.
F."'Iuc""Y .espon .. ;. 200 10 SlXXl H~ only. Oio.lOflion ;. high. imJ>Cdan<x: ;.
about 100 n. Oi=1Mty pilUcrn ;. ornn;.u;n:c1ional. It is "-'Cd iII tclcphtKlC\o.

Questions
1. Expa.. ,I>< paramele .. 0fI _ quality of a mia<>P''''~ <li<pcn<ls. IJiw: III<
vaIua "'I""",, ....amele .. IOf """'"'g <Oil, ribl>on, ct)'IaI, conde"",. a nd cartlon
miaopl ........
1. F~ tl>< ....-ting principle "" """'"'& wil microphone ..ith the hell' of. no.al
y",,:lI. OM: typical values or .. poramtlUS and menllOn iu &ppIications.
1. Wrth lhe I><Ip of neat "'otell txpIain the principle 01 WI"kiong '" • riht>Oo
oru<n>p\"oIt. Why io it k.....ll .. ""*'>ciIy mia<>P'lWC? EzpIa" the <Iin:tIjyjty
potte.n "t ribbOfI microphont and <Iiocu .. _ cardioid pattern can he 001_.
Ment'" ill ~pplications.
4. W~h til< ~ "t a neat ike,"", aplain ,I>< functiollinB of I <t)Olal miu""""""
G;.e . . lues of il. parame-t ... and .. ,.......tions. I;';J:pIoin .. Ity <lCnIrrUc ct)'Iai io
" " " ... itabIe lhan """""~ uK ayoIat
S. ,-,pain tl>< ""lfUIB ", I c<l<Idcnou mOcpl>anc ";lh the 1><11' of a neal diavam,
Wbat .. it. main """"""'tall" and how is it climwuod t". clt<:tm mtCn""",,,
Draw~. f""luer><)' rarome ""'" and mention jill O",*""lions.
6. l)eocribe 'be """""""... '" a ... bon mi<:rophoo .. ,.f[h ttl< help of ....31 rigu..,.
0 .... iupanmt"'" and app6atiano
7, Write""," ...... !III the IoIk";"g
(I )UviI'" mia<>P' .....
(2) Tk clip~ ...
(3) Wifc_mX> ' ...... '"
(4) Noi:se <atK>CUinB mkI'lJllOo ..
a

-
canpan: ttl< ptll"3Il"oOIC" of mLWing <Oil, ribbon, <t)'Iolal, conde""" 000 "" bon

Objective type questions

1. ( I kl·ll, 4 HI .. ttHIII, 211 kll~)
JUn", ", .I>llio f""lueney is 16 II< 10
2. '" IOO'I'in! 0:>1 m~ """' "" the principic of _ (e .m. indl>Clion, """""
at1ion, ampliroor, "",11:0<',,)
3. In 1'-4*. n...op....,iolikc"_ (d)namo, >OOI<lf)
~. Tho: "",,.1< widtly wed mictophonc 10 (""'""'& roil, ribbon. ayoIal,
a.D,,,..,,. e_rd, <:II"""')
 · M~43

~. llIe .. alc .... nl II»' the m<lU<>."tl "'~Iall" In • ",,,..iIll cuil "'i<rtJphun< iIII • Illi (D, I
and i 11:>\" """,I ..... nin!?) iIII _ (IrUc. lahe)
6. All rru<TqlI"IC .... <-""pi _ a", "",,",,,'" microphones (1lXIVinJI <:Oil • • ibN.,.
nywl"'.,d,".............. .,)
7. High f""l""1I<)' n:>p(lII'C of ribN., m,cmp"""c is lban nKI'Iing ",., I'IJ'C
due .0 ""'" _ 0( lhe """,,1:>10 port (won<. heuer. oomphan<e. """"'. ftic1ioo)
8. m"lop ' ' ' ' ;,. catlod ~Y m""" ..... ., ( M<>VinS roil. Ribl:oJn. Cl)"laI,
CorxIo ........ QlrtIon).
9. P, ..... ,. """",,01 1)'pO micrnpIlonc is rnicmphone (!I'IINinK roil. <ibN., •
..,...aI. _ ..... r. catron).
10. n..... <ljO>I"d.,·. dim:tMIy poIiern is hi-dir<:ct ....1'" lIgu,," of eiPo' ( M"'""8
<oil Ribbon. CryUaI. Condemer. Clrbon).
11. Ilibbon mi<roplxlne is more ",~ablo for <Itamas II»" IUl)' Oilier mitropIIooe
becJ"", "I ita 1:Ii-dim:tiooal pollern.llIe "."menl iIII (I",e, folK)
12. Impo<lan<e of I ibbAl mi<ropIIone 10 lhe 0( a n "*"opII<-..a IIn<l is _ _
(l.owc>I, IliJVoe>l, Ieio titan I a. 100 0, l000D,! Mil, )
13. "rni=lpIIunr: ~ "" pi-",rlcetril: dket . <2lIed _ mia ul'''nllc (IIIIMIlg
mil. ribbon, ..,... ....... ok"",,,,_)
14. Roellelk Sa~ 01)0I&I iIII noIused in otySIal miuoplOlleS becJu", il is st»ttplil:lle 10
and canDOI ";,mu.r>CI (IIiJh ,.m!"'!';"u,,". "",""un:. pi ....."")
1~. 1bc: crystal iIII lbe: bosI lox crystal miaopkA>OS, becJu", it lias !>igh
pkroek:<:lric erft<:l and iIII "'" "'''''plihit 10 rno<Itu", (q..... ,,~ <tramie:,
lOIIl11\1>linc, ~I)
16. Impedance 0( {be:..,...aI ."...... """.0_., .. aboo{ _ M u . (. L. I. 10. 1(0).
17. micrq>l><Jnc: IIaa lhe bosI ffalUenc:y raponoc """ "'" II'Ir: """"
( M<MnACOil. Ribbon •..,...&I, CorxIo ....... carbon)
18. 1Il;;'VJh>r" twa lbe: hIlill in "",~f\e. (Mavin, n,;l Riblur. Oyst.'.
C"I'I "'. earbon)
19. 1bc: rr..... op ....... ..1i<:tI need memaL d.e. "'PM ..... _ anO _ (moving
<OiL, ribbon, cryst&l, _ ....... carbon)
20. Ctooo"",, rr,;;'op... " """"" does DOl "'"' mernal d.c. """"" is callo<l ___
mir;ropt1uno (cal""'or. tie<l"" , crystal, carbon)

22.
-,
21. Micruphon<: u&cd in Idcphonca ill _ miu.....
"'_ ••• (e""'ret, <:r}.... ,.

m... op ..... ".,. u.. hi",... oensjlMty "'" u.. ,........ f""l""nc:y range
""bon.

(FJedret, CJ)'>Ia1, Clrbon, M".;nS Ceil)

21.
c._,miaoplJooe bid Ilw: biJVoe>l impe<1anee (meM0i <OiL, oondo,...,-. crysW.

2.. Frequency raponoe of I mictup/>one is de{ermil>ed Ilr """ ___ of II'Ir:

meMnB ...... mllL)' (maos. oomptiln<:c, PI lIn:, tempera'ure).

N UIMrkal q uesliull§
L StmitMl)" of I rr,ia rlJA ...... is 80 dB below 1 >Ull for ..... oo 1""""'" ufOo I "PI.
r iOO wI ill ""tPl" in micrQ<,u!11 (100 I' V)
-
2- I'rQu"""i linear r"'ali<m/>;p, cal<ula •• "'nsiliYiIy <If <he abOve mien'phone ro, 1
I'a Jlf<1OUf<_ (1 mV)
3. 'n.. ,"'lpul or direct;... f1oiuop.'>ono ill , .... bc.1I ~i=lioo is I mY, .."hen .he
00fIIIi,,,,,,,
''''lpu'o( an ......,; ... """'imal mia'opllono pIi><W un<ler Klcntieal ";Ih
~ 10 IIOUrte is ''''I)' 100 I'V. (".<l1eu1a10 III< <lircCl;""y of the dl~"'"
miaOjli ...... , (20d U)
C. 1\ miuopt..... pIIIcI:<I al H) m<:1m; from a oou= ..."'icIo is radial;n, 1 ""II. si'-n
m;";m"m ""'pOll. WlIon <Iiroclioo 0( micropllone ;, cII.ln~ bj' '1(/', 1110 P"""" or
,he IIOUrte ..... to be j~ '0 10 .."II '0 gel .be """" ""'PO' fn"" ,h.
mkrophone. Cllwlat. mkrophone'. directivity in d ll in (~imum dircC1ion v.ilh
'"P"'" to 9(f [rom IIx: optimum. ( + 10 an)
S. RW$lana: of "",boo mi<rophon<: changes by so D by ,lie incklcnl .... oo ".,.",.
DC ~ Ilr tbe mkrophone and k)8d art 150 D ~1I<l 10,000 U. • ...",.,.M:Iy.
1la1l01)' _age ;. I voU. O>l<ulate I"'"~ to I"'a~ .u<lin ou'PU' in milli "'~'" ('>.7
mV)

'I' ate
 3
LOUDSPEAKERS

3. 1 Cha racteristics of Loudspt'akel'5

l<>ulhpe~ k" r is a l, an.<dlltt' .... hich «'m,>I.
decl.""'1 .ignal. of .!>diu
freq u<:ney into sound ""'''''' of the ",me frequency.

A Ioud.peaker', performance is dete rmined by the foll .....;"g charaCIcr;M;cs:

1. Emde ncy. H is ddincd as uti<) of output sound power to the inJRII audio
(doori".1 f'<""<' j. U. ",.lue depend, on Jlfoper matching of the
mechanical impedance: with ~cou",i""l impedance of [hI: air ..>lu me heing
dj",urbcd ([""ead of efficiency .",nc nuonufacturCr$ qllOlc the efficiency
in term> of o.eIWlivily ,,'h;ch is defined [0 be I"" in!",! ,ipo l req uired to
gi", M>lind prc",;u,c Ie",,[ of 0.1 Pa or 1 mie.oIlar at a distane<: of 1 melre
r"'m the luu<i>pcakc. ).
2. Noi .~: The unwanted ,""und. nOi contained;" the inp<u $ignal hm "",,,,,nt
in the output of loudspeaker is called Mise. (Tbe mechanical part. may
,ibratc at some ,,,,,,",,,,I f.cque""Y. causing ooi",,). Whot i. morc
impmlan( is ";gnal to noise .alio (SiN) whicb is defined a •• alio of 'Signal
out[l<lt' ' 0 the '( )ulput of noi!oe in (be .~I>CC or signal' ,
.1. .·..-qu~n<1 ""ponH: h indicates Iournpeaker'. re,port><: rOT lhe " udihlc
f.equency . ange of >mind , Ideally, .esporue of a Ioorn""". c. <h""ld be:
nal "it kin :!: 1 dB fo< the freq""n~ range: " I 16 H~ 10 20 k/b. H_cvc.,
due 10 mass of the diaphragm a"",mbly, high freql>Cncics arc allen OJted,
and dl>C 10 >c ries compliance low frequencies are "l(enuatcd. Mo",,,,,,,.,
Ihc ""-,,,able .)'Ste m may h."" ",me natu,al ,.",nant f •• q""n~ "'il hi" Ihc
audible ranse and lhe OUlput al th is freqU<.n~ will be unn~lily
emp!las;,cd.
4. [)i .(nrlion: Any cha nge in the freql>Cl><'Y, p!uos<; and amplilude
eompll!xio" of lhe outp<ll ..... nd .. COIIII"'.ed to Ihe inpul audio , igna! is
eall.<i distortion. F.equct>CY and pha.e dis{llI'Iion, may ' esult due (0 mas.!
iUI<i curnpliaocc effed., Non_ linea' distortion will result do" 10
nnn_uniformity in tl>o: m~nct;': field in wh;':h Ihc coil mO\leS.
5. Dirn1i"ity: Ralio of Ielual w und intcn<ity.t "point in Ihc di.oel;,," of
maximum imcn,ily to Ihc sound inten;ity that WQYld h"", IJc<:n ""ail ahle
Ihcre. had lhe loud'peake. been omnidirect ional.
 ror which it is designed. Power ""'"' than lhe
power (indiC<liw in walU)
mujmU!lI will dam. the s!Xu.,.
1. Lmpr~: The ;"pIII ImpM'nee of the Ioudopc:U.tr .. "'preocnlw ;.,
ohms and is Ad u"por1an1 par..".lcr, III its ""'Iching wilh the Impcd.",.,.
of!lOW"« amplif= is ae ..... ry.

For iastallalims, reqlliriDH km& loads, a filed line veil. is 'P""if...o ror !be
i)'It=. It is 100 'odt in Indio (ill ¥Ok in USA). It meaas lhailbc ampli6cr at
the peak OOIru power will 8M 100 '<lit 10 the lo"d'pcakcr Iinc !"O!! ....... ed ro
iI. Impcdaaoc eX !be loudspeaker is kIw , aad !bercfore \be IiDc voIt~ is
reduced by ';"11 step .so..... transformer ti the loudspeaker end. This
-moo reducc.s 10M eX p<JWU in kq leads. ImpW"""" R ohm eX !be
am!iifoc:r,!P>iaspeak outPUI~eX P _tt ca.nbe calculated by Eq. 1.1.

,
R .. 100)( 100
(3.1)

Example3.!
F'md!he ' csWmtt ohhe ...,p~r"" if2!i w oulput powoc. gnu 100 V or! !he
ioudsPCHor Iiae. Whal will be Il>c: pc... nl .eduaion at 10M in line if the ~""
, coisIAdce is 1 0, and the Iou<kI"'HCr "";,,.nce is 16 O.

R _ 1(0)(100

"
I...0oI in I 0 ~"" in 100 V .)'Item .. O.06W

L.o:v. in 1 0 line whc:n400 0 10 160

matchin& transformer is II5Cd ti Ibe
amplif'.. r cnd _ I' )( 1 _ P~rlR ." _ 1.56 W

Per ceDI .edlKrion in Joy •

"
1.56 - 0.06
OJ,
.....
Example 3.1
CrJcuIatc thc efficiency eX loudspeaker if powoc. ;nle"';ly of lOund ..
0.08 W/ml al I metre discanee rrOD! tbe Ioudspeak.r, wilen the ...,plir..,
de~veri 15 wan.
P.". _ 0.08 (where P is Ibc acol1$llc powoc. given by the 10udsl"'ake.)
••
As . _ 1 11l, P _ 01l8)(4.>r _ IW

He""". _ ..!.. )(100 _4%

"
 J '" ' , •• " . ,
•

3,2 Moving Coil Colle Type Loudspeaker

PrlDdple

The moYinll coiIlouwpc:ucT worka on the priDciple of interaction between

magnetic r",ld and tuncnt mlhe WIle way as ... I.:c.. motOO' worka,
A c:oil, .,ued voice roi~ is placed in a uniform magnetie field When audio
= t pe.$$C$ tbrougb the YDia c:oi1, theu is an ialeroaim bc:t en the
mognetir field and !he CIlI'1'e8l, "",ukmg in a fora: working !XI !he movable IXliL
TbiB fora: is proponioDal to!he audio curren! aDd ....... eawes \'ilnIory......;o.
(mO\(lf like a.ctioa) in !he c:oil, ..nicb mauo a ..... ica! Jl"PCr diapluagm to vibrate
and prod!JCC pressure varia.\io:I$ in air, re" '~i"l! in $OlIlld w.na,
r ora: on the coil due to intctaction belWeelllhe CUl'fCJlI tbrOllgb co~ alld Ihe
magnetic r",ld is given by Eqs, 3,2 and 3.3

F • Bli.ma (3,2)

""'re ,,
F •
•
rOfa: in newton, B _F1I1l11Icn&i1yin
Length of the coil....m in metre
"d,
• Current in a.mpc:re
• • Angk betwun the"';l and the rleld
Normally, a • <f, ,.,...., P _ B~
(3.3)
When motion of the coil is omoll,;1 will remain within the region of uniform
flux density, Th"", fOO' r.m.alI motion of the coil, tbe output is liDc:ar.

(When coil II>O't'CS in the magnetic rlcld, Ncl: e.mJ'. is produced due to
or
clcdrOlDagntlic ir>d1lCtioD. This makes III(I(ion the coil ilClOdy).

eo....truction
CoaslructiOIl '" a CODe type lIIO'Iing coil LouWpc:uer is obown in Hg. 3,1
The moving coiIloudspc'''''' coDloim or a """"" coil (single boycr "';n<ti"8 o f fioc
"".melled wire), .....,..,..j 01:1 a cardboard 00' fibre cyliodc:r. Audio current is fed 10
it tbroogh IWO tcrminak Tho coil is pi"""" in a ......ir roeLd.
The mag ..... is a pat type pcnII&DCDt magnet ..nicb hal; • ~ pole (South
pole) aDd a peripheral 1>'* (NMJ> 1>'*), The map::1 ;. made '" higb grade
magactic ttI3I.eria~ like alnico (comp?"~ion '" .loico is a1wninl"", 10%, nicid
IS%, cobaIl U%, wwer 6% and iron 54%) whicl> .... al ... the magnrti ....
r.wemely "",,0. Tho magnet ;. "" obapcd 1& 10 give WOPJ ladial m.gn=:it ficld in
the """ular .pace bc:tIro.:en the ceotral aad pc:ripberal".,.. .. The W>ia: coil is Cree
... AucIjoA _ " " II...... 5):11_

- / - - PO.,... <0IIt

to move in tbe ......Illar ipIICC' IIavinc S\l'OIIIi aJId lUlil'orm. m.apelic r",1d,
Bccausc r:J. tbc ...., r:J. perm ..... m mlgncl, iI is also calkd 'permueDl ~
type .pedcr'.
The coil is allached 10 • COIIic&l diaphragm, IIlIdc r:J. paper Of puc:bm:<lII. II is
C· 11ed 'Pa;Jel' CoDe'. The cone is corrugated hmna; circular ~ A
fIcziblc otrip r:J. rubber round its periphery is uscd 10 IlIppon it. The spKlcr
sprin&!! arc uscd 10 IIIppon me oomplctc diapbngm aJId ako proW;\e lhe
rcqWred stiff.... " 10 1'CIIrw. tbc molioD. The IpKIc ... also keep the ceil
eealcrod, 5(1 1Iw tbc COOC IIIO¥CI forward aJId backward only.
Leads from the voioc coil arc c:cmcated 10 tbc <:ODe lurf_From thcr~ tbcK
~ bron"" 10 the Iwnin·tllllOllftled 011 tbc mctal rr.- or b'S\cI.

Whu audio CW'1'CaI flows thmuP tbc voice coil placed ilia magKli:c foeld, •
rarc:c cqll&110 Bli _011 ICU 011 the coil aJId II>OYCS it 10 ud fro. The paper
cooc .lIvhcd 10 tbc coil also II>OYCS aIId callKa oompreuioa ar>d rartllK:lion
cyclco in tbc air. Thus.udio ClllTe1I1 is rmally cotrYttIcd mlOIO\lftd waYC.I. The
cquivalclll circuil: r:J. the cooc lpeaqr is """"" in Fig. 3.2.
'There ~ two lr....ronD.lions: 0.... is dct:lrom«hnical and the other is
 ", , ..... ..,
'· 1~ '.
r---:'•" .... ...
" •

- -, SOl tc

, •
,..12 Ilqol "·,_of,.. __ I e'"

100ibCr T .. truolcnlonx: (prod1loC1Od bydlelOVl'ClC CIIlnIIIIa. ....... • ....... L.

o{the voice coil ud the Me ) i.etcd, .'N'C R.) to die IIIOnbIe nw=h'Dic;al
puu(YOCoaiI, diapbrapi,lpi 8' ud~). M-._pli....... ud fr:ctioa
0{ tlre "';"1 pIN illep Een'cd by ' - C. aDd R., w' kh are .ft'. . . ". to
iodnd'DV . 'Ff ' MUM aDd , ' "N'C. ' ' ""iw::ly, Tao =E' h , _ _ tirai
......tei. "'p' Icd tor t& II·· T. truolcn _ _ (forward aad beet,
ward oibnt:ir;.. cltlle~) 10 tile air, _ _ ..... I. "'" i l I - . _pli ........
aDd " .( i«y (=.~. I 10 ...."', ' ' ( . esp' ~I'm ud ,eaioI.....,), KlI M
kMd ud iI rep ,.cd by a...Allow alldio &eq .... -;'I. L.. iI DCJlisjbk and
the output dqJc ..... oa die . ....1";.""". c..
AI hicl& andio &cq'''''''; E' . iI c..
"a'iP* aDd the OIIlpul dcpclldl Oil L... So the hiP &equenq &puken
( _len) ..... dlow - . ud the low frequenq ep;"un (wooCen) are 0{
bigh _pll . ....... (larF=). l)picII rreqlltllCY rapor Ie o{. 20 !;IiI Jiw1 cone
typo Ioudopealcr iI ,. : - ill Ye- 3.3.

Why eoae type Ipeeker b bow:. All dlnd ratUlill., type!

'l1Ie wtde pII"'" ill a;IK type foodsp".k ... IICU • • dilj"",- ud ....m ..
p' :un nriM* , ....... ill die ..!Ie........ &rea. Hence if: iI rolled ·dD .....
nctiMq type bw'sp-'ker.

"i""
.•,. r--~
.~

.,. "':"'_,"oo-·",,~_...
"'~~=- 2000 4(lOO SOOO
lOOO H. :::;.;::;:;;_
,~ ~
... u , ,_d . JG<LI""""'·
' Lq~,." ...
•• " " ..

I
ClIantc'kristiai of tlIe oo~type speaku
EftIcieaQ: The efflCicllCJ' of • ron<: speaker is quite low, ,bout S ]Xl ccnt
""Iy. The poor dfocien<;y is due to the flotl that it acti as a dired radiator,
and "" there is complete ml,m'lch betwun the low aooustic: load
prCKntcd by tbe: large ¥Ill""", of aU ad the hi«h ",eCbanical load
prCKntcd by lhe voice coil and eooe assembly.
SlpJl lo 'lOile notlo: It is 30 dB or bette •.
FrequcIOC3' rapINIH: II is . CSlrictcd to mi.d frequc:Dciu ooIy. Frequeocy
rupotIX drop!. at low and lIigh ludio frequeodes for Iypi.cal
looo.peaker. HOWC"o'Cf, mauivc loudspeaker (called .........er) for low
frequcnci.ci and ""alllizc i peaker {....dled tweeter} for high frequeocies
Call be dc'ignrd F.equc:ncy . e""""", of. typical ipeaker io 200 Hz 10
!iOOJ H>;. Low fre'l""""Y woofer opcakc.. witb hUllca wiU give f. eql>Cn<;y
response lip to 40 Hz. High £rcqUCJ>C)' lweet .." extend tbe: fteqllC>\C)'
respoo'e 10 10 kHz or ~o higher.
DbtortlOll: Non·liJw:ar distortion due 10 _·W1iformity '" the mlgJlCtic
nlD" dcMity CI\ISeS severe dUtortlon up 10.bout 10%.
DUectlollJ': B"icilly the hod'pe ' ker is oami·directioo.>l. BUI baIlIcs and
.ncloolll"cs modify Ibe directmty so that moot of lhe power is in the fron\.
H""",,ver, high all(\;o freqUCDcies are ron«ntratcd '" • nan""" CODe
.bout the uii of the radiator.
1m", 'oil«: The effective i.ftIpcdoncc tlkina into J(:COunI the m«hanltaI
and aoo!,sJ;col loads varies f.om 2 0 10 3Z 0 .. The common impc-
danc:a in comme. cial "!'Cake.. arc 4, 8 or 16 0 . (200 10 ](Xl 0 impc-
d"""". arc obtained in clCdIodY"°mie type (:OfH! .peo1:e.).
FOlIa" b... dll,. a ptldty: Power range: of speuen ~es between • rew
milli...lIl1O (for 2 ClIO speaker) to about 2'i wan for large: &izc Jpeo1:erL
(Elearod)"lWDi<: . peake .. am witN.tand a few h""dred _III of input
"""".).
3.3 Ele<:trodynamle Loudspeaker
To provkle vel}' $U0Gg magnetic r..k! for high _111# speakers, electro-
magoct is uw:I ilwead of perm.aneot m'gncl. The """'kioJi principle 01 an
cJc<,trodynamic opcaker is the ........ tbal of permanent magnet type. It.
cooWruction is ahown in FJg. 3.4.
1 ""dspeakc •• of more l h"" 2'i wall and up to a f..... hundred ""'1<1 are of
electrod)'Jlamie Iype.

The wong and $Icad~ magnetic field is prodllCed by a large r.. ld eoi.I
wrapped around _ core. The ,bape of lhe magnet i< poIlype with south pote
 1 00 ' ; , . ... 51

I'ro! ..... i"" con<

offramo "d,..k.. S"I'P""i:ng 'l"ing

.,..., 1-4 l'lea"idJ k ", ' ; ....

ill !.he centre"'" North pole ill the pcripllery. The 'peri'];.hape of the core
.uows rnapetie nil>' to remain ~aled ill the ..... uLar pp between pole

""""
The yoke coil is 1II<>IIlId oa fibre or alnminilUlJ (to keep it Ii&bt weight). II is
placed ill lbe ..... uLar pp. Thc .udio .....: I'TOOII the .... pli6er'1 OIItplll
1f..w0l1ll:U if. applied to IlK voice coil. This sign,1 CII· ... a ¥V)'ia& m'gnetic:
foeld. The re.ult .... mtc,.....jM b(tweeu the two mlptic IieId& (<me due 10
electromognr\ UK! tloe other due 10 audio Cll./TeQ\ ill the voice coil) prOOIlCU
mechanic:al vibrations (lDOIor .aioa) iIIlbe coil ,",cmbly, whiclt corrcspond
10 the audio !ip·ls.

The vibratioos of the coil arc Ifansmitted 10 the attlthed roDe which cmote
iOUnd wave. in lhe air in li$teaen' area, eel hcDOC radioie oound energy
dlrealy.

Ad ..... tacn: ad db. ly.... S= oI'dedrodJU-'" .peabr

... ~-
I. Higher """",. caD be~.
2. FrequcllC)' ,u P""1e if. betic.,
rnsMd"Mnlllgn
I. P~r ,uWly is nceded for fick! coil.
2. Heav>c r in weight fo r the same "m"unt of m.gndic f,eld.
3. Col.l li" •.

3.4 1I 0rn TylK' Loud ~ peak{'r

I'rinciplf
A horn typc Ioodspca kc. ""'. a m<n;nS coil placed in a maSnelic field
(simi la, 10 !"Iper cone Iype), bUI in>!cad of .,..l ialins acouSlie !""'"t. di rectly
in ope" SpIO<" of li"cn~ ..' . ru, Ihe 1"""" i, fi,.,,1 dcli\"t. ed I" Ihe air trapped
in rued non·';!)raling laPl"'rcd or Oared hmn, al\tl f, om there to the air in the
li"eoen;' arca . Thu .. it ,adiates """"d powe. to Ihe air in .• pace hOi direclly
from the diaph'agm bUI in<ii'''''tly th",ugh lbe horn . Tht . I. 110.... as.... "j,y
M
..
110, hom I)'.... I.... d' pr""". I..... 1I.d ' di.....·1 lI~di"tlng LnudS.....~"".M. Th,
loom 0.1".. .cOlOSl in ll,. ,, 1'"1 II,. co',,. 0.1 ,,,,, n,,,,,hunlo.lly. The harn &<t •• ~ an
":o""i, 'ransf",m.r. Thi• •110\0, /)cHer impedance. match be,"""en low
impedance of Ihe free ai, and the high impedance of Inc vibraling ,,,ice coil
a<htmbly. Th •• r,,>ult. in ;ncr~"",d dHdcncy. T he effociency of a horn I )l'"
.peake. i. 3(1.5(1<... "" again>! only S% dlicicng "r cone lyre Ipco ke•.

Cons lrue lion

The horn is a I. ppe rcd enc!osure who." diamele. incrus<:. f'om a . maU
va lue 01 one end (called 'THROAr) 10 a large , .. Iue at lhe othc . end, «(ailed
.MOUTH'). There is an air cloamber Irapped belwccn IhrOOI and Jiaphrapa
The chamber ;'I;nod wilh «lund al!w.rbing m.leriallike lorn.c felt. The d.i,·e.

; i)i>phrwn

.--0 ,
lini' V- n-
unil is ,imi"', It, dinx:l ,a<!i".ing I)TC ""-"pi Ib..i Ihc f"iI'W" alOe;" mt I""'<nI. A
h;,."" h".n (calcd OXJl"f'o"nlia1 h"rn) I)TC 'I"'<'''''r ;,. ~ ...n in FIg.:U.
The c.",,,,,,nl;'J I>..., n i, • 'I,aighr circular lube ",",,<>,"e Cr.-.<$ '<Celion.1 a'c "
;nc,c."" I"sa,ilhmically .Iong iu lenglh from 1i>C Ih"'.l """..rru.

The ],."n ""I, a. a high 1"'''' fille, . The cuI o rr frequcncy f, i, si"'" hy Etj. 3.4.

, ., A"
,
,C~·
2" V
(3.4)

C - Velocity uhound.
A _ Area of eros. ""'Iioo of Ih",.t
'M V _ Volume of air chamber trapped belwccn ,h",a, and
diaplr rogm
In terms of diameter oi the mouth, tl>e lowe.t frequency ...·hiell can be
reproduced by h.orn t)'pC . peaker is given by Sq. 3.5.

r,. 170 (3.5)

d
where, f _ freq""ncyin H ~
d _ diameter oilh. mourb in melre

At high freque"d" ... dislantU of different point, o n the diaphragm f",m the
I>orn will r>OI be equal, causing ph...., difference and !>o;r>cc result."r
cancellalion. To O'\'Uconle Ibi, difficulty, spccial chambers haw betn
developc:d .. iUow.aled iD F"IS- 3.6.

Fr,.. l.'
,--
Spc<"" <h. mb.. 'Q"""I"OU" 'Q, '-I.. r ..... O«o uf '"1''''''''''' d"ph"J'"

v ,
•
 --
_ 0

!-
1- _ 0

1- _ 0

- 0
- 0

... )., 110<0"".,.-, . ,

T o ' mprove low f«:qllC:IIC)' IUf>ODK'. ..., I>CCd born 01 L!o'gc.~. The
I"" borll lIlIIy be lIS bis as 2 m ud di._t<:. of 1M _~ I _Ire. Suo:lIlugc:
It""" of

<1im<:Mions for. hun aft """"';':k!y, IIId hence loon ....lIttwe is folded bKk
;,. iu d f 10 ronw:fYC ph)'Sical ' pa<c ( ..... f' e<!""1>CJ '-: POO " ;. impr"..,d br
",ide: mouth and high frequency ,="""" "" unalIlh.oatj.

A low r.tq..:-I'IC)' horn for H;·fi .)5Icm" shmo'II in "''8- 3.7. 11 oontain5 . cone
Ioud:!pcakcr IOiIh l hoom. TIM: froot rI the: woe f.aca away from tt.: audience, buI.
the c"" ...... .., 011"" WIIC and the "'poncfllillJ t.om Ire 50 placed that lbe output
;. d inxu:IlIO'WlU'<h the Iscr>cn. Such l t.om QQ be placed ia the ",..-..;, of a
roo", 10 ...., (he two .... 11< .. the Ulcnded sidu d , he .......

Cu.,..,t. ..b tkl or bono type spnoUt-

EtlkklOCJ' High,)I).~
....u. ...110: ..0 dB.
S .... l t •
•" "ZLSW)' _""" ... , »IIKO) H~ (A '-':1( . Il00. is ....,.. 10 imprO¥e the
frt'lIlCIOC)" ~ (""ber 10 20 kill ),
Ub IMtI....: low, leu 11wl 5%.
IMrwI"'" r. AngII: bctwccn IWf power poinu atOOIId tbe horn axis is Iiboul
\IIf. H(JOo\.~" the .Jirccti,iIy 01 horn type ( ... also '" c:oac 1)1ll') differs
<!OnWcubly f,om law au<io frcq""no;les \0 hish . lIdio fTCqIICnc:ico.
Radialion or high audio r~""""i<:< is concentrated in I narrow rune "bow
,"" w. of the hom. The WfMMly. freqllCnc)' ....-e. is .oown in F".g. 3.11.
(paUtm A is for 4(lli H,. B re. IQJ Hl MIld C roo- 41)) .'/).
rmpedto .....: I t. Ohrru..
 Po, .. Iuondll "IC fIOpacitY. '-"",ck IOOI'C lklon COr.c: typt. Abou( 100 W" ll .......
be caWy ..."<l(lIn()daled ill a horn type 'I"~kc. of fca.iblc .Vc.

3.5 Co mpari so n IK't ... et>n Cone Type and

Horn Type Speakers

I'riNipk <If ",<.<luring (n'<''''' ..... b<'''~..,n In,<"I'II<lioo bel ..... " I"",
drMn, fQr"" 'IOU ""'f."<,1t r....... IM"",.ic fltld<
(ml;O".....<I""') (motor ....."' )
I.igh' <!"pnrasm "f lignl d.. pnra"" of
aI\Im,",um ,,'hi<fl OS aluminlun •. No !,1pt' <flOl< .
Cl'Cn<lctl in ltlc (ll,m
of f"lp:' cone.
Tn""''' of mCC!Wlica, TtIc p,'",,' ""'. Mechanica! energy of
~"'r!)' ,n 1ft< 'J< In 'ft< <1,,,,,,'1)' . ",~fcrl. I, d.'pn",,,,, is tf"lI$krrffl '0
lioI .... n· a ... a in ,lie 'Orm 01 ;,., 'II<", lor•• c:lI!cd Itle Ihroa'lh""'g/1.m
acou!olic ..... ,gy (01 "",nd ) <1;""" r",fultng r""mbcr and ,""n III ,""
~p:~-.' . hom""" (IM!I)' 10 ,110 air.
or
M ...:IIlr1.K n>c<:hlInil>d No m;)I",""go f' is M 3I<IIing is 1Idl~ . Low
impcdaDOOof dlaphrn"" to .....,pk,. mi$m;llrn. impcdafICC of lreo air ;,
, .... OOOU!olic impedarxe IMlctted ";Ih hi",
impedofICC of diap'''''''''.
'"
56 ...-a VId.:oP .
"
,-
1" 011' "', ....,0. I'I:D, m
"'_-'h b
_SOOO liz. 0qccI, _ • • hiP ...
Iller ilIc an oft 6 I l' .. 7
I

Icooct rmqo u t
...." be. boo .. ]O Ii&.
_ tCd •• I.. b FI ... · ,0 I" .]0.
10000 liz.
~"
_511~ ... u.nS15
IIr<* <UIIfO.t.ou1 _ .....<L.,.""") .....
~
\lie ... 0( \lie
rwdiM<lr1 It iUIIOR
~rcrbIJb

p c o,, ~'op I, auocIo treq'''i>''I'I

_ I I lO.t.out
2S _ II. Elect....
2S_II _ _ UpIOO
kw _ _ lL

._- . .
d)1WDi; lJp<
...,." ~plO'
'*'
I ....

.."'"
t • ..,.

---... ~'.
21031Qb·....

oud '-'JIIO 2IXI Q lilt

, 'wJj I 04 '1P'
p Ei\ .

'....
~.

"'"
~'" \ora, 7V
'co hora, R.eaIrd
PII.'JOI"",'crIorF
_ .. 0" , M. . ;_;'.",

............
pII)tcn., C lie

3.6 BaIR" alld Eaelos\ll'Q

IlipI flaI. .... teriallllCd 10 m -ec! the "y_ of. 'otodoopc·kcc a.r.;' coIIc4
1;>.f!Ic'1 II jUb,v'ill .... 191

The. ICCIII \!efDe ;. ..............Iy IISCd fer • ploK ..mace.. A bafDc i.ausea the
clI~ Iac:t" of the KOO,ric'I IniD<1II 1 ' ion plitt. bet .. ""the froo>! aDd Ihe
bad<: of the todioter.
N«onlll)' tlo brJIIt: There .. oir oa botIIlideI of the COIle, \lie frQIII • ,.d as
\lie back. H _ the CODe ra"iatcslOll<id &om betb - . . Hcwcvu, \Io'hem the:
_ ".--.,. r... ,.<lid, thctc II """'1* riM of \lie air .. \lie frolll, but rord'action
M \lie t-ck. WhaI the <XIIIC ........ boekIo.........iij • ."I)Il .. \lie b.:t ud
 '00'1 ', .. 57

1"\1. J.J A __

rardadioll ill :.he frOM 00CIIr1.. ThIlS:be IOUIId ...._ produced m:be relf air
arc Or tIj)p06ite phuc (Le.. ph"c dilJereace if 18)" ... ' :;:,e EO lire ocmnd _
producaI ill lire froal). n.: pro _a from !he .... Ok or ~ round:he
oidcr. and meet: tile ......... _ ill :he &ort. H !he I*h dilll'CI'CIIOt ill III'IIl •
mn'I!!I!'ed toA!2, :he i'IIIO _ will ......... '71"'1 ea;dr odrcr C'IIrPag' I' • .., <I.
':he <p'ua EO dr~ oII sbarpty, Whea !he &tq KJ rJ nrdiaIed 'MIiCS ill bw', !he
~;, iI W. and hmoe !he I*h di&t x bet" ' .... and froru. oicks;'
~e SIIIaI i I _ <I.;'. ThiI...m aIbw bw' ftequmc:y _ EO Irffle from .... EO
lire froru. - 1 _ I!IT ora <I. phm, ....,.;.1Ire 00 ..... eIICQD' P.... 'j""Y, To
....., tb: bw' frcqumcicr; from Itlct'"otior, ~ ill 'HO 5')' iO inauz tb: I*h
diffUCDCC by...mg. pIrpi-al bou:."', tb: boIIIr (At!rip.udio frcqoll"...,!c.,. bIfIIc
is 11<1 "'&' b=arr... " ;" ' ... II1II""""'" II'C Yn"1 cbcly 11*00 and
CKQII' irr. quick p. I i u;."" uxI .... _ :bcre is 110 & . , Ii ' Fa'Mim),

The bafllu arc !IlIrdc of • good IOIIlId inlubtirla ....:e.w, The .... IC.w is ooft
10 cbecl: r. :Uc. sot: wood or xlJo(eJ; arc good.. 1'1Ie ape,ker IIIII&t be lllCUrely
fiKd 10 !he baf&. The blffk is aIIo rigidly ......,... 011 to ~ ... ,.nle IOIIlId.

1bc", are rOW' types rJ ",mes'

1, F'1IIite baffle
) , FnclOlUl'C
."'laIk _m,:: The """",,"II cabiAcu as ill radio receiYu or TV recei'o'U ~ as
'FiIIi!e baffle'. SIICb I>a1JIa, ""iDa d. rmite size, art IlOl: very dfcdivc UId do
calISe: """'" lou d.1ow ludio frcqlltllC)' ,iPIIs due 10 diffraWOII.

lallallle bafI'It: All ideal illfmile baffle is !he Oftc: wIlk:h bas ilIl'mi!e laIeral
dime.wo.... SIICb I baffle will DOl be feasible. HO'We'o'er, if bafllc dimc~
are 10 large that !he frequency at ...t.lcII t~ path k"3lh isAn, is far below 1.be
lowest frcqueacy 10 ~ uocd, ouch I baftlc C&.II be caDM 'iafU!il:c baffle'. For
example, let I speaker "" riled ill • hole ill !he wall or I bOUlC:. AI the
dimenw"" or the wall arc quile Large, the wall will at! as IWIlraI buricr for
I~ rear souad to rome ill froat d.!he speaker. TIle wall will ace as ;".rmite
b.l1k.
A praceir.! illfut.ite baffle will Uve buge dimeo' ion , Several de';"" have
bee>! dcYclopcd 10 reduee the w.e. ODe ouch de'ign is to """" the bafllc bad:
II!~ " " " as showoI ill Frg. 3.10.

feclCII_: Wbca llourkpcake, is mounted ill. med boor wi1.b III opertirtc
ill the frOllI (to eDablr: the c:ooc 10 IJ'an,mjt ill vibrlti.oDr. to the air ill frOIII),
I"" boor iCn<CS tDe purpose d. ilt.fiftile b&flle bccalliC the wave~ from thc bad:
of the CCIDC will IlOl be able to QldIC to the fl'Ollt lide. SIICb I clooed box is
called III e!lclo&ure, &lid is .......... ill Frg. 1.11.

.,.1" P "-'b.rn.

The: best DWeriaI for CllclOIUtCI it; about 18 111m thi<:t pi)'NIIO<l or ~
board. Solid timber it; IIOl sood bccalliC !he limber grain C&.II prod"....
re ............ II. ccrtairr &equc..cico willWl!he uscfuI.udi.o frcqueacy range. Tbe