Momentum Balance

Newton’s laws: Relations between motions of bodies and the forces

acting on them.
Newton’s first law: A body at rest remains at rest, and a body in
motion remains in motion at the same velocity in a straight path
when the net force acting on it is zero.
Therefore, a body tends to preserve its state of inertia.
Newton’s second law: The acceleration of a body is proportional to
the net force acting on it and is inversely proportional to its mass.
Newton’s third law: When a body exerts a force on a second body,
the second body exerts an equal and opposite force on the first.
Therefore, the direction of an exposed reaction force depends on the
body taken as the system.

2
Linear momentum or just the momentum of the body:
The product of the mass and the velocity of a body.
Newton’s second law is usually referred to as the
linear momentum equation.
Conservation of momentum principle: The
momentum of a system remains constant
only when the net force acting on it is zero.

Linear momentum is the Newton’s second law is also

product of mass and velocity, expressed as the rate of change
and its direction is the of the momentum of a body is
direction of velocity. equal to the net force acting on it. 3
The conservation of angular
momentum Principle: The total angular
momentum of a rotating body remains
constant when the net torque acting on it
is zero, and thus the angular momentum
of such systems is conserved.

The rate of change of the angular

momentum of a body is equal to
the net torque acting on it. 4
6–2 ■ CHOOSING A CONTROL VOLUME
A control volume can be selected as any arbitrary
region in space through which fluid flows, and its
bounding control surface can be fixed, moving, and
even deforming during flow.
Many flow systems involve stationary hardware firmly
fixed to a stationary surface, and such systems are
best analyzed using fixed control volumes.
When analyzing flow systems that are moving or
deforming, it is usually more convenient to allow the
control volume to move or deform.
In deforming control volume, part of the control
surface moves relative to other parts.

Examples of
(a) fixed,
(b) moving,
and
(c) deforming
control
volumes. 5
6–3 ■ FORCES ACTING ON A CONTROL VOLUME
The forces acting on a control volume consist of
Body forces that act throughout the entire body of the control
volume (such as gravity, electric, and magnetic forces) and
Surface forces that act on the control surface (such as pressure
and viscous forces and reaction forces at points of contact).
Only external forces are considered in the analysis.

Total force acting on control volume:

The total force acting on a control

volume is composed of body
forces and surface forces; body
force is shown on a differential
volume element, and surface
force is shown on a differential
surface element. 6
The most common body force is that of gravity, which exerts a downward force
on every differential element of the control volume.

Surface forces are not as simple to

analyze since they consist of both normal
and tangential components.
Normal stresses are composed of
pressure (which always acts inwardly
normal) and viscous stresses.
Shear stresses are composed entirely of
viscous stresses.

The gravitational force acting on a differential

volume element of fluid is equal to its weight; the
axes have been rotated so that the gravity vector 7
acts downward in the negative z-direction.
 Surface force acting on a
differential surface element:

Total surface force acting

on control surface:

Total force:

When coordinate axes are rotated

(a) to (b), the components of the
surface force change, even
though the force itself remains the
same; only two dimensions are
shown here.
8
Components of the stress tensor in
Cartesian coordinates on the right, top,
and front faces.

9
 A common simplification in the application of Newton’s laws of motion is to
subtract the atmospheric pressure and work with gage pressures.
This is because atmospheric pressure acts in all directions, and its effect cancels
out in every direction.
This means we can also ignore the pressure forces at outlet sections where the
fluid is discharged to the atmosphere since the discharge pressure in such cases
is very near atmospheric pressure at subsonic velocities.

Atmospheric pressure acts in all

directions, and thus it can be ignored
when performing force balances since Cross section through a faucet
its effect cancels out in every direction. assembly, illustrating the importance of
choosing a control volume wisely; CV B
is much easier to work with than CV A.
10
6–4 ■ THE LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUATION

Newton’s second law can be stated as

The sum of all external forces acting on a system is equal to the time rate of
change of linear momentum of the system.
This statement is valid for a coordinate system that is at rest or moves with a
constant velocity, called an inertial coordinate system or inertial reference frame. 11
12
The momentum equation is
commonly used to calculate the
forces (usually on support
systems or connectors) induced
by the flow.

13
Steady Special Cases
flow

Mass flow rate across

an inlet or outlet

Momentum flow rate across

a uniform inlet or outlet:

In a typical engineering
problem, the control volume
may contain many inlets and
outlets; at each inlet or outlet
we define the mass flow rate
and the average velocity. 14
Examples of inlets or outlets in which
the uniform flow approximation is
reasonable:
(a) the well-rounded entrance to a pipe,
(b) the entrance to a wind tunnel test
section, and
(c) a slice through a free water jet in air.

15
 Momentum-Flux Correction Factor, 
The velocity across most inlets and outlets is not uniform.
The control surface integral of Eq. 6–17 may be converted into algebraic form using
a dimensionless correction factor , called the momentum-flux correction factor.

(6-17)

 is always greater than or equal to 1.

 is close to 1 for turbulent flow and
not very close to 1 for fully developed
laminar flow.

16
For turbulent flow β may have
an insignificant effect at inlets
and outlets, but for laminar
flow β may be important and
should not be neglected. It is
wise to include β in all
momentum control volume
problems. 17
Steady Flow

The net force acting on the control volume during steady flow is equal to the
difference between the rates of outgoing and incoming momentum flows.

The net force acting on the

control volume during steady
flow is equal to the difference
between the outgoing and the
incoming momentum fluxes.

18
Steady Flow with One Inlet and One Outlet
One inlet and
one outlet
Along x-
coordinate

The determination by vector

addition of the reaction force on
A control volume with only one the support caused by a change
inlet and one outlet. of direction of water. 19
Flow with No External Forces

In the absence of external forces, the rate of change of the

momentum of a control volume is equal to the difference between
the rates of incoming and outgoing momentum flow rates.

The thrust needed to lift the space

shuttle is generated by the rocket
engines as a result of momentum
change of the fuel as it is accelerated
from about zero to an exit speed of
about 2000 m/s after combustion.
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
 6–5 ■ REVIEW OF ROTATIONAL MOTION
AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM
Rotational motion: A motion during
which all points in the body move in
circles about the axis of rotation.
Rotational motion is described with
angular quantities such as the angular
distance , angular velocity , and
angular acceleration .
Angular velocity: The angular
distance traveled per unit time.
Angular acceleration: The rate of
change of angular velocity.

The relations between angular distance ,

angular velocity  , and linear velocity V.

33
• Newton’s second law requires that there must be a force acting in the
tangential direction to cause angular acceleration.
• The strength of the rotating effect, called the moment or torque, is proportional
to the magnitude of the force and its distance from the axis of rotation.
• The perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the line of action of the
force is called the moment arm, and the torque M acting on a point mass m at
a normal distance r from the axis of rotation is expressed as

Torque

I is the moment of inertia of the body

about the axis of rotation, which is a
measure of the inertia of a body
against rotation.
Unlike mass, the rotational inertia of
a body also depends on the
distribution of the mass of the body Analogy between corresponding
with respect to the axis of rotation. linear and angular quantities.
34
 Angular momentum

Angular momentum
equation

Angular velocity
versus rpm

Angular momentum of point mass m The relations between angular

rotating at angular velocity  at velocity, rpm, and the power
distance r from the axis of rotation. transmitted through a shaft.
35
 Shaft power

Rotational kinetic energy

During rotational motion, the direction of velocity changes even when its
magnitude remains constant. Velocity is a vector quantity, and thus a change
in direction constitutes a change in velocity with time, and thus acceleration.
This is called centripetal acceleration.

Centripetal acceleration is directed toward the axis of rotation (opposite direction of

radial acceleration), and thus the radial acceleration is negative. Centripetal
acceleration is the result of a force acting on an element of the body toward the
axis of rotation, known as the centripetal force, whose magnitude is Fr = mV2/r.
Tangential and radial accelerations are perpendicular to each other, and
the total linear acceleration is determined by their vector sum:

36
6–6 ■ THE ANGULAR MOMENTUM EQUATION
Many engineering problems involve the moment of the linear momentum of
flow streams, and the rotational effects caused by them.
Such problems are best analyzed by the angular momentum equation, also
called the moment of momentum equation.
An important class of fluid devices, called turbomachines, which include
centrifugal pumps, turbines, and fans, is analyzed by the angular
momentum equation.
A force whose line of
action passes through
point O produces zero
moment about point O.

The determination
of the direction of
the moment by the
right-hand rule. 37
Moment of Moment of momentum
momentum (system)

Rate of change of
moment of momentum
Angular momentum
equation for a system

38
During steady flow, the amount of angular Special Cases
momentum within the control volume remains
constant, and thus the time rate of change of
angular momentum of the contents of the
control volume is zero.

An approximate form of the angular

momentum equation in terms of average A rotating lawn
properties at inlets and outlets: sprinkler is a good
example of application
of the angular
momentum equation.

The net torque acting on the control volume during steady flow is equal to the
difference between the outgoing and incoming angular momentum flow rates.

scalar form of angular

momentum equation 39
Flow with No External Moments

In the absence of external moments, the rate of change of the angular

momentum of a control volume is equal to the difference between the
incoming and outgoing angular momentum fluxes.

When the moment of inertia I of the control volume remains constant,

the irst term on the right side of the above equation becomes simply
moment of inertia times angular acceleration. Therefore, the control
volume in this case can be treated as a solid body, with a net torque of

This approach can be used to determine the angular

acceleration of space vehicles and aircraft when a rocket is
fired in a direction different than the direction of motion.

40
Radial-Flow Devices
Radial-flow devices: Many rotary-flow devices such as centrifugal pumps and
fans involve flow in the radial direction normal to the axis of rotation.
Axial-flow devices are easily analyzed using the linear momentum equation.
Radial-flow devices involve large changes in angular momentum of the fluid
and are best analyzed with the help of the angular momentum equation.

Side and frontal views of a typical centrifugal pump.

41
The conservation of mass equation for steady incompressible flow

angular momentum
equation
Euler’s turbine
formula

When

An annular control
volume that encloses
the impeller section of
a centrifugal pump. 42
43
44
45
 Lawn sprinklers often have
rotating heads to spread the
water over a large area. 46
47
48
49
The variation of power produced with angular
speed for the turbine of Example 6–9.

50