Fluid Mechanics I

Conservation Laws
Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications
2nd EDITION
Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala McGraw-Hill, 2010

Conservation of Mass
 Conservation of mass principle is one of the most
fundamental principles in nature.
 Mass, like energy, is a conserved property, and it
cannot be created or destroyed during a process.
(However, mass m and energy E can be converted to
each other according to the well-known formula
proposed by Albert Einstein (1879–1955)).
 For closed systems, mass conservation is implicit
since the mass of the system remains constant during
a process.
 For control volumes, mass can cross the boundaries
which means that we must keep track of the amount of
mass entering and leaving the control volume.

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 Conservation of mass principle
 The conservation of mass principle for a control
volume can be expressed as: The net mass transfer to
or from a control volume during a time interval Δt is
equal to the net change (increase or decrease) in the
total mass within the control volume during Δt. That is,

Conservation of Mass principle

 The general conservation of
mass for a fixed CV is:

Using RTT
Taking the property B to be
the mass. Then we have
b=1 since dividing the mass
by mass to get the property
per unit mass gives unity.
Also, the mass of a system
is constant, and thus its
time derivative is zero.

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Conservation of Mass principle
 Splitting the surface integral into the outgoing flow
streams (+ve) and the incoming streams (-ve)

 where A represents the area for an inlet or outlet, and

the summation signs are used to emphasize that all
the inlets and outlets are to be considered. Using the
definition of mass flow rate

Conservation of Mass principle

For Moving or Deforming CV
For a moving CV, just change V to Vr in the equation where Vr equal to

For Steady Flow Processes

 For steady flow, the total amount of mass contained in CV is
constant.
 Total amount of mass entering must be equal to total amount of
mass leaving

 For single-stream steady-flow systems,

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Conservation of Mass principle
For Incompressible Flow
Canceling the density from both sides of the general steady-flow
relation gives

For single-stream steady-flow systems it becomes

Mechanical energy
 Mechanical energy can be defined as the form of
energy that can be converted to mechanical work
completely and directly by an ideal mechanical device
such as an ideal turbine.
 Flow ⁄ , kinetic V2/2, and potential gz energy are the
forms of mechanical energy emech= ⁄ + V2/2 + gz
 Mechanical energy change of a fluid during
incompressible flow becomes
P2  P1 V22  V12
emech    g  z2  z1 
 2
 In the absence of loses, Δemech represents the work
supplied to the fluid (Δemech>0) or extracted from the
fluid (Δemech<0).

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Efficiency
 Transfer of emech is usually accomplished by a rotating
shaft: shaft work
 Pump, fan, propulsion: receives shaft work (e.g., from
an electric motor) and transfers it to the fluid as
mechanical energy
 Turbine: converts emech of a fluid to shaft work.
 In the absence of irreversibilities (e.g., friction),
mechanical efficiency of a device or process can be
defined as
Emech ,out Emech ,loss
mech  1
Emech ,in Emech ,in
 If 𝜂 < 100%, losses have occurred during
conversion.

Pump and turbine efficiencies

 In fluid systems, we are usually
interested in increasing the pressure,
velocity, and/or elevation of a fluid.
 In these cases, efficiency is better
defined as the ratio of (supplied or
extracted work) vs. rate of increase in
mechanical energy
E mech , fluid
 pump 
W shaft ,in

W shaft ,out
turbine 
E mech , fluid

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Pump and turbine efficiencies
 Overall efficiency must include
motor or generator efficiency.

Problem
A garden hose attached with a nozzle is used to fill
a 10-gal bucket. The inner diameter of the hose is
2 cm, and it reduces to 0.8 cm at the nozzle exit
(Fig.). If it takes 50 s to fill the bucket with water,
determine (a) the volume and mass flow rates of
water through the hose, and ( b) the average
velocity of water at the nozzle exit.

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Problem
A 4-ft-high, 3-ft-diameter cylindrical water tank whose top
is open to the atmosphere is initially filled with water. Now
the discharge plug near the bottom of the tank is pulled
out, and a water jet whose diameter is 0.5 in streams out
(Fig.). The average velocity of the jet is given by 𝑉 =
√2𝑔ℎ, where h is the height of water in the
tank measured from the centre
of the hole (a variable) and g is
the gravitational acceleration.
Determine how long it will take for
the water level in the tank to drop
to 2 ft from the bottom.

Problem

The water in a large lake is to be used to generate

electricity by the installation of a hydraulic turbine–
generator at a location where the depth of the water is 50
m (Fig.). Water is to be supplied at a rate of 5000 kg/s. If
the electric power generated is measured to be 1862 kW
and the generator efficiency is 95 percent, determine (a)
the overall efficiency of the turbine–generator, (b) the
mechanical efficiency of the turbine, and (c) the shaft
power supplied by the turbine to the generator.

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The Bernoulli equation
 The Bernoulli equation is
an approximate relation
between pressure, velocity,
and elevation and is valid in
regions of steady,
incompressible flow where
net frictional forces are
negligible.
 Equation is useful in flow
regions outside of boundary
layers and wakes, where
the fluid motion is governed
by the combined effects of
pressure and gravity forces.

The Bernoulli equation

 For steady, incompressible flow, the Bernoulli equation
along a streamline can be written as

 Without the consideration of any losses, two points on the

same streamline satisfy
P1 V12 P V2
  z1  2  2  z2
1 g 2 g 2 g 2 g
 where P/ρ as flow energy, V2/2 as kinetic energy, and gz as
potential energy, all per unit mass.

 The Bernoulli equation can be viewed as an expression of

mechanical energy balance

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 Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation Pressures
The Bernoulli equation

P is the static pressure; it represents the actual

thermodynamic pressure of the fluid. This is the same as
the pressure used in thermodynamics and property tables.
V2/2 is the dynamic pressure; it represents the
pressure rise when the fluid in motion is brought to rest.
gz is the hydrostatic pressure, depends on the
reference level selected.

Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation Pressures

The sum of the static, dynamic,
and hydrostatic pressures is
called the total pressure (a
constant along a streamline).
The sum of the static and
dynamic pressures is called the
stagnation pressure,

The fluid velocity at that location

can be calculated from

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 Pitot-static probe
The fluid velocity at that location
can be calculated from

A piezometer measures static pressure.

Limitations on the use of the Bernoulli Equation

 Steady flow: d/dt = 0, it should not be used during the

transient start-up and shut-down periods, or during
periods of change in the flow conditions.
 Frictionless flow:
 The flow conditions described by the right graphs can make the
Bernoulli equation inapplicable.

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Limitations on the use of the Bernoulli equation

 No shaft work: wpump=wturbine=0. The Bernoulli

equation can still be applied to a flow section prior to
or past a machine (with different Bernoulli constants)
 Incompressible flow: density = constant (liquids and
also gases at Mach No. less than about 0.3)
 No heat transfer: qnet,in=0
 Applied along a streamline: The Bernoulli constant C,
in general, is different for different streamlines. But
when a region of the flow is irrotational, and thus there
is no vorticity in the flow field, the value of the constant
C remains the same for all streamlines.

Problem
Water is flowing from a hose attached to a water
main at 400 kPa gage (Fig.). A child places his
thumb to cover most of the hose outlet, causing a
thin jet of high-speed water to emerge. If the
hose is held upward, what is the maximum height
that the jet could achieve?

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Problem
A piezometer and a Pitot tube are tapped into a
horizontal water pipe, as shown in Fig., to
measure static and stagnation (static + dynamic)
pressures. For the indicated water column
heights, determine the velocity at the center of
the pipe.

General energy equation

 The conservation of energy
principle states that energy can
neither be created nor can be
destroyed during a process; it can
only change forms
 The conservation of energy principle The general RTT

 The energy content of a closed

system can be changed by two
mechanisms: heat transfer Q and
work transfer W.

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General energy equation
 Conservation of energy for a closed system can be
expressed in rate form as
Net time rate of Net time rate of
Time rate of increase
energy addition by energy addition by
of the total energy = +
heat transfer into work transfer into
of the system
the system the system

 Net rate of heat transfer to the system:

Q net ,in  Q in  Q out

 Net power input to the system:

Wnet ,in  Win  Wout

Energy transfer by heat, Q

 We frequently refer to the sensible and latent forms of
internal energy as heat, or thermal energy.
 The transfer of thermal energy as a result of a
temperature difference is called heat transfer.

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Energy transfer by work, W
 An energy interaction is work if it is associated with a
force acting through a distance.
 The time rate of doing work is called power,
 A system may involve numerous forms of work, and
the total work can be expressed as

 Where Wother is the work done by other forces such as

electric, magnetic, and surface tension, which are
insignificant and negligible in this text. Also, Wviscous,
the work done by viscous forces, are neglected.

Energy transfer by work, W

 Shaft Work: The power
transmitted via a rotating shaft is
proportional to the shaft torque
Tshaft and is expressed as

 Work Done by Pressure Forces:

the work done by the pressure
forces on the control surface

 The associated power is

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 Work Done by Pressure Forces
 Consider a system shown in the
right graph can deform arbitrarily.
What is the power done by
pressure?

 Why is a negative sign at the

right hand side?
 The total rate of work done by
pressure forces is

(A)

General Energy equation

 Therefore, the net work in can be expressed by

 Then the rate form of the conservation of

energy relation for a closed system becomes

(1)

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General Energy equation
 Recall general RTT

General Energy equation

 Energy equation from RTT

(2)

 Substituting the left-hand side of Eq. (1) into Eq. (2)

(3)

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General Energy equation
 Moving integral for rate of pressure work (eq A)
to RHS of energy equation (eq 3) results in:

 For fixed control volume, then Vr = V

 Recall that P/ is the flow work, which is the
work associated with pushing a fluid into or out
of a CV per unit mass.

General Energy equation

 As with the mass equation, practical analysis
is often facilitated as averages across inlets
and exits

 Since e=u+ke+pe = u+V2/2+gz

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Energy analysis of steady flows
 V2   V2 
Qnet ,in  Wshaft ,net ,in   m  h   gz    m  h   gz 
out  2  in  2 

 For steady flow, time rate of change of the energy

content of the CV is zero.
 This equation states: the net rate of energy transfer to a
CV by heat and work transfers during steady flow is
equal to the difference between the rates of outgoing
and incoming energy flows with mass.

Energy analysis of steady flows

 For single-stream devices, mass flow rate is constant.

 Rearranging

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Energy analysis of steady flows

 In last equation

 The left side of Eq. is the mechanical energy input,

while the first three terms on the right side represent
the mechanical energy output. If the flow is ideal with
no loss, the total mechanical energy must be
conserved, and the term in parentheses must equal
zero.
 Any increase in u2 - u1 above qnet in represents the
mechanical energy loss

Energy analysis of steady flows

The steady-flow energy equation on a unit-mass basis
can be written as

or

If

Also multiplying the equation by the mass flow rate,

then equation becomes

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Energy analysis of steady flows
 where

 In terms of heads, then equation becomes

 where

Energy analysis of steady flows

 If no mechanical loss and no mechanical work devices,
then equation becomes Bernoulli equation
P1 V12 P V2
  z1  2  2  z2
1 g 2 g 2 g 2 g
 Kinetic Energy Correction Factor,a
Using the average flow velocity in the equation may
cause the error in the calculation of kinetic energy;
therefore, a, the kinetic energy correction factor, is
used to correct the error by replacing the kinetic
energy terms V2/2 in the energy equation by aVavg2 /2.

a is 2.0 for fully developed laminar pipe flow, and it ranges between
1.04 and 1.11 for fully developed turbulent flow in a round pipe.

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 Energy analysis of steady flows
 a is often ignored, since
it is near one for
turbulent flow and the
kinetic energy
contribution is small.
 the energy equations for
steady incompressible
flow become

Conservation Laws
 Conservation of mass

P2  P1 V22  V12
 Mechanical energy emech    g  z2  z1 
 2

P1 V12 P V2
  z1  2  2  z2
1 g 2 g 2 g 2 g

 General Energy

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 Conservation Laws
 General Energy

Problem
The pump of a water distribution system is powered by a
15-kW electric motor whose efficiency is 90 percent (Fig.).
The water flow rate through the pump is 50 L/s. The
diameters of the inlet and outlet pipes are the same, and
the elevation difference across the pump is negligible. If the
pressures at the inlet and outlet of the
pump are measured to be 100 kPa
and 300 kPa (absolute), respectively,
determine (a) the mechanical efficiency
of the pump and (b) the temperature
rise of water as it flows through the
pump due to the mechanical inefficiency.

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Problem

In a hydroelectric power plant, 100 m3/s of water flows

from an elevation of 120 m to a turbine, where electric
power is generated (Fig.). The total irreversible head loss
in the piping system from point 1 to point 2 (excluding the
turbine unit) is determined to be 35 m.
If the overall efficiency of the
turbine–generator is 80 percent,
estimate the electric power output.

Problem (Homework)
A fan is to be selected to cool a computer case whose
dimensions are 12 cm x 40 cm x 40 cm (Fig.). Half of the volume
in the case is expected to be filled with components and the
other half to be air space. A 5-cm diameter hole is available at
the back of the case for the installation of the fan that is to
replace the air in the void spaces of the case once every
second. Small low-power
fan–motor combined units are available
in the market and their efficiency is
estimated to be 30 percent.
Determine (a) the wattage of the
fan–motor unit to be purchased
(b) the pressure difference across the
fan. Take the air density to be 1.20 kg/m3.

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Problem (Homework)
Water is pumped from a lower reservoir to a
higher reservoir by a pump that provides 20 kW
of useful mechanical power to the water (Fig.).
The free surface of the upper reservoir is 45 m
higher than the surface of the lower reservoir. If
the flow rate of water is measured to be 0.03
m3/s,
determine the irreversible
head loss of the system
and the lost mechanical
power during this process.

Homework

Examples from 5-12 to 5-15 from Cengel’s book

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Conservation of momentum
 Newton’s laws are relations between motions of bodies
and the forces acting on them
 First law: a body at rest remains at rest, and a body in motion
remains in motion at the same velocity in a straight path when
the net force acting on it is zero.
 Second law: the acceleration of a body is proportional to the net
force acting on it and is inversely proportional to its mass.
Newton’s second law for a system of mass m subjected to a net
force 𝐹⃗ is expressed as

or (1)

 Third law: when a body exerts a force on a second body, the

second body exerts an equal and opposite force on the first.

Conservation of momentum
 The product of the mass and the velocity of a body is
called the linear momentum or just the momentum of
the body.
 Therefore, Newton’s second law can also be stated as
the rate of change of the momentum of a body is equal
to the net force acting on the body
 Newton’s second law  the linear momentum equation
in fluid mechanics
 The momentum of a system is conserved when it
remains constant  the conservation of momentum
principle.
 Momentum is a vector. Its direction is the direction of
velocity.

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 Forces acting on a control volume
 The forces acting on a control volume include:
 Body forces: act throughout the entire body of the
control volume (such as gravity, electric, and
magnetic forces)
 Surface forces: act on the control surface (such as
pressure and viscous forces and reaction forces at
points of contact).
 Total force acting on control volume is
expressed as

Body forces

 Body force: the only

body force considered
in this text is gravity

where

Therefore, the total body force is

On earth at sea level, the
gravitational constant g is
equal to 9.807 m/s2.

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Surface forces
 Surface forces: are not as
simple to analyze since they
consist of both normal and
tangential components.
 Diagonal components xx ,
yy , zz are called normal
stresses and are due to
pressure.
 Off-diagonal components xy,
xz, etc. are called shear
stresses and are due solely
to viscous stresses.

Surface forces
The physical force acting on a surface is independent
of orientation of the coordinate axes.

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Surface forces

 Surface force acting on a differential surface

element:

 Total surface force acting on CS

Forces acting on a control volume

 Total force: The total force acting on the control colume
is given as

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The linear momentum equation
From RTT:

The linear momentum equation

From RTT:

(2)

Equating Eq (1) and (2), the General momentum equation

(3)

or (1)

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Momentum-flux correction factor, β
 Since the velocity across most inlets and outlets is not
uniform, the momentum-flux correction factor, β, is used to
patch-up the error in the algebraic form equation. Therefore,

 Momentum flux across an inlet or outlet:

 Momentum-flux correction factor:

The linear momentum equation

Special cases:
 Steady Flow

 For single inlet and outlet

 For Fixed CV, the momentum flow rate across a

uniform inlet or outlet in algebraic form:

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The linear momentum equation
Special cases:
Flow with no external forces
 This is a common situation for space vehicles and
satellites.
 For a control volume with multiple inlets and outlets,
the linear momentum equation is

 If m remains nearly constant, then

The linear momentum equation

Special cases:
Flow with no external forces
 In this case, the control volume can be treated as a
solid body, with a thrust of

 This approach can be used to determine the linear

acceleration of space vehicles when a rocket is
fired.

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Problem
A reducing elbow is used to deflect water flow at a rate of
14 kg/s in a horizontal pipe upward 30° while accelerating
it (Fig.). The elbow discharges water into the atmosphere.
The cross-sectional area of the elbow is 113 cm2 at the
inlet and 7 cm2 at the outlet. The elevation difference
between the centers of the outlet and the inlet is 30 cm.
The weight of the elbow and the water in it is considered
to be negligible. Determine (a) the gage pressure at the
center of the inlet of the elbow and (b) the anchoring force
needed to hold the elbow in place.

Problem
The deflector elbow in previous Example is replaced by a
reversing elbow such that the fluid makes a 180° U-turn
before it is discharged, as shown in Fig. The elevation
difference between the centers of the inlet and the exit
sections is still 0.3 m. Determine the anchoring force
needed to hold the elbow in place.

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Homework

Examples from 6-2 to 6-7 from Cengel’s book

Thank You

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