Combined PDF File For Understanding The Self 1

First Edition
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Understanding the Self
©
Published & Distributed by:
ñ
Tel. #: 260-0037
Email: [email protected]
All praises and thanks to the One Above for His never-ending blessings and guidance
to complete this work.
To family and loved ones for your continuous encouragement and motivation.
To colleagues and friends in the academe for your dynamic support in this undertaking.
To the many authors, personality experts, philosophers, psychologists, researchers, and

scholars, whose works, which have been cited in this very first publication, are the
foundations of this book.
Author
Understanding the Self is a contemporary course in the General Education Curriculum mandated
by the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) as part of the paradigm shift in the Philippine
educational system in the context of the K to 12 curriculum.
In line with the mission of the Philippine Higher Education to produce competent, humane and
moral professionals capable of addressing the demands of the 21st Century life, the need to learn
continuously throughout life has been viewed essential. This course will enable the process of
self-exploration and aid the students in understanding the concepts of personality and the ’self’, to
develop their identity as a person. In view of the fact that adolescents are prone to critical
self-issues, this book will help in the development of self-awareness for a better understanding of
one’s self, and to realize one’s uniqueness and individual differences. A proper integration of the
student’s acquired knowledge and skills with his or her day-to-day life experiences leads to a vast
opportunity for empowerment so that he/she can develop a more critical and reflective attitude,
enabling him/her to make changes and build on the strong areas of his/her identity. This can result
to helping the adolescent attain a better quality of life by making confident decisions, which will
eventually help him/her derive long-term fulfillment in school, in his/her future career, in the
community, and in the country.
This book contains three chapters, each one addressing the nature, as well as the factors and
forces that affect the development and maintenance of personal identity. The first chapter seeks
to answer the essential question, “What is the Self?” and raising the question, “Does a self-
construct even exist?” This part enables the students to understand the construct of the self from
various disciplinal perspectives namely philosophy, sociology and anthropology, and psychology,
incorporating the eastern and western thoughts about the self.
The second chapter explores the various aspects that make-up the self: the physical self, sexual
self, economic self, spiritual self, political self and the digital self. The final chapter identifies three
areas of concern for young students: learning, goal-setting and managing stress.
This book provides for the more practical application of the concepts discussed in this course to
aid the students become better individuals capable of contributing significantly for the nation’s
advancement.
Using the Outcomes-Based Approach, each lesson is comprised of start-up activities that
motivate the students to activate their capabilities to engage in the lesson, leading to an overview
and discussion proper to empower them with the necessary knowledge and skills about the various
aspects of the self. Each lesson ends with worksheets that strive to provide opportunities for
students to evaluate and apply their understanding of the concepts learned, reflect on their insights
and realizations, and design their own plans for self-improvement.
Author
UNIT 1: The Self from Various Disciplinal Perspectives
Lesson 1 The Philosophy of the Self …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 2
Lesson 2 The Sociology and Anthropology of the Self …………………………………….…………………………… 15
Lesson 3 The Psychology of the Self …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 29
Lesson 4 The Western and Eastern Thoughts about the Self …………………………………………………… 38
UNIT 2: Unpacking the Self
Lesson 1: The Physical Self ………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..… 47
Lesson 2: The Sexual Self…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….… 59
Lesson 3: The Economic Self ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 95
Lesson 4: The Spiritual Self…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………… 104
Lesson 5: The Political Self …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 117
Lesson 6: The Digital Self …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….… 130
UNIT 3: Managing and Caring for the Self
Lesson 1: Learn to become a Better Learner ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 139
Lesson 2: Setting Goals for Success ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 156
Lesson 3: Taking charge of one’s Health ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 170

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LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of the course, the students will be able to:
1. Discuss the different representations and conceptualizations
of the self according to various disciplinal perspectives.
2. Compare and contrast how the self has been represented
across different disciplines and perspectives.
3. Examine the different influences, factors and forces that
shape the self.
4. Demonstrate critical and reflective thought in analyzing the
development of one’s self and identity by developing a theory
of the self.
Understanding the Self Unit 1: The Self from Various Disciplinal Perspectives
LESSON 1
THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE SELF
Lesson Objectives:
a. Define the Self based on the philosophical perspective.
b. Recognize the similarities and differences of self conceptualizations according to the point of
view of philosophy.
c. Evaluate one’s concept of the ‘self’ as compared to its philosophical perspectives.
ACTIVATE
Pretend that you are a fresh graduate ready to enter the
real world of the labor force. While looking at the Classified Ads,
you came across the advertisement of your dream company, hiring
a qualified candidate who can genuinely take the role and contribute
to the advancement of the company. Then, you sent your resume
for evaluation and surprisingly, you got a phone call from the HR Department asking
you to come in for an interview. How are you going to sell yourself to get hired?
What characteristics about yourself are you going to say to the Interviewer? Write as
many descriptions as you can to define yourself. Use the space provided below and
answer the questions that follow.
1. How do you feel about choosing the best descriptions about yourself?
Box your answer
2. Why do you think you feel that way?
3. Do you really know yourself?
4. Do you want to know yourself?
EMPOWER
People say that the secret to success is to “know yourself”. Do you
agree? Have you ever asked yourself the question, “Do I really know
myself?” Some of you may have found the activity on the previous page
quite easy, but surely, many of you found it tough to look for the finest
words to describe yourself. Some of you may have encountered instances
wherein you underestimate yourself either because you are afraid to get embarrassed or you have
absolutely no idea of what you are capable of doing. Why do you think this happens?? The answer is
simple: because you do not truly know yourself.
Indeed, it is necessary to know yourself. But how do you go about it, right? This lesson
explores the philosophies of the self, which breaks into several key theories about human existence
that have been a heated debate throughout history and are still being argued about up until now.
In an effort to answer the countless inquiries about the self, the greatest thinkers, known as the
philosophers, have immersed themselves in search for knowledge about the nature of being human.
Questions like, “What does it mean to be a person?” or “Who am I?” or “Do I really matter?” or
“How do I know that I will continue to be me in the future?” have engaged key thinkers to address
these matters of existence to help us understand the different views about the self.
Most of what we know about Socrates come from the

accounts of people’s writings long after his death. He was born
in Athens around 469 B.C. Some say he followed his father’s
trade as a stone mason and has even served in the Athenian
army at some point in his life. Granting that his ideas earned
him many followers in Athens, he has also upset a lot of people
with his philosophical inquiries. He was brought to trial in 399
B.C. under charges of corrupting the youth of the city. He was
found guilty and sentenced to death by drinking hemlock poison.
What was Socrates’ philosophy? Why did the Athenian city-state
consider him dangerous?
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Socrates was often in the position of an examiner —
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a questioner. He constantly looks for imperfections in the ideas
of others, which is actually the heart of his philosophy. Socrates knows that he knows nothing, more
importantly, he knows that he knows nothing, while everyone else is under the flawed
impression that they know something (Vlastos & Graham, 1971).
Do you realize the danger in this?
The highest form of human excellence, according to Socrates, is to question oneself and others
(Maxwell, 2013). In truth, Socrates is simply establishing a higher standard of truth, which must be
logically consistent and not contradicting itself. This is Socrates’ dangerous idea. Instead of being
satisfied with an answer that sounds pretty good, Socrates asserts that one should examine more
closely the things we call ‘true,’ considering that there are vast concepts that are not easily defined.
To Socrates, man has to look at himself to understand his long-standing mission, to “Know Yourself.”
For him, “an unexamined life is not worth living” (Vlastos & Graham, 1971). Basically, the most horrible
thing that can happen to anybody is to “live but die inside” (Alata, et. Al 2018). Therefore, to
preserve our souls for the afterlife, we must be fully aware of who we are and the virtues
that come with its attainment.
He also believed that an individual’s personhood is composed of the body and soul. The soul, for
him, is immortal. For this reason, he insisted that death is not the end of existence. Rather, it is
simply the separation of the soul from the body.
Socrates also raised the point that just because something seems true does not mean it is true
(Rowe, 2007). He further noted that, in reality, many people believe things that are not true.
Hence, Socrates made a distinction between knowledge and belief. The former being always and
universally true while the latter is only true in certain circumstances.
What made Socrates a menace was the fact that even matters of faith fall short of his
standard of truth since every religion in the world is full of contradictions. By undermining religion,
Socrates is essentially questioning the foundation of his society. So the Athenians made the worst
decision they could have made—they took him and turned him into a martyr (Anagnostopoulos, 2006).
What happened to Socrates dismayed his friends and

followers. Plato, Socrates’ student, got mad at the plight of his
master, enough to write tons of books about him, making sure that
his dangerous ideas lived on.
Plato sustained the idea that man is composed of a dual nature
of body and soul. According to the Internet Encyclopedia of
Philosophy, Plato believed that the soul is immortal and separated
from the body. However, he took it to a higher level, claiming that
the soul was eternal. According to Plato, the soul does not exist
with the body. Instead, it exists prior to being joined to the body.
Resembling the idea of reincarnation, Plato ascertained that the soul
lives within a body and upon death, the soul moves onto another
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body afterwards. Building on this belief, Plato called the body the
prison of the soul.
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In his dialogue, “The Republic” (Santas, 2010), Plato argued that the human soul or the
psyche is divided into three parts labelled as appetitive, spirited, and rational. For justice in the
human person to be attained, these parts of the soul should be in tune with one another.
Imagine this, there are three things in front of you: a moist, warm piece of chocolate cake, a
slice of your self-baked but half-burnt pie, and your favorite fruit. Which one would you end up
selecting to eat?
Plato’s theory tells us that if we are left with our own instincts to decide what is good for us,
then we are most likely to choose based on our desires (appetitive soul) to satisfy our needs in ways
that are easier and more likeable for all of us. We are also likely to choose based on our mood or
emotions (spirited soul) that have to be kept in control at all times to prevent causing us problems.
Lastly, we also choose based on logic and intellect (rational soul), choosing the healthy one for us.
When these three work in with each other, then the tendency to be enslaved by our own false
opinions is lesser and the human soul becomes just and virtuous through our capability of making
rational decisions, capable of breaking free of opinions, scrutinizing misleading sensory perceptions
and discovering true knowledge (Shoefield, 2006).
Like Plato, he also asserted that the soul is immortal. However,
he believed that the soul AND the body make up a human. He does
not believe that the soul jumps from one body to another. Instead,
one person is made up of one body and one soul.
Augustine’s view of the human person states that the body is
that imperfect aspect of man that is bound to perish on earth,
which incessantly longs to be in communion with the spiritual realm
of the Divine God. The soul, on the other hand, is “capable of
reaching immortality by staying after death in an eternal realm with
the all-transcendent God (Mennel, 1994). The purpose, therefore, of
every human person is to attain this spiritual union with God by living
his life according to virtues.
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Thomas Aquinas, in his theory of self-knowledge, claimed that all

our experiences about the world around us determine our
self-knowledge. He argues that our experiences greatly shape our
awareness of ourselves — the more experience we have, the more
we get to know ourselves. Answering the question, ’Who am I?’ can
only be unraveled from the inside by me, the one asking the
question. Such question can be resolved by reasoning taken from
life encounters as evidences. For Aquinas, our being is not composed
of isolated minds or selves, rather, we are agents interacting with
the environment (Torrell, 2005). Note that answering the said
question requires becoming more aware of ourselves as we engage
with real-life experiences. This is Aquinas’ deeper sense of self.
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Rene Descartes is known to be the “Father of Modern

Philosophy” and one of the most famous dualistic thinkers of all
time (Rozemond, 1998). Dualism is the concept that reality or ex-
istence is divided into two parts: the mind and the physical body.
According to dualism, the mind is somehow separate from the
physical attributes of the body. The body is nothing but a part
attached to the mind, while the mind is part of the unseen crea-
tion. Literally speaking, if a human skull is opened-up, one can
use his senses to find out something about the human brain, but
can never find anything about the mind. Descartes asserted that
one cannot rely on his senses because they are sometimes
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He further believed that the mind is the seat of our consciousness. Because it houses our
drives, intellect, passion and understanding, it gives us our identity and our sense of self. In short,
all that we really are comes from the mind. As Descartes puts it, “I think, therefore I am” (“ Cogito,
ergo, sum” in Latin). He argued that the only thing that cannot be doubted is the existence of the
self, as man himself was the one doing the doubting in the first place. One thing should be clear
by now, we exist, because we think; we think therefore we exist. In the Second Meditation, he
explored on the idea that he is “nothing but a thinking thing that doubts, understands, affirms,
denies, is willing, is unwilling, and also imagines and has sensory perceptions” (Skirry, 2005; Flage &
Bonnen, 2014).
Identity has been defined in so many ways but for philosophers,

identity means being one thing and not another. It is what makes you
“you” and me “me”. John Locke believed that our identity is tied with
our consciousness, which to him, is the perception of what passes in
a man's own mind (Anstey, 2011). In other words, it comprises our
memories.
Was there ever a time that you asked yourself, “Am I still the
person I once was?” To answer this, Locke used his principle of
individuation, the idea that a person keeps the same identity over
time. For instance, would we be a different person if we lost an arm
or a leg? Locke’s answer was simple: Of course, not! To Locke, our
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lose hair, go blind or get a face lift, our memories are still the same. Therefore, Locke simply tells
us that our memories give us our identity (Ayers, 1993).
David Hume is known for his lack of self theory. He held to

empiricism, the theory that all knowledge is derived from human senses.
Basically, he believes that it is only through our physical experiences
using our sense of sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell
that we know what we know.
To understand his lack of self beliefs, Hume made a clear
distinction between impressions (everything that originate from our
senses) and ideas (which are just faint images of thinking and
reasoning based on impressions) in his Essay Concerning Human
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Understanding (Source: Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy). For
instance, our sense of touch tells us that a sea urchin is spiny and
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therefore, sharp. This is an impression and is wild because it is

a product of our direct experience with the world. From this impression, we form the idea that it is
dangerous to the touch. The concept of ‘dangerous’ is difficult to define completely since it cannot
be seen, touched or tasted — it is just an idea. Hume also argued that these impressions are the
changing, shifting elements of our existence and because of this, our personal identity cannot
persist through time. In short, we perceive a sense of self depending on how our mind put
impressions together and makes sense of them as ’me.’
To Hume, the idea of the self that we make is a bunch of physical impressions. He argued in
his bundle theory, the assertion that the properties we can sense are the only real parts of an
object (Larsen & Buss, 2013). If an orange fruit is round and orange in color, the theory holds that if
we remove all the properties of an orange, the idea of the orange vanishes and we are left with
nothing. In the same manner, Hume emphasized that if a human is stripped off of all his/her
physical properties, the idea of the human also disappears. Therefore, our sense of self is simply a
combination of all the impressions that we have, that, once removed, leave us with a complete lack
of self.
Several philosophers during Immanuel Kant's time take into

account empiricism as the only path to true knowledge, which
asserts that knowledge is only attained through the senses. In
other words, ’To see is to believe!’ Hence, if something cannot be
seen, tasted, touched, heard, or physically experienced, it might as
well be a pot of gold at the end of the rainbow!
Then again, many of Kant's supporters advocated rationalism, a
theory which states that reason is the foundation of all knowledge,
rather than experience. Say for example, while watching a 3D movie,
your eyes tell you that a dinosaur is about to jump out of a screen.
However, your rational mind lets you know that it is not! Therefore,
seeing is not believing — reasoning is!
httpshttps://ph.images.search.yahoo.com/search/images?p=immanuel+kant&fr=yfp- In the middle of this heated debate on self-knowledge and
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2Fimmanuel-kant_G1w32.jpg&action=click perception between empiricism vs. rationalism was Kant, who
believed that we all have an inner and an outer self which together, form our consciousness.
The inner self is comprised of our psychological state and our rational intellect. The outer
self includes our sense and the physical world (Carver & Scheier, 2014). To Kant, both of these
theories are incomplete when it comes to the self. When speaking of the inner self, there is
apperception, which is how we mentally assimilate a new idea into old ones. Basically, it is how we
make sense of new things. Consider Person A to be the owner of a 180-lb. dog. For him, his dog
is huge so whenever he meets an 80-lb. dog (or any other weight less than his dog’s, for that
matter), he does not consider it to be big. On the other hand, to a person who spends all day with
a small breed dog like a Chihuahua, the same 80-lb dog would seem immense. With this, Person A’s
rational thoughts on ‘big’ are based on the already formed apperception of his big dog, while the
other person’s is based on undersized canines. According to Kant, neither is right nor wrong — the
idea of ‘big’ is just based on internal reasoning that cannot be experienced through senses.
As a fragment of the outer self, Kant argued about a mental imagery based on past
sensations and experiences called representation, which occurs through our senses. Let us say that
you are a person who is not into cold places. You have never been to Alaska but based on the
photos you found online and your personal experiences with snow even in other places in the past,
you already have imagined what Alaska would feel like. This representation of cold for you is
enough to keep you from going to Alaska. As per Kant, empiricists who only rely on the sensory
world and representation miss the mark on self by negating the effects of apperception.
Conversely, rationalists who cancel out representation miss by just as much. It is through these
that Kant believed that the inner and outer self combine to give us our consciousness instead of
self being one or the other.
While many philosophers support, “I think, therefore I am,” Gilbert

Ryle in a way said, “I act, therefore I am!” Ryle unravels the separation
between the mind and the body by claiming that it is our behaviors and
actions that give us our sense of self. In other words, we are all just a
bundle of behaviors that if someone thinks she is beautiful, it is
because she acts beautifully. If someone thinks he is intelligent, it is
because he acts intelligently.
Ryle tells us that those who think that the mind exists separately
from the body are committing a category mistake, an error in logic in
which one category of something is presented as belonging to another
category (Hofstadter, 1951). This concept is best explained below:
“One day a girl visited a college campus. After seeing the buildings,
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teachers, students, and dorms, she looked at the tour guide and
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sweetly asked, ‘This is all nice, but when do I get to see the university?'
With this question, the girl committed a category mistake. Rather than realizing everything she saw
made up the university, she thought it existed as a separate category.”
To Ryle, the idea that “there is something called ‘mind’ over and above a person’s behavioral
dispositions” is questionable. He argued that the mind does not exist and therefore cannot be the
seat of self. In other words, we neither get our sense of self from the mind nor from the body,
but from our behaviors in our day-to-day activities.
When it comes to discussing the mind, many Western philosophers

held to dualism, which asserts that the mind and the body are
separate. In other words, we all have a physical brain, but we also
have a separate mind. Because the mind is the seat of our
consciousness, it is what gives us our identity.
But Paul Churchland, a modern-day philosopher, believed otherwise.
Instead of dualism, he holds to the belief that the physical brain is
where we get our sense of self. This is known as eliminative
materialism, the belief that nothing but matter exists (Churchland, 1981).
In short, if it cannot be recognized by our senses, then it is simply a
fairy tale. Therefore, since the mind cannot be experienced by our
senses, then it does not really exist. For him, it is the physical brain
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To prove this, Churchland points out that if the mind is the seat of
the self, how can personalities be altered by physical injuries or brain trauma? Using this
argument, he claims that the physical brain is the origin of the ‘self’ and that the belief in the mind
is rather unnecessary.
-
Maurice Merleau-Ponty believed the physical body to be an
important part of what makes up the subjective self (Carbone,
2004).
Subjectivity, or subject is something that has being (Zahavi,
2005; Clark, 1997). It is defined as a real thing that can take real
action and cause real effects. In short, it exists. However, he ar-
gued that this concept contradicts with rationalism and empiri-
cism.
Rationalism asserts that reason and mental perception, rather
than physical senses and experience, are the basis of knowledge
and self (Alloa, 2017). Merleau-Ponty believed that the mind is the
seat of our consciousness (Barbaras, 2014). The body is just a shell
and it is the subject behind what it means to be human. On the
https://www.google.com/search?q=MERLEAU+PONTY&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH767
&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwibx-nE4cHbAhWKXLwKHbQEAfoQ_AUI
CigB&biw=715&bih=615#imgrc=THdUgT-sm0C9GM:
other hand, empiricism is the belief that our physical senses are
our only source of knowledge. If the source of knowledge cannot be seen, touched, heard, tasted,
etc., it really cannot be trusted. While the rationalists would say, ‘I think, therefore I am,” Empiri-
cists would say, “I sense, therefore I am!.”
Merleau-Ponty disagreed with these concepts. Rather than seeing and perceiving the mind and
the body as two separate entities, Merleau-Ponty argued that they are interconnected. They both
are our seat of knowledge, and they both give us our sense of self. Like love and marriage, you
cannot have one without the other! In other words, the self and perception are encompassed in a
physical body. The physical body is part of the self — the body is not a prison house of self, rather,
it is the subject that embodies self.
.
EVALUATE
Name: ________________________________________________________________ Year/Section: ________
Worksheet 1
Who are you according to...
Who are you? In your own understanding, briefly express the concept of the ‘self’ for each
philosopher. Then, state how similar or different your view of the ‘self’ is as compared to that of
Socrates Plato Augustine
Aquinas Descartes
Locke Hume Kant
Ryle Churchland Merleau-Ponty
Worksheet 2
How is self understood?
Examine your ‘self’ now that you are in college. Write a short essay below on how you
understand your self. Identify the different influences, factors and forces that led to yourself.
Then, reflect on the kind of identity that you have at present by developing a theory of your own.
Worksheet 3
How do you see me?
Do you want to know how other people see you? Do you believe that you have the same
perception of your self as compared to how others see you? Let’s find out by asking your
classmates to describe you by writing their perceptions of you on the space provided below.
What did you discover about yourself from other people’s point of view? _________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Do you believe in their perception about you? Why or why not? __________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
What could be the possible reason/s why others perceive you differently from what you know about
yourself? __________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
:
Alloa, E. (2017). Resistance of the Sensible World. An Introduction to Merleau-Ponty. New York:
Fordham University Press.
Anagnostopoulos, M. (2006). “The Divided Soul and the Desire for Good in Plato’s “Republic” in
Santas, Gerasimos (ed.). The Blackwell Guide to Plato’s Republic. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Anstey, P. (2011). John Locke & Natural Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ayers, M. (1993). Locke: Epistemology and Ontology. New York: Routledge.
Barbaras, R. (2004). The Being of the Phenomenon. Merleau-Ponty's Ontology. Bloomington: Indiana
University Press.
Carbone, M. (2004). The Thinking of the Sensible Merleau-Ponty’s A Philosophy. Evanston:

Northwestern University Press.
Carver, C. & Scheier, M. (2014). Perspectives on Personality (7th ed.). Edinburgh Gate: Pearson
Education Limited.
Churchland, P. (1981). Eliminative Materialism and the Propositional Attitudes. Journal of Philosophy
78:67-90.
Clark, A. 1997. Being There: Putting Brain, Body, and World Together Again. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Flage, D. & Bonnen, C. (2014). Descartes and Method: A Search for a Method in Meditations. New York:
Routledge.
Giles, J. (1997). No Self to be Found: The Search for Personal Identity. Maryland: University Press of
America.
Hofstadter, A. (1951). The Journal of Philosophy, vol.48,No.9, pp.257-270. DOI: 10.2307/2021599

Retrieved from : http://www.jstor.org/stable/2021599
Larsen, R. & Buss, D. (2013) Personality Psychology: Domains of Knowledge About Human Nature (11th
ed.). New Delhi: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
Lear, J. (1997). “Inside and Outside the Republic”, in Kraut, R. edition, Plato’s Republic: Critical
Essays. New York: Rowman and Littlefield.
Maxwell, M. (2013). The Fundamentals of Education: A Socratic Perspective on the Cultivation of

Humanity. Retrieved from: http://www.socraticmethod.net/how_to_use_the_socratic_method/
page1.html.
Mennel, S. (1994). Journal of Early Christian Studies, vol.2, no.3, pp. 291-324, doi: 10.1353/earl.0.0138
Rowe, C. (2007). “The Place of the Republic in Plato’s Political Thought” in Ferrari, G.R.F. The
Canbridge Companion to Plato’s Republic. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rozemond, M. (1998). Descartes’ Dualism. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Santas, G. (2010). Understanding Plato’s Republic. New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell.
Schofield, M. (2006). Plato: Political Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Skirry, J. (2005). Descartes and the Metaphysics of Human Nature. London and New York:
Thoemmes-Continuum Press.
Torrell, J. (2005). Saint Thomas Aquinas: The Person and His Work. Washington, DC: The Catholic
University of America Press.
Vlastos, G. & Graham, D. (1971). “The Paradox of Socrates,” in The Philosophy of Socrates: A
Collection of Critical Essays. Melbourne: Anchor Books.
Zahavi, D. (2005). Subjectivity and selfhood: Investigating the first-person perspective. New York:
MIT.
LESSON 2
THE SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY OF THE SELF
Lesson Objectives:
a. Describe the connection between the self, society and culture.
b. Recognize the social and cultural factors that shape the self.
c. Examine the comparisons of the self based on the different societies.
d. Reflect on one’s development of the self based on one’s cultural and societal backgrounds.
ACTIVATE
Have you ever feel the need to wear a variety of masks in order to blend into
social situations? At some point in our lives, we all try to conceal that ‘part of us’
which we do not like the world to see because we fear rejection. They are normal,
yet not an ideal part of human life. If you are to represent yourself to other
people, how would your mask look like? Create a mask for yourself using the template
provided.
1. Describe the image that you want to portray in your mask.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
2. In one word, define how you have been labeled by your:
a. classmates/friends:
______________________________________________________________
b. family:
______________________________________________________________
https://www.google.com.ph/search?sa=G&hl=en-PH&q=reflection+ps
c. teachers/adults:
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_____________________________________________________________
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3. How would you describe what people typically know about what you do
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or about your life?___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Explain how your personality is really like (what you really love to do that not everyone knows or
what your life is really like). ___________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
5. Are there any similarities or differences between your own descriptions as compared to that of
the others about you? _______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
6. What could be the possible factors that influenced these similarities or differences? ____________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
EMPOWER
Many philosophers have debated upon the concept of the ‘self.’ Later on, more discussions
about the ‘self’ emerged with the advent of the social sciences to revisit new ways and theories
that would best explain the true nature of the self.
Among the emphases in the examination of the self is the connection between the self and the
outside world.
You may have encountered the term, tabula rasa, the idea that individuals are born without any
mental content. Therefore, knowledge of something comes from experience or perception (Diels-
Kranz, 1987). In the same manner, our sense of self begins to develop as we experience the world
around us — the more we interact with the outside world, the more we develop our selves. If you
happen to have watched the movie, “Mean Girls,” that was what exactly happened to Cady Heron
whose innocent life changed after attending a public school for the first time, meeting different
kinds of people and shaping a brand new person in Cady. Consequently, the sociological and
anthropological perspectives of the self tell us that the ‘self’ is a by-product of one’s interaction
with the environment, and not because of the mind or the soul infused into us.
?
After being part of the first batch of senior high school graduates, you
are now in the middle of figuring out what you really want to be - like it or
not, you are in search of an identity, the concept that we have of our role
in the world around us (James, 2015). Remember, we do not just wake up
one day and decide on the person we want to become. Instead, we try to
find our identity through a continuous complex process throughout our lives.
At this stage of your life, you are beginning to make your own decisions
— what course to take in college, what school to go to, which friends to be
with, and so on and so forth — but this does not mean you are free of
influences. Say for example, you chose the course BS Aeronautical https://www.google.com.ph/search?
q=identity&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH767&source
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decide on this because you really want to design aircrafts? Are you
interested in finding out if it is a difficult course? Did you get pressured by a family member, a
relative perhaps, because he/she is also an Aeronautical Engineer even though you did not really
want to take the course? Or, are you simply taking it because your friends chose this course as
well?
Thinking about these questions can help us see that the decisions we make are prompted by a
variety of factors. To some extent, you may have chosen a particular course, but your decision is
also influenced by external factors that are out of your control. Your perceptions, attitudes, values,
and beliefs and those around you all play an important role (Heggertveit-Aoudia, 2012).
-
The way you see yourself is your self-identity (Shoemaker,
2015). Your self identity shapes your perceptions, or the way
you see the world. Your attitude about life, the way you think
or feel about something, depends on how you identify yourself.
Also, the way you see yourself is also manipulated by
your values, what you think is right or wrong, and beliefs, what
you see as true and untrue. All these factors influence what
you can accomplish and where you will fit in (Stevens, 1996).
If you do not see yourself as capable of finishing BS
Aeronautical Engineering, would you be taking the entrance
examination for this course? Would you take this course if you
felt that it was not a worthy course? With this in mind, we
https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=identity&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH767&source=lnm
s&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiXusOv3uPaAhUY6bwKHRfdAvoQ_AUICigB&biw=755&bih=711&dpr=0
realize that we make decisions about who we are, based on

our perception of the world, the way we feel about things, the consequence of our beliefs and val-
ues on the choices that we make. On the other hand, your social identity, or the way others see
you, is also influenced by others’ perceptions, attitudes, values, and beliefs. Per-
haps a family member has high expectations of you because they were a successful Aeronautical
Engineer. Maybe you feel like you do not belong in the Aero Family because of your race or religion.
Social identity and self-identity are not always on the same page, which can actually cause conflict
in a person's life. Imagine how you might feel if you were identified with being an A+ student and
then you were asked to shift to another course because you did not meet the maintaining grade.
Another important concept in relation to
identity is stereotypes (Operario & Fiske, 2003).
These are assumptions that are made about
individuals because they belong to a particular
social group. Going back to the previous
example, applying the concept of stereotype is
similar to saying, men are better Aeronautical
Engineers than women. When someone believes
that a stereotype is true, unfair judgments https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=stereotype+job+roles&tbm=isch&tbs=rimg:Ca_1FzOPKLpXGIjgvCL-JdAY9S1gnKflpS7 iN-
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are made about an individual. This can be

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=1517&bih=681&dpr=0.9#imgrc=Lwi_iXQGPUvYzM:
seen in a situation where an aviation

company may give preferential treatment to male Aeronautical Engineers and demean the
capabilities of female Aeronautical Engineers. Think about how different the ladies’ experience of
trying to get in an aviation company as compared to that of the men’s. Will the male co-workers
treat the ladies differently? Will the ladies’ abilities be judged fairly? Stereotypes are most of the
time untrue and judgments should not be made about an individual based on an assumption (Fiske,
2002).
-
Can you say that you are smart, physically attractive and talented? How do you know you are?
Oftentimes, you believed these to be true about yourself because someone told you so. The self is a
transforming but persistent aspect of one’s personality. Our sense of self is defined as a collection
of beliefs that we hold about ourselves. We put together these beliefs based upon our social
interactions with others (Sedikides & Spencer, 2007).
This lesson will explore the effect of the socialization process on the self according to two
social scientists, George Herbert Mead and Charles Cooley (Macionis & John, 2010). Both of them
believed that the self was developed through the process of self-socialization, a developmental
process that allows us to reflect upon and argue with ourselves for us to develop an accurate self
-image. It is important to note that this process begins in early childhood and has many influencing
factors such as the family, peers, teachers and the media.
George Herbert Mead, in his Social Self Theory, believed that the
sense of self is developed through social interactions, such as
observing and interacting with others (Ritzer, 2008). According to
Mead, the self is not yet present at birth. Rather, it is developed
over time from social experiences and activities. Simply put, When a
baby is first born, he does not seem to have a sense of who he is,
but that changes as he grows.
He also identified three activities that develop the self: language,
play, and games (Mead & Morris, 1967).
By means of symbols, gestures, words, and sounds, which enables https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=george+herbert+mead&rlz=1C1CHBD_e
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individuals to communicate with and respond to each other, the self is

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Auxz0jseCsxB7M:
developed through language. A person’s attitudes and opinions towards another person are
conveyed using language. Consequently, it is through play that
the self is developed since it allows us to take on different roles,
pretend, and express expectation of others. Remember the times
when little children think and act like the people they frequently
see such as those little girls who used to play ‘dress-up’ by
putting on her mommy’s lipstick and shoes? Our
self-consciousness is developed through role-playing, which
enables us to assume other roles and internalize how others
perceive us in a variety of social situations.
Children begin to examine their own actions and that of the
others at ages five and eight. Games develop the self by allowing individuals to understand and
adhere to the rules of the activity, teaching them the value of accountability. The self is developed
by understanding that there are rules that one must follow in order to win the game or be
successful in an activity (Miller, 2009).
Let us examine the two sides of the self according to Mead: ‘Me’ and ‘I.’ To Mead, the “me” is
considered the socialized aspect of the individual, which represents the learned behaviors, attitudes
and expectations of others and of the society. This is known as the “generalized other,” where
children and young adults interact with the society and adopt to other people’s expectations
(Gillespie, 2006). It is at this stage that we learn to put our trash in the proper waste can. This
knowledge is developed through our social interactions with other people.
On the other hand, the ‘I’ is the representation of the person’s identity based on the response
to the ‘me.’ In other words, the ‘I’ says, “If the society dictates that I should behave nicely, then I
should act the same (or perhaps differently)” - this notion becomes the self. Take note of the
perceptive relationship between the ‘me’ and the ‘I.’ Akin to a system of checks and balances, the
‘me’ employs societal control over one’s self — it is the part of the self that prevents a person
from being a rule-breaker or disregarding the expectations of the society. Then again, the ‘I’
allows us to bend some rules governing social interactions, which enables us to still express our
creativity, originality and imagination. To Mead, the ‘me’ and the ‘I’ make up the self (Mead, 1934).
Charles Cooley built on the work of Mead with his theory called
the Looking-Glass Self (Cooley, 1998). He explained how people
develop a sense of self. Having three elements, the first element is
how we imagine we appear to others. The second element is the
judgment we imagine that other people may be making about us,
and the third element is our self-image based upon the evaluations
of others.
These elements can be best understood by discussing the three
stages of behavioral and personality development of the
Looking-Glass Self. According to Cooley, it takes time to develop
one’s self. Beginning after birth, the self continues to develop
throughout a person's life through the following stages: imagining, https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=charles+cooley&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH7 67PH
767&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj07tiotOLaAhXGw
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interpreting, and developing self-concept.
Imagining occurs when an individual judges the way he or she acts and appears from the points
of view of family and friends. Perhaps your mom sees you as someone who is shy and quiet,
your friends see you as cheeky and confident, while your teachers see you as friendly. Primarily,
these views make-up a self-concept. In fact, this can be understood as, ‘this is how I must appear
to others’ stage.
The second stage is a learned ability called interpreting, which occurs when a person elicits
conclusions coming not only from past experiences but from what others think as well, and then
reacts to the judgement of other people’s views.
As the individual combines everything from his or her past experiences, including others’
perspectives, he or she approaches the final stage, which is developing self-concept. This is where
a sense of self-image is formed and seen as the ‘this is who I am’ stage.
Cooley held high regard for other people’s opinions, and believed that these opinions of the
society shape the individual into becoming who they are. In short, we know if we look good today
because when we wear our favorite outfit, we feel confident and dazzling. Therefore, every time we
wear our favorite outfit, everyone always tells us how good we look in it.
&
The formation of our self-identities is indeed a very complex process. While the list of
contributing factors is nearly infinite, it is best to discuss several of the most powerful factors.
Considering the fact that these factors change — so does our definition of ourselves. Let us look at
a few of the factors that shape our self and identity, and realize how culture influences our
understanding of these factors.
How we see ourselves shapes our lives, and is shaped by our cultural context. We all have
probably asked ourselves “Who am I?” a dozen times. Certainly, we have heard the saying, “No two
people are alike,” from our personal encounter with other people in different situations. This is
because we will never ever see
ourselves being exactly the same as the
others since we all have different life
experiences. Self-perceptions
influence how we think about the world,
our social relationships, health and
lifestyle choices, community
engagement, political actions, and
ultimately our own and other people's
well-being (Vignoles et. Al, 2016).
It has been a given fact that social
scientists are well-aware that people in
different parts of the world see
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themselves in different ways.

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’’ ‘ ’
One can attest to the differing culture of the East and the West in terms of self-construction.
Western cultures are inclined to foster individualism, the ‘I’ idea that describes the self as existing
independently of others and includes own traits. In contrast, collectivism dominates the perspective
on the self in Eastern cultures. Collectivism,
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the ’we’ idea, views the self in relation to

others, emphasizing the interdependence of
the self as part of a larger network of people
who all help shape each other.
, ,
We all know how the family plays a crucial
role in our development (Banaag & Cruz, 2016).
Being the primary agent of socialization, we
first learn to interact with our parents and
other family members — we are a child to our parents and a brother or sister to our siblings. We
enter a system of relationship — the family — which is the most important of all. We consciously
learn the use of the magic words, ’please’ and ’thank you’, the use of po and opo and the many
ways to show respect such as pagmamano, in the most basic foundation of our growth and
development — the family. Without a family, our sense of self will be difficult to develop. Imagine the
life of Tarzan including his behaviors, attitudes and basic manners. As fabricated as the character
appears, he is who he is because of his ape ‘family.’
Our age is also a factor that influences our identity. Notice how protective our parents have
been when we were little. Young children are more dependent while older children show more
independence. Sometimes they are even asked to take care of their younger siblings. As we age, our
identities and position in the family network transform. Beginning from being a baby, you grow as a
child, then as an adult child of your parents and sooner or later, you may have your own children
and your significant other, and have nieces and nephews (David, 2002).
The role of culture plays a significant role in determining the kind of relationships we establish
with our families. While some aunts and uncles are an important part of a child’s life, some were
raised in a home with one or more parental figures. While others live in a nuclear family, others live
in an extended one where parents, grandparents, and relatives live under the same roof (Banaag &
Cruz, 2016).
Gender also contributes to these relationships. Remember, sex is a biological term for a
person's genetic condition of being male or female. Hence, we only have two sexes. Gender, on the
other hand, is a social interpretation that varies across cultures. This is why different cultures can
have a number of gender categories like lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender. Basically, gender is
how a person expresses his or her biological sex according to cultural definitions (Udry, 1994).
In the Philippines, we still have the terms tomboy, girly-girl, and manly-man to classify the way
people express masculinity or femininity. Even the roles that the society dictates to a specific gender
influence our identity like assigning household tasks to women, fathers being the breadwinner of the
family, toy cars and robots for the little boys, and dolls and dresses for the little girls (Landy, 2017).
, , -
Similar to the factors mentioned above, a person's ethnicity also contributes to how an individual
interacts with others, yet, those interactions differ depending on where a person lives and his or
her nationality. Ethnicity is a social construct determined by a person's ancestral origins, culture,
and physical attributes inherited from their ancestors (Banaag & Cruz, 2016). Various studies say
that racial or ethnic differences affect one’s self-image.
In a research by Gray-Little & Hafdahl (2000), African-
Americans, who believe that they belong the ethnic
minorities, are found to have lower self-esteem when
they compare themselves to Whites, who are more
advantaged. In the same manner, people with Middle
Eastern ethnicity, regardless of whether or not they
were born and raised in the Middle East or in the United
States, see themselves differently, possessing very Images of Flags taken from www.google.com
different life experiences.

Nationality combines with ethnicity to further define a person's identity within his or her larger
community. Filipinos have a distinct identity of being hospitable, making sure that something is
offered to visitors in the house (Garcia, 2015). In Mediterranean countries, people consider you
unkind if you avoid touching someone’s arm when talking to them or do not greet them with kisses or
a warm embrace (Pitta, et. Al, 1999). In the Philippines, when introduced to a person we just met,
we sometimes tap their backs to show acceptance but do this to someone who is not a family
member or a good friend in Korea will keep them uncomfortable. In the country, we can pat a child
on his or her head even if we are a stranger to them. In Thailand, the head is considered sacred
- patting a child on the head is a big NO (Pitta, et. Al, 1999).
Finally, our socio-economic class significantly influences one’s self-identity. Simply, it determines
where we live, the benefits and shortcomings we experienced during our upbringing, the kind of
education that we have, the kind of language that we learn, and even the choice of social groups.
In truth, our socio-economic class contributes to the development of one’s self-confidence, that
gives them the feeling of either superiority or inferiority in relation to others who belong to a
different class.
EVALUATE
Worksheet 1
Through the Years
A. Reflect on your developmental stages through the years and answer the following questions
as truthfully and as briefly as possible.
How has your family

influenced your
development as a
person?
Cite an instance or
instances when you
felt you were your
true self.
What makes you say

that this was or these
were your real self?
How has your age,

gender, ethnicity and
nationality influence
your identity?
Describe an instance
or instances when you
felt you were your
fake self.
Why do you think you

had to wear a mask
to show something
that you are not?
Identify the factors
that might have
influenced you to show
a fake self.
Have you overcome

this mask? If so,
explain how.
If you are to change

an aspect of your
self, what would it be?
Why?
Worksheet 2
My Timeline
Reflect on your developmental stages through the years.

Were you a hyperactive baby, a curious toddler, a creative
little kid, an adventurous teenager or an opposite version
of these? Briefly give a description of yourself in each
stage using the Timeline template provided on the next
page to trace how the various factors of socialization
influenced your sense of self. You may use drawings, bullet
points, and the like to make your timeline more creative. https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=developmental+stages&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH767&source=lnms&tbm=is ch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiv09-
D0OPaAhWIa7wKHeIhAakQ_AUICigB&biw=1366&bih=662#imgrc=O_vqnACqiv9aMM:
https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=timeline+template&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH767&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj-pN7Bu-PaAhXKxbwKHSvqDTMQ_AUICigB&biw=1366&bih=662#imgrc=F7K5e3h7D1bY5M:
What did you discover about yourself through the years? How will you describe yourself based on your timeline?
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Chicago Press.
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R. & Gaertner, S. Blackwell Handbook of Social Psychology: Intergroup Processes. Malden,
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LESSON 3
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE SELF
Lesson Objectives:
a. Evaluate the various concepts of the ‘self’ as define by psychology.
b. Explore how the distinct psychological factors contribute to the development of the ‘self.’
c. Form one’s own self-construct.
ACTIVATE
Let’s explore your thoughts and feelings. Open-up and share them to your classmates.
Complete the worksheet below in the way that feels right to you. This will help you get an idea of
your general outlook on life and see how things change over time.
1. My best friend is...
2. Sometimes I wish I could...
3. The thing I fear most is…
4. Today I would like to…
5. I feel my future is…
6. I gain strength from…
7. I would never…
8. I get angry when...
9. I secretly enjoy...
10. I don’t like to admit...
We have understood the philosophical, sociological and anthropological perspectives of the self
in the previous lessons. As discussed, each discipline has their own representations and
conceptualizations of the self. Similarities and differences may have been identified but then again,
one cannot deny the fact that there are cognitive and affective aspects of one’s identity that can
still contribute in the development of one’s self rather than just pointing out to the relation of the
mind and the soul, or of the society or culture to the ‘self.’
This lesson provides a brief overview of the psychological theories that explains how the concept
of the ‘self’ is formed.
EMPOWER
Psychology is the scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially those affecting
behavior in a given context (Source: English Oxford Living Dictionaries). In this lesson, we will explore
the ’self’ using the perspective of the mental, emotional and spiritual aspects of one’s personality.
The ’self’ has been defined several times as one’s personal identity that characterizes who we
are as a human being (Jhangiani & Tarry 2014). Other definitions say that the ‘self’ entails an
individual’s conscious and unconscious aspects, his or her personality, cognitions or thoughts and
feelings. All these traits or aspects combine together into the person's core identity (Myers, 2009).
In psychology, the sense of self is defined as “the way a person thinks about and views his or her
traits, beliefs, and purpose within the world” (Dash & Tripathy, 2012).
William James, known as the “Father of American Psychology,” was

one of the first to propose a theory of the ‘self’ in the Principles of
Psychology (James, 1983). According to James, the self has two
aspects: the “I Self” and the “Me Self.” The ‘I Self’ is a reflection of
what people see in one’s actions in the physical world (e.g., recognizing
that one is reading, running or drinking). The ‘Me Self,’ on the other
hand, represents an individual’s reflections about himself or herself (e.g.
branding oneself as risk-taker, intelligent, kind).
Basically, the ‘I Self’ is the thinking, acting and feeling self whereas
the ‘Me Self’ constitutes the physical and psychological capabilities that
make who you are (Gleitman et. Al., 2011 and Hogg et. Al, 2010). https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=william+james&rlz=1C1CHBD_
enPH767PH767&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjlpPqw5eP
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6pM:
Can you say that you are the same person now as compared to when
you were six years old? You might probably say that you are, in some
ways, because you may still have the same hobbies or interests as before.
But there might be a part of you that tells you that you are not entirely
the same simply because as you grow, do does your sense of self.
Carl Rogers is a Humanist Psychologist who contributed a great deal
about the development of the self. He believed that there are three
contributing components to the development of the sense of self:
self-image, self-esteem and the ideal self (Rogers, 1959).
How we view ourselves talks about our self-image, which includes
personality traits and physical descriptions. For example, are you tall or
https://www.google.com.ph/imgres?imgurl=https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/36/Carlrogers.jpg/220px-Carlrogers.jpg&I short? Are you loyal, confident, aggressive or maybe all three? Self-image
mgrefurl=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Rogers&h=321&
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PBv0Q_B0I9AEwCg member, or the youngest in the family. Regardless of the characteristics
that you have for yourself, or the roles that you play, they all contribute to your self-image. Note
that a person's self-image is not always true. A person suffering from bulimia may have the
self-image that they are extremely overweight, even if they are not in reality.
Do you believe in yourself? Do you love who you are? Do you want to be more good-looking or
more intelligent? Perhaps, there are times when you wish you were someone else. How you answer
these questions is an indication of how much value you put on yourself. If you are the type of
person who believes that ‘the grass is greener in other’s pasture’ or that the glass is half-empty
(instead of half-full), then you may have a low self-esteem, often experiencing feelings of
uncertainty and insecurity. On the contrary, if you
feel confident and believe that you are doing
something positive to the world, then you most likely
have high self-esteem, feeling worthy of the kind of
life that you have.
The ideal self is the person that you aspire to
be (McLeod, 2008). While self-esteem and
self-image influence the development of the self,
the ideal self is what urges us forward. It is an “How much
idealized image that we have developed over time
for the
mirror?”
on the basis of what we have learned and
experienced. It can even include components of https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=how+much+for+the+mirror+cartoon+stock&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH767&source=lnms
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what our parents have taught us such as what we

admire in others, what our society promotes, and what we think is in our best interest.
The interrelationship between these three components is vital as it can influence the outcome of
your life. For instance, you have always seen yourself as the President of the Student Council of
your school, but you lack the academic excellence necessary to qualify for the position. You have
high self-esteem and you believe that you have what it takes to be the President of the student
body. In addition to these, you also have a positive self-image and are confident that you can win
because you have the leadership skills and you have many connections in the school community.
Having this self-esteem and self-image coupled with the vision of your ideal self inspires you to
exert more effort and excel academically in order to satisfy the criteria for the position that you
want.
Remember that your ideal self is not always consistent with your real self (McLeod, 2008). This
is who you actually are and not who you strive to be. It is how we think, feel, look, and act. The real
self can be seen by others, but because we have no way of truly knowing how others view us, the
real self is our self-image. In the example above, you may always strive to study harder to meet
the academic requirements for the said position in the Student Council and never become the
President. To someone with low self-esteem or self-image, this is a failure. But for someone with
high self-esteem and self-image, this mentality could lead you to an entirely new perception of
yourself and possibly a new ideal self like perhaps, you may end up being the President of a course
organization or the boss of a company that you single-handedly put up.
While other theories assert that the ‘self’ is also characterized as self-view, self-image, self-
schema, and self-concept, it is essential to note that these are basically your knowledge (the
personal characteristics (such as your name, age, hobbies, interests), social roles and
responsibilities, or affiliations) about who you are. In short, it is something that comes to your mind
when you are asked who you are (Elmore, et. Al, 2012).
Also worth taking note is the fact that the ‘self’ is not fixed in one time span. When asked to
describe yourself, you probably can say, ”I was a Class President in 4th grade,” or “I am a first
year college student,” or “I am the future Senator of the Philippines.”
Again, as you grow and embrace the changes that take place around you, your self-view (self-
image, self-schema and self-concept) also changes and can dynamically form your identity. As a
result, it affects how you picture everything around you — how you see, feel, act and think about
things.
More and more psychologists, especially during the earlier development of Psychology, tried to
postulate theories about the development of the ‘self’ since it actively shapes one’s personality.
Among the most influential psychologists who theorized about the

self is Sigmund Freud, founder of Psychoanalysis (a clinical method for
treating psychopathology through dialogue with the patient). He
postulated that there are three layers of self within us all: the id, the
ego and the superego (Stevens, 1996).
According to Freud, the first part of the self to develop is the id,
known as the seat of all our desires and wants. In a nutshell, id is a
collection of urges that need to be fulfilled. This part of the self has no
awareness other than it wants what it wants. There is a need for
instant gratification as it deals more on a person’s instincts. The
problem is, it does not care about morals or societal norms. As they
say, id is the little devil on everyone’s shoulder.
Imagine a baby who just starts to cry when he or she is hungry.
For teenagers like you waiting for your class to finish before taking
https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=sigmund+freud&rl
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your lunch break, you simply take a look at your watch and realize that
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there is still one hour before you can satisfy your hunger. But to a baby who has no consciousness
of time, he or she will only cry to say ’feed me now’ no
matter how inconvenient it gets for the person who can
hear the baby’s cry. Since the infant does not have the
capacity to reason that food is all that matters at the
moment, he or she will continue to cry out loud until
somebody feeds him or her. Just the same, our id, which
holds our unconscious collection of urges, does not reason.
It just wants what it wants and that is all there is to it.
Most certainly, as the baby advances into childhood, he
or she begins to understand that not every need can
immediately be met. As the child matures, he or she also https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=id,+ego+and+superego&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767P H767&source=ln
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realizes that there are some needs that should not be met,
especially if those needs are illegal or immoral. This realization forms another layer of the self
known as the ego (Carducci, 2015).
According to Freud, ego is the part of us that functions in reality. While the id is totally
irrational, the ego has the capability to distinguish what is right or wrong based on the given
context. Using the previous example, the ego is at work when a teenager decides to wait for the
right time to eat, rather than cutting class to eat or violate the rule of eating something inside the
classroom, which can spoil his or her appetite.
This leads us to our superego. Freud asserts that the superego seeks to attain the ideal of a
perfect ego. If the id is the little devil on everyone’s shoulder, the superego is often portrayed as
the little angel whispering on our shoulder that plagues us with shame and
guilt when we fail to meet its standards. Take note, the superego,
according to Freud, can be rigid and punishing as it is irrational in its views
of perfection. In other words, no one can ever live up to the standards
of the superego. Interestingly, Freud believed that the superego is
formed by the repressive rules of our parents. Using our example
above, the superego would shame you even for the idea of wanting to eat
immediately before waiting for the right time. For the superego, it would
be a shame if you do not control your appetite even for a single hour.
Because of the rigidity of the superego and the uncontrolled passions
of the id, the ego somewhat acts as the gatekeeper for both, which
maintains the balance between the two. In short, a mentally healthy ego
https://www.google.com.ph/search?
q=id,+ego+and+superego&rlz=1C1 CHBD_enPH767PH76
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knows when it is right to give in to id’s desires but makes judgments when
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it is time to give the floor to superego. Since most psychological theories define the self as mental
constructs, we will examine other perspectives on the ‘self’ as a product of social interaction. This
way, we do not discount the other forces in the formation of who we think we are.
Many young individuals like you are in the process of establishing your
roles, responsibilities, and your sense of self. Given the fact that changes
are inevitable, your self-identity is also not stable as it keeps on growing
one way or another.
Theorists, such as Descartes and Locke, view the self as unified — an
individual, including the things that the he or she thinks, wants, hopes, and
so on and so forth, are all part of a unified being. The unified self theory https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=multiple+self+image&rlz=1C1C
HBD_enPH767PH767&tbm=isch&source=iu&ictx=1&fir=D2T6qUT6R
states that the identity of a person develops in a continuity of

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consciousness. What makes me ‘me’ is the network of memories, hopes, imgrc=u7UcoqvEJzIq4M:
expectations, fantasies, convictions, and other thoughts that comprise my own consciousness. In
other words, we think of ourselves as one person, whose thoughts, hopes, expectations and feelings
are just a part of who we are (Baumeister, et. Al., 2011).
The question is, is there just one ‘self’ in each person or are we really consist of many different
selves? As our sense of personhood continuously transforms, seeking new areas of growth, and even
our self seems to be stable, the self can still branch out and find new areas to develop. This might
not be apparent to us but when we are faced with the most challenging of tasks, we encounter new
problems that shake our stability and move us to growth. When we feel depressed or angry at life,
fearful or being frozen in our actions, our core self tends to change. There are times when you
believe that you can accomplish difficult tasks easily but there are also times when you might
withdraw from them because of the feeling that you cannot handle it. This changes a part of our
self-concept. How can we take back the self from this limitation, for example? Part of the answer
to this question is to understand that the self is not one thing, but a complex of multiple definitions
and parts — in short, we develop a divided self or a multiple self. Remember that our sense of
identity has developed out of our past experiences. Other parts of our ‘self’ may even be hidden or
masked. For instance, we might behave in one way when we are with our friends but we might
behave differently when we are with strangers. Part of your ’self’ might even consist of dreams or
wishes that guide us at times. When you drink to excess occasionally and then act rude, then your
core self is in conflict with the other parts of your ‘self.’
According to Sedikides & Spencer (2007) and Katoch & Katoch (2017), some describe the multiple
self as having separate domains: the experiential self (the part of you that ‘disappears’ when you
enter a deep sleep and flashes on and off as you dream and then come back again as you wake
up), the private self (the ‘interpreter’ part of your being that narrates and makes sense of what is
going on), and the public self (the persona that you attempt to project to others, which in turn, in-
teracts with how other people actually see you).
Another discussion on the concept of the ‘self’ is given by

an English psychoanalyst, Dr. Donald Winnicott and his idea of a
true self as opposed to false self in his article entitled, "Ego
Distortion in Terms of True and False Self" (1960). According to
Winnicott, the true self is rooted from early infancy. The
baby’s spontaneous, non-verbal gestures are derived from his
or her instincts — his sense of ‘reality.’ If the mother responds
to the baby, then the true self may continue to develop. The
idea is that, infants depend on their primary caregiver not only
to meet their most basic needs for survival, but also for
https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=true+self+vs+false+self&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH767&source=
lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiX0_fX-efaAhVBNJQKHT0PCowQ_AUICigB&biw=151
reliable, accurate, and empathic emotional responses. When

7&bih=681#imgrc=D76HrAkK2TBZKM:
these emotional needs are either unmet, or met unreliably, the infant gradually learns not only not
to trust the environment, but also not to trust the self. If good parenting is not in place, the
grown-up baby’s spontaneity is in danger, which results to developing the need to comply with the
parents’ expectations. This causes the creation of the false self, where other people’s
expectations can become too overriding or contradicting with the original sense of self. In the end,
the person develops a false set of relationships, trying to conceal what is true and real.
Simply, the true self (or the authentic self) is consist of thoughts, beliefs, words, and actions
that come from a deep-seated place within ourselves, with a unique combination of a multitude of
talents, skills, interests and abilities. There is no disparity between values and lived values because
the ‘self’ is genuine.
Conversely, the false self is when a person puts on a façade with others that may result in an
internal sensation of being depleted, drained or emotionally numb. One’s actions may feel forced,
alienated or detached, and there are possible tendencies to turn to mood-altering substances in
order to feel ‘different.’
How does this apply to us as adults? To Winnicott, the false self may serve many adaptive
purposes. Admit it or not, we all struggle from time to time to project what we believe to be the
“true” or “authentic” self. In many ways, wearing a social mask in becomes a solution to keep our
authentic selves from being scrutinized. When we protect our true self, we avoid being rejected or
hurt. The downside is, we may miss out on the opportunity to have genuine connections with other
people.
While there is a clear distinction between the true self and the false self, our awareness of our
social masks and our core values is essential. When we are aware of the many sides of ourselves,
we are able to own our identity. When we are in control of what part of ourselves we choose to
show, the social mask we use becomes integrated with our sense of self. Hence, we are whole.
EVALUATE
Worksheet 1
Let’s take a selfie
Take a picture of your real self and another of your false self. Paste your pictures below and
then, compare and contrast the two. What do you think are the factors that influence you to be
your real self? What could be the possible aspects of your life that make you turn into your false
self? Write your reflections below your pictures.
Real Self False Self
Reflection:
Worksheet 2
My Own Eulogy
A eulogy is a speech given at a memorial or funeral service (Webster’s Dictionary). It can be

delivered by a family member, close friend, priest, or celebrant and it commemorates and
celebrates the life of the deceased. To examine how well you know yourself and how well others
know you, let us try to think about how others will remember us after death. Your task is to imagine
that you are to die tomorrow. You are to write a eulogy that you would like be read at your own
funeral.
Baumeister, R. & Bushman, B. (2011). "The Self." Social Psychology and Human Nature. 2nd ed.
Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.
Carducci, B. (2015). Psychology of Personality. New Jersey: Wiley Publications.
Dash, B. & Tripathy, G. (2012). Essentials of General Psychology. New Delhi: Wisdom Press.
Elmore, K., Smith, G. & Oyserman, D. (2012). Self, Self-Concept and Identity. Handbook of Self and
Identity (2nd ed.). New York: The Guilford Press.
English Oxford Living Dictionaries Retrieved from https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/

psychology
Gleitman, H., Gross, H. & Reisberg, D. (2011). Psycholgy (8th Ed.). Canada: W.W. Norton and Company.
Hogg, M. & Vaughan, G. (2010). Essentials of Social Psychology. Italy: Pearson Educated Ltd.
James, W. (1983). The Principles of Psychology (Vol. 1 & 2). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Jhangiani, R. & Tarry, H. (2014) Principles of Social Psychology. Retrieved from http://
pzacad.pitzer.edu/~hfairchi/courses/Spring2015/Psych%20103/Principles-of-Social-Psychology-1st-
International-Edition-1415042666.pdf last October 12, 2017.
Katoch, S. & Katoch, K. (2017). Understanding the Self. India: Shipra Publication.
McLeod, S. (2008). Self Concept. Retrieved from www.simplypsychology.org/self-concept.html
Myers, D. (2009). Social psychology (10th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
Rogers, C. (1959). "A theory of therapy, personality relationships as developed in the client-
centered framework.". In (Ed.) S. Koch. Psychology: A study of a science. Vol. 3: Formulations of
the person and the social context. New York: McGraw Hill.
Sedikides, C. & Spencer, S. J. (Eds.) (2007). The Self. New York: Psychology Press
Stevens, R. (1996). Understanding the Self. California: SAGE Publications
Winnicott, D. W. (1960). “Ego Distortion in Terms of True and False Self,” in The Maturational Process
and the Facilitating Environment: Studies in the Theory of Emotional Development. New York:
International UP Inc., 1965, pp. 140-152.
LESSON 4
THE WESTERN AND EASTERN THOUGHTS ABOUT THE SELF
Lesson Objectives:
a. Make a distinction about the idea of the ‘self’ according to the western and eastern thoughts.
b. Acknowledge the ‘self’ based on Asian thoughts.
c. Examine the Filipino ‘self’ and construct one’s own representation of the Filipino ‘self.’
ACTIVATE
Examine the characteristics of the western and eastern societies. Write five (5)
countries for each side and compare its characteristics in terms behavior, culture
and the people.
Summarize your discoveries of the western and eastern societies using the
Venn-diagram below.
EMPOWER
The ‘self’ has been defined by in a variety of ways by European and American theorists that
have impacted the whole Western culture. In fact, most of the theories on the concept of the ‘self’
discussed from the very beginning of this course and the existing understandings of the self which
we traditionally consider can actually be traced back to Western philosophy. As mentioned in the
previous lessons, the ‘self’ based on the western thought is focused on individualism. People view the
‘self’ as autonomous relative to others and the environment, stressing their separateness from the
social world. Examine the illustration below:
Independent view of the ‘self’

In Western beliefs, people tend to think that we are separate and unique from each other.
What one person does or experiences is completely independent of other people and the world at
large (Wolter, 2013; Page & Berkow, 1991).
The question is, are we all different and independent? Are we separate from each other and
from the universe? Are all people part of one whole? The idea that people are separate entities
from each other and the world is not considered a reality in Eastern thought.
As discussed in Lesson 2, the ‘self’ in Eastern cultures is dominated by the ‘we’ idea, that the
self is part of a larger network of people who all help shape each other. Take a look at the
illustration below:
Interdependent view of the ‘self’
Taking into consideration that the majority of self-representations already discussed come from
the point of view of Western scientific research, we will emphasize the conceptualization of the ‘self’
from the perspective of the Eastern philosophy, stressing on the religious and political beliefs that
contributes in the formation of one’s self and culture.
To help you understand the eastern representation of the ‘self’ better, we will look at how the
following religious traditions view the ‘self’ (Ho, 1995; Sias, 2015).
Hinduism is a major religion common in the south

Asian countries like India and Sri Lanka. Just like
Christianity, Hinduism has many different branches with
varying principles. To help us understand the Hindu view
of the self, two important concepts must be
recognized: the Brahman (considered as the sacred, the
god spirit or the universe) and the Atman (which is the
human soul or the self). Hinduism teaches that the
Atman is basically a fragment of the Brahman, or the
universe. Imagine a single drop of water coming down
https://listverse.com/2016/07/31/10-common-misconceptions-about-hinduism/
from the cloud way up in the sky. As it falls down in the form of rain along with the other drops
and makes it way to a river, it then mixes with the other drops. In time, this single drop of water
can no longer be distinguished from the other drops as it flows out to the ocean. Finally, it
evaporates and makes its way back to the atmosphere where it becomes part of the cloud again.
What does this have to do with the belief of the Hindus about the ‘self?’ To the Hindus, the
single drop of water is the Atman. The cycle of raining down, blending with the rest of the water in
the river, evaporating and then dispersing into the air, the earth or the water, is like reincarnation
(or the belief that people die and are reborn over and over again). The Hindu belief states that
each time a person dies and is reborn, it comes closer to the Brahman. Eventually, when the person
completes the cycle of reincarnation, they stop being reborn and are fully reunited with the
Brahman.
While we have the tendency to think about our ‘self’ today or tomorrow, the Hindus think in
terms of centuries and lifetimes. The self, in Hinduism, is just a part of a larger whole (the
Brahman), which embodies everything. The Atman or the self is tied to everything.
Buddhism is a common Eastern religion and philosophy where

the self is often thought of as an illusion. To Buddhists, there is
no such as thing as a ‘self’ at all. Like Hinduism and Christianity,
Buddhism has many different branches as well. There are two
concepts that are agreed on in most Buddhist branches: the ideas
of interconnectedness and a lack of a self.
Fundamentally, interconnectedness simply means that
everything is connected. Think about your favorite book. This
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book involves words and feelings being sent from the writer to
the reader. In principle, the writer shares his or her thoughts But note that there is more than
just to it: your favorite book is made of paper, which comes from trees. In order to come up with
a paper, the trees had to be cut down by lumberjacks. The components of the book are joined
together by the workers of the printing company. Using this scenario, you as the reader becomes
interconnected not only with the writer, but also with the lumberjacks, the workers and many other
people. One linkage in this chain is missing, then the book does not exist.
But how, you may ask, does this explain the idea that there is no self? To Buddhists, humans are
just a stream of consciousness and not a separate entity. Our interconnection with each other
eliminates the idea that there is us and there is others. Going back to our example about your
favorite book, it is made up of many components: your ideas, the paper, the trees, and so on.
Individually, each component does not make up a book, but together, they are one book. Similarly,
we, as humans, are just a single part of a larger whole. Alone, we are nothing but a thought,
interconnected with everything else. Since the self is an illusion, we should therefore forget about
the self, the cravings of the self, and its attachment to human-centered desires, which ultimately
cause suffering. In so doing, one can attain the highest state called Nirvana, a place of perfect
peace and happiness akin to heaven (Wolter, 2013; No Author, 2001).
Confucianism does not teach the worship of any particular

deity (Yao, 1996). Instead, it is focused more on human behavior,
causing many scholars to consider it more of an ethical system
or a code of conduct rather than a religion.
A human being is seen as a social being, whose personality
is not inherently existing, but is being formed through upbringing
and environment (Fung, 2014). In essence, the self will develop
through the practice of the virtues of compassion, righteous-
ness, propriety and wisdom to bring harmony to family, commu-
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=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiVz-L-nuraAhUIw7wKHeEiBIEQ_AUICigB&bi
nity and empire . Hence, self—cultivation is our supreme goal
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— any person is a “gentleman” if his or her conduct is noble and selfish. This is the characteristic
of chun-tzu, a man of virtue or noble character (Ho, 1995).
Taoism is an ancient Chinese philosophy that stresses the

importance of living simply and honestly and in harmony with
nature (Ho, 1995). Due to its focus on harmony and proper way
to live, it is often referred to as the Way. Three of the most
important tenets of Taoism are the First Principle, the yin-yang
classification and the wu wei concept.
The First Principle, sometimes translated as ‘Oneness’
states that everything in nature is all part of the same whole.
Unlike Confucianism, Taoism does not regard the self as an
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ce=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwibjvf5puraAhUKXrwKHdxxB6QQ_AUICigB&biw=1242&
extension of social relationships, but of the cosmos. The selfless
person leads a balanced life, in harmony with both nature and
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society.
Taoism also teaches the yin-yang concept, or classification (Lowe, 2003). Its
uber-popular black and white circular symbol, suggests the idea that opposites are
needed in order for harmony to exist. To put it simply, we all need balance in our
lives. Take a closer look at the yin-yang symbol: the black and white portions are
equal to one another — the black does not get more space than the white and vice
versa because they are equally important. Yes, they are opposites, but they are
both equal and needed. In other words, the opposites dark and light exist together in a perfect
Balance that keeps our world nicely humming along. In the same way, we as humans should seek
balance in our own lives. We should not lean toward extremes, nor should we live a life of avoidance.
We should be moderate in our approach. As they say, too much of even a good thing, is a bad
thing! The ideal ‘self’, therefore, is one that has a balanced-life.
It is important to note that the self is not the entire focus of these Eastern beliefs. Each
philosophy has its own perspective of the self that takes it within a bigger context. For
Confucianism and Taoism, to become a better person means to create a self that would benefit the
community and that would be in harmony with nature. For Hinduism and Buddhism, the self is
interconnected with everything.
To sum up the characteristics of the West and the East, let us take a look at the following table:
WESTERN CULTURE EASTERN CULTURE
Individualistic culture since their focus is Collectivistic culture since the group and
on the person and individual needs and social relations are given more
wants importance
Values competition and is Values cooperation and tends to go

straightforward when communicating around the bush when explaining things
with others to others
Emphasizes equality even if the individual Emphasizes on hierarchy as the culture

is seen to rise above everything else wants to keep things in harmony and in
order
It must be emphasized that these are the universal characteristics common to the Western and
Eastern cultures. In the Philippines, there are many factors that set us apart from our neighboring
Asian countries like the country’s colonization experiences. Within the country, provinces and regions
differ also due to geographical location and conditions. Again, how we present ourselves depends
on the kind of culture and environment that we have. Conflicting views may be present but an
understanding of where we are coming from unravels this diversity.
EVALUATE
Worksheet 1
Totoo ba? Is the Philippines really a collectivist society?
Examine the Philippines’ customs and traditions that make up our identity as a Filipino. Can you
say that we are an individualistic society or collectivist society? Cite specific situations that you
experience as a Filipino under each category and make a conclusion later on about the type of
society that we live in.
The Philippines is an The Philippines is a

INDIVIDUALISTIC society COLLECTIVIST society
CONCLUSION:
Worksheet 2
The Filipino Self
Examine the Filipino ‘self’. Using a concept map, construct a Filipino Self based on the Filipino
culture. Then, write a brief explanation of your work in not more than 10 sentences.
Blaine, B., Trivedi, P. & Eshleman, A. (1998). Religious Belief and the Self-Concept: Evaluating the
Implications for Psychological Adjustment. Retrieved from http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/
abs/10.1177/01461672982410002 last December 5, 2017.
Fung, A. (2014). The Influence of Confucianism on Identity Formation of a Multi-Skilled Migrant: An

Autoethnography. The Qualitative Report, 19(50), 1-19. Retrieved from http://nsuworks.nova.edu/
tqr/vol19/iss50/1
Ho, D. (1995). Selfhood and Identity in Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, and Hinduism: Contrasts With
the West. Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior, 25 (2). Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1111/
j.1468-5914.1995.tb00269.x last December 5, 2017.
Jen, G. (2017). The Girl at the Baggage Claim: Explaining the East-West Culture Gap. New York:
Vintage Publishing.
Lowe, S. (2003). "Chinese Culture and Management Theory". In Alon, Ilan. Chinese culture:
organizational behavior, and international business management. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger
Publishers.
Page, R. & Berkow, D. (1991). Concepts of the Self: Western and Eastern Perspectives. Journal of
Multi-cultural Counseling and Development. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-
1912.1991.tb00625.x last October 8, 2017.
Sias, J. (2015). Buddhism, Confucianism, and Western Conceptions of Personal Autonomy. The
Downtown Review, 1 (1). Retrieved from http://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/tdr/vol1/
iss1/5 last December 8, 2017.
Wolter, D. (2013). In Search of the Self: Eastern versus Western Perspectives. Oglethorpe Journal of
Undergraduate Research, 1 (1). Retrieved from https://digitalcommons.kennesaw.edu/ojur/vol1/
iss1/1 last September 2, 2017.
Yao, X. (1996). Self‐construction and identity: The Confucian self in relation to some western
perceptions. Asian Philosophy, 6 (3): 179-195. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/
publication/233128303_Self-construction_and_identity_The_Confucian_self_in_relation_to_some_
western_perceptions DOI: 10.1080/09552369608575442 last January 16, 2018.
(No Author, 2001). The concept "self" and "person" in Buddhism and in Western Psychology. NY:
Columbia Press.
(No Author, __). Conceptions of the Self in Western and Eastern Psychology. Chinese Buddhist
Encyclopedia.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. Explore the different aspects of self and identity.
2. Demonstrate critical, reflective thought in integrating the
various aspects of self and identity.
3. Identify the different forces and institutions that impact the
development of various aspects of self and identity.
4. Examine one’s self against the different aspects of self as
discussed in class.
Understanding the Self Unit II: Unpacking the Self

LESSON 1
THE PHYSICAL SELF
Lesson Objectives:
a. Describe the Physical Self.
b. Examine the self as impacted by the body.
c. Explain how one’s culture influences body-image and self-esteem.
d. Recognize the true meaning of beauty.
e. Construct a Personal Self.
ACTIVATE PHILIPPINES’ NEXT
You are a talent scout for the country’s new

franchise, the Philippine’s Next Top Model. Write down
(as many as you can) descriptions of the “ideal beauty
standards” that would guide you in your search of a
male or female model. Then, answer the questions that
follow on the next page.

1. As a modeling scout, why do you think these characteristics are ideal? Does the list reflect your
personal ideas about beauty, or just what you think people want to see in advertising?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. What has influenced your ideas of what an ideal female/male model looks like? How does it make
you feel about your own body?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3. What thoughts would be going through your mind if you were one of the potential boy/girl waiting
to be evaluated for the Philippines’ Next Top Model?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
4. What will be your reaction if the scout criticized you in front of the other aspiring models that
you are not likeable for the franchise? How would you handle such criticism and rejection?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

EMPOWER Among the many aspects of yourself that make up who
you are and who you believe yourself to be is the Physical Self, which denotes the tangible aspect of
the person that can be directly observed and examined as we interact with our environment and
fellow beings. In other words, the physical self refers to one’s physical body (Haugen, et. Al., 2011).
Believe it or not, who you are physically is important to many
people. An individual’s physical characteristics including one’s face,
body shape and structure, height, weight, skin color, hair color, and
even fitness, are often perceived primarily (Marsh & Redmane,
1994). Think of someone you know who is very active. He/she loves
trekking and mountain climbing, and being physically fit and strong
is a big part of how he/she defines himself/herself. Think of
another person whose physical self is different. This person is
overweight and usually gets out of breath when climbing up the
stairs going to the second floor, or simply walking for more than a
few minutes. The physical self is still part of his/her self-concept, but Taken from https://www.google.com
contrary to the person who is active, the second person’s physical self is out of shape.
Just as the ‘self’ has been described in a variety of ways, many psychologists define the ‘body’
or the physical self in different approaches as well (Baumesiter, et. Al., 2003). More than the
physical attributes that an individual possesses, others also consider the person’s physical
competencies such as his or her self-worth and perception of beauty as critical aspects of the
physical self since a healthy one leads to a dynamic functioning of the ‘self’ towards self-realization
(Annesi, 2007; Schmidt, 2013).
Adolescents like you need to be treated as a distinct segment of the population to help you
realize and address your health and lifestyle problems. This way, you can have the opportunity to
develop your physical self, an essential part of your whole ‘self’.
Fernandez (2009), in her study about physical self-concept and psychological well-being/
unwellness during adolescence, defined self-concept as the “totality of perceptions that each person
has of themselves. The results of her study show that the more an individual feels happy with his
or her physique, the higher his or her self-esteem becomes. Further, she also found out that the
more psychological well-being one has, the less likely that he or she will experience anxiety and
depression, and eating disorder. Self-esteem is how you feel about who you are as a person. It is
often referred to as 'confidence' in yourself (Mruk, 2006). It is also called physical self-esteem or
physical self-worth, which means, “a person’s evaluation of their physical self which includes
evaluations of both the physical appearance and physical competencies (Livingstone, 2008).
Among the contributors to our understanding of the physical self is Kenneth Fox (1997) who
developed a measurement tool for assessing the physical self called the Physical Self-Perception
Profile (PSPP), which includes the following subscales (excerpt from Gill, et. Al (2017), Psychological
Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, 4th ed.).
 Sport competence (sport): Perceptions of sport and athletic ability, ability to learn sport skills,
and confidence in the sport environment
 Physical condition (condition): Perceptions of physical condition, stamina, and fitness; ability to
maintain exercise; and confidence in the exercise and fitness setting

 Body attractiveness (body): Perceived attractiveness of figure or physique, ability to maintain an
attractive body, and confidence in appearance
 Physical strength (strength): Perceived strength, muscle development, and confidence in
situations requiring strength
 Physical self-worth (PSW): General feelings of happiness, satisfaction, pride, respect, and
confidence in the physical self
In other words, a person’s physical self is not only limited to what can be seen by the naked
eye because beyond our physical appearance are biological and chemical processes that trigger
one’s transformation and development as embodied in the concept of heredity.
Heredity refers to the transmission of traits like eye color, hair color or skin color from parents
to offspring (Charlesworth & Charlesworth, 2009). Inside every cell in the body is a secret code
that determines everything about you. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the material that determines all
your traits, and it is found inside the nucleus of all your cells. Also called the blueprint of an
individual’s physical features, the DNA triggers the physical growth and maturation that our bodies
go through from birth to adulthood. Maturation is the unfolding
of a person’s inherent traits. It is the completion of growth of A gene is a short segment of DNA that
genetic characters within an organism. The traits that are made codes for a specific trait
-up of specific information are embedded within one’s basic unit
of heredity known as a gene. These are short pieces of DNA
that determine a specific trait, like eye color or hair color. You
have about 20-25 thousand genes total, each one responsible
for a different characteristic (Griffiths, et. Al., 2012; Rhodes,
2006).
The genes in your cells are different from your parents'
genes because you inherit one copy of each gene from your
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combination of genes in your cells is different from everyone else uSVR&hl=en-PH
in the world. This recombination of genetic material not only determines visible traits like your eye
and hair color, but also can cause you to be more (or less) susceptible to certain diseases
(Pearson, 2006).
In the process of reproduction, each parent produces a special type of cell called gametes
that only has one copy of each gene. The two gametes are combined to form a new cell that
contains a random mixture of the genes from the parents. This is the reason why each child in a
family have a different combination of genes even if they have the same parents - also the reason
why identical twins are still different from each other (Griffiths, 2012) .
Note that although you inherit two copies of each gene from your parents, only one trait is
expressed. How does your body decide which one it will be? Going back to our example of eye color,
if you get a gene for brown eyes (B) from your father and another for brown eyes (B) from your
mother, then you will have two copies of the brown eye gene (BB). Definitely, you will have brown
eyes, too. Similarly, if you get two copies of the gene for blue eyes (bb), you will definitely have blue
eyes. But what happens if you get one gene for brown eyes and one for blue eyes (Bb)? In a
situation where you also have brown eyes, it can be said that the gene for brown eyes is dominant.
That means that you will express this trait even if you only have one copy of the gene. In contrast,
the gene for blue eyes is recessive, meaning that you will only have blue eyes if you have both genes

To understand how two brown-eyed parents can produce a blue-eyed child, the Punnett square can
be used as a tool to determine which traits will be expressed in the offspring of two parents. To
create a punnet square, one has to list the genes of one parent vertically on the left side and the
genes of the other parent horizontally above the square. Then combine the genes in the four
sections of the square to determine all possible gene combinations that the child could have.
Assuming that both parents have one gene for brown eyes and one for blue eyes. Then, the Punnet
square would look like the figure below:
This means that there is a 25% chance that a baby will have
two genes for brown eyes (BB), a 50% chance that it will have one
gene for brown and one for blue eyes (which means it would still
have brown eyes because blue is recessive), and a 25% chance
that it will inherit two genes for blue eyes (bb). So, it is certainly
possible for two brown-eyed parents to have blue-eyed children. If
both parents carry genes for both brown and blue eyes, there is a
1 in 4 chance that a child will have blue eyes.
It is important to note also that there are other factors that influence the development of our
physical self aside from the genetic information that determines our physical features. As we grow
and begin to explore the world around us, we get to interact with different environmental factors
that shape our physical self: our social interaction with our family, in school, in the church, or in a
bigger social group, our community and the entire society. We are exposed to various practices and
cultural norms which make us more conscious of our physical self (Concepcion, 2007).
People of your age start to engage in activities that would make you attractive and acceptable
to others. Some of you start to spend a huge amount of money to buy new clothes or accessories
as a result of the constant need to look good. You learn to shave, go to the gym, choose your
outfit of the day (OOTD) and eat the right kind of food. Females start to act prim and proper while
males act more manly (Rhodes, 2006). These are all for the sake of meeting the standards of
beauty according to one’s culture.
What seems beautiful for you, may not be beautiful for others. As the saying goes, “beauty is
the eye of the beholder.” This is because different cultures define beauty much differently.
Below is an excerpt written by Smith for Total Beauty (retrieved from http://
www.totalbeauty.com/content/slideshows/global-beauty-standards-141201/page2 last July 12, 2017).
In the U.S., beautiful girls mean having long, flowy hair, bronzed skin and a wrinkle-free face.
In Ethiopia, body scars are adored. While we want our scars erased, the
Kato tribe in Ethiopia creates scars onto the women’s stomachs at childhood,
which are meant to attract men who are husband-material.
The Masai Tribe of Kenya define beautiful as having
long, stretched ear lobes and shaved heads. Women
use everything from elephant tusks to twigs to pierce
and stretch their lobes to become more attractive.
Long, giraffe-like necks are the ultimate sign of
beauty and female elegance to Kayan tribe in Burma. At
5 years old, Kayan women start priming their necks with heavy brass rings

which can weigh up to 22 pounds, since more coils are add-
ed each year, pushing down their shoulders and creating the
effect of a longer neck.
In various parts of Asia, pale, white skin is a sign of
affluence and attractiveness. In Japan, women avoid the sun
at all costs while whitening agents normal in China and
Thailand.
To the Maori people of New Zealand, tattoos are sacred
rituals wherein a chisel is used to carve grooves into the skin, creating swirling
tattoos called Ta-moko. Women with tattooed lips and chins, and full, blue lips
are considered the most beautiful.
While many cultures are dieting and striving to be thin,
Western African cultures find women who are overweight to
be the most beautiful. For them, the more stretch marks,
the better. In the past, families in Mauritania send their
children to “fat farms” camps that force-feed girls 16,000 calories a day to
help them reach their ideal weight to achieve a fuller figure. They even prefer
fattening camel’s and cow’s milk.
Nose jobs seem like a staple in the image-conscious U.S.
but Iran is actually the rhinoplasty capital of the world. Both men and women
are proud to show off their procedures, which is considered as a sign of their
social status and their path on the route to beauty. In fact, they often wear
their bandages much longer than needed. Some even buy surgical tape to wear
even if they have not gone under a surgery.
Women in India do not accessorize with extravagant
jewelries. Instead, they turn to nose rings, bindis and henna
to make themselves more attractive for festivals and celebrations. Brides often
wear a dot of red powder on the face known as kumkum to look more beautiful.
In Japan, stick straight hair is the norm, and therefore the
most beautiful hair texture. Japanese women have turned into
pros at thermal conditioning and flat-ironing to straighten hair.
Indeed, physical beauty has been regarded as an essential part of one’s self
across all cultures. Although defined in a different way, it has become a primary
part of an individual’s physical self. No matter how various cultures define it, the
most important thing to remember is that we feel beautiful because we a healthy
perception of our physical worth — that is why we feel good about ourselves.

EVALUATE
Worksheet 1
Self-Check
Let us do some self-check. Below are common activities that you might have been
doing that greatly affect your body. Answer each item as honestly as possible by putting
a check mark on how frequent you do the following activities.
Activity Never Seldom Most of Always

the time
I drink at least 8 glasses of water everyday.
I usually sleep beyond 10:00pm.
I prefer to use the elevator than take the stairs.
I exercise at least three times a week.
I usually skip breakfast.
I eat fruits with my meal.
I lie on the couch while watching TV.
I take a walk after dinner.
I drink softdrinks with my meal.
I take time to dress-up everyday.
What do you realize about your daily activities? Can you say that you have a healthy physical self?
Explain your conclusion below.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Understanding
Understanding
the Self
the Self Unit Unit
II: Unpacking
II: Unpacking
the Self
the Self
Worksheet 2
My Diet Planner
Based on your conclusion from the previous activity, create a daily program that will help improve
your physical self. Explain how this planner will be beneficial for you.
Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
Brief Explanation:

Worksheet 3
Who is beautiful?
Paste a photo of someone who you believe is good-looking. Then, answer the questions that
follow.
Name: __________________________
Description:
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
1. What stands out to you about what this image is trying to show you is beautiful?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
2. How do you think someone in the same racial, ethnic, historical, gender or age group as the
person or people in the picture might be impacted by this image?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
3. How do you think someone in a different racial, ethnic, historical, gender or age group might be
impacted by this image?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
4. What does this image try to teach you what is beautiful?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Worksheet 4
My Physical Self
A. Complete each sentence below.

1. Beauty is __________________________________________________________________________________
2. A beautiful person is ____________________________________________________________________

3. I am beautiful because ____________________________________________________________________
4. I am beautiful because ____________________________________________________________________
B. If you are to reconstruct your physical self, how would you look like? What would be the
components of your own physical self? How can you make yourself beautiful? Create your own
physical self below based on your understanding of the lesson using a concept map.

Anderson, C., Srivastava, S., & Beer, J. (2006). Knowing your place: self-perceptions of status in
face-to-face groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 91: 1094–1110.
Annesi, J. (2007). Relations of age with changes in self-efficacy and physical self-concept in
pre-adolescents participating in a physical activity intervention during afterschool care. SAGE
Journals on Perceptual and Motor Skills 105: 221–226.
Baumeister, R., Campbell, J., Krueger, J. (2003) Does high self-esteem cause better performance,
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LESSON 2
THE SEXUAL SELF
Lesson Objectives:
a. Examine the sexual self.
b. Evaluate one’s sexual development and determine how it influenced one’s sense of self.
c. Understand the human reproductive system and the concepts related to it.
d. Discuss the chemistry of lust, love and attachment.
e. Recognize the diversity of sexual behavior.
f. Realize the importance of a healthy sexual self.
ACTIVATE
Below are two words essential in this lesson. Share any thoughts, ideas and/or feelings that
come to your mind about sex and about sexuality. Write your answers on the following concept
map.
Do you think these two words mean the same thing? If not, how do they differ?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

EMPOWER
Have you ever really considered the differences between males and females in various species?
We might be unaware but, we were actually thinking about both primary and secondary
characteristics. While humans are born with very obvious primary sex characteristics (or body
structures directly concerned with reproduction) that allows us to tell males from females, such as
the penis in men and the vagina in women, secondary sex characteristics, on the other hand, are
features which appear at puberty (though they later become equally as prominent). These will be
discussed in a more detailed way later on. Can you think of your features that can be considered
as secondary sex characteristics?
The list below shows some of these characteristic differences between human males and
females (Kail & Cavanaugh 2010).:
MEN WOMEN
More pronounced body hair characteristics Less pronounced body hair characteristics
(beard, chest, etc.) and usually more coarse (mostly in pubic region, hair all over is usually
finer)
Heavier musculature Lighter musculature
Angular features (square jaw, triangular mid- Rounded features (softer facial features,
region) hour-glass mid-region)
Narrow hips Wider hips
Muscular pectorals (chest) More fat tissue overall
Less fat tissue overall Higher voice
Deeper voice
Recall the times when you tried to avoid having ‘the talk’ with your
mom or dad (or to any adult for that matter). Try to remember how
adults would introduce and refer to our private parts as ‘the birds and
the bees.' How do you feel reminiscing those times? Chances are, we
blush at the memories whenever adolescent sexual development is the
subject of conversations. Maybe for some of us, it was an awkward https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=puberty&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767P
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time of our lives.

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Yes, those changes may be embarrassing topics to discuss but like it or not, they are bound to
happen to growing up individuals. Adolescent sexual development occurs during puberty and includes
many changes such as physical, emotional, and social changes (Kail & Cavanaugh 2010).
We have all gone through the puberty stage. Puberty refers to the transformations that occur
as a child undergoes physical developmental changes, resulting in the sexually mature body of an
adult. But how exactly does this physical journey towards adulthood take place? What triggers this
process?

Science articulates that the biological processes of puberty begin when the brain's
hypothalamus and the pituitary gland get together to release gonadotrophins (Gordon, et. Al.,
2005) . Gonadotrophins are special hormones that activate the sexual glands. These sexual glands
are the testes in boys and the ovaries in girls.
Once these sexual glands are activated, they begin to release their own hormones that result in
physical changes throughout the body. The hormones released by the male testes are called
androgens, and the hormones released by the female ovaries are called estrogens.
Developmentally normal girls may experience puberty at any time between the ages of 8 to 15.
For developmentally normal boys, puberty may occur at any time between the ages of 9 to 17.
Variations in puberty-related changes are normal — each child is unique, and they will experience
these changes at different ages and at different rates (Rosenfield, 2002).
Two types of physical changes occur during puberty: changes to the primary sex characteristics
and changes to secondary sex characteristics (Gordon, et. Al., 2005). Primary sex
characteristics refer to the sexual organs. Primary sex characteristic changes in boys involve an
increase in the size of the prostate gland, testes, seminal vesicles, and penis. The most noticeable
change that occurs for young men is their first ejaculation, which often occurs during sleep. They
may also experience spontaneous erections. Primary sex characteristic changes in girls involve the
uterus and vagina. The uterus begins to build a lining, and the vagina starts to produce discharge.
The most noticeable change that occurs for young women is their first menstrual period. This occurs
when the uterus sheds its first lining of tissue and blood. In adult women, this lining is shed about
every 28 days.
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Let us have an overview of the sexual anatomy of male and female:

Both men and women have internal and external structures that are important for reproduction.
Important male reproductive structures include: (1) testes, two structures that generate immature
sperm — they are like an orchard producing fruit; (2) epididymis, a long, coiled tube that connects to
a testicle and stores maturing sperm — these guys are like a warehouse that stores the fruit and
waits for them to ripen; (3) scrotum, a pouch-like sac that houses the testes and each testicles'

(5) penis, the sexually sensitive organ used during intercourse, one that ejects semen. Semen is a
secretion that contains sperm and fluids produced by the accessory glands. The accessory sex
glands include the prostate, seminal vesicles, and bulbourethral glands. The seminal vesicles produce
most of the fluid volume found in semen, while the bulbourethral glands make fluid that neutralizes
any acidity found in the urethra as a result of urine and lubricates the urethra for the passage of
sperm. The bulbourethral glands are the ones responsible for pre-ejaculatory fluid.
Enough of the guys. Let us now move on to the sexual anatomy of women, which can be broken
down into two main parts: internal vs. external anatomy. Internal female reproductive structures
include the: (1) vagina, also called the birth canal, accepts a man's penis during intercourse; (2)
uterus, also known as the womb, where the baby develops inside the mother; (3) ovaries, structures
that produce an egg that meets up with the man's sperm to make a baby; (4) fallopian tubes, a
connecting passageway for the egg, one that is located between the ovaries and uterus. The
fallopian tubes allow an egg to pass from an ovary and into the uterus. The fallopian tubes are
usually the site where an egg is fertilized by sperm. Here a trick for you remember: ‘Fertilization
occurs in the Fallopian tubes’; (5) cervix, the lower portion of the uterus, which opens up into the
vagina and allows sperm to enter the uterus from the vagina in order to fertilize the egg. The
cervix also allows babies to leave the uterus during childbirth. The major external female
reproductive structures include a woman's (1) labia majora (a.k.a. large lips), which enclose the
other external structures such as the (a) labia minora (a.k.a. small lips), which are smaller skin folds
lying within the labia majora. The labia minora surround the openings to the vagina and (b) urethra,
which is the structure that empties the bladder that houses the urine your kidneys make; and there
is (c) prepuce, a structure formed by the labia minora; (2) clitoris, a structure akin to the penis in
men that is covered by the prepuce, which is analogous to the foreskin in men. The clitoris is the
most sexually sensitive part of a woman's body; (3) vestibule, an area enclosed by the labia minora.
It is an area where the urethral and vaginal openings are found; (4) vestibular glands, glands that
open into the vestibule and produce a lubricant that aids in sexual intercourse; and finally, (5) mons
pubis, a fatty prominence over the pubic bone that acts as a cushion during intercourse. All of
these are important to know because the external female genital organs, including the mons pubis,
labia majora, labia minora, vestibule, vestibular glands, and clitoris, are all collectively called
the vulva.
Aside from the major anatomical structures
of the male and the female, it is equally
necessary to understand some important
hormones that influence the reproductive
physiology of men and women (Marshall &
Tanner, 1986). The Follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH) is a hormone that stimulates the develop-
ment of the ovarian follicle, a structure that
includes an immature egg. FSH also stimulates
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the production of fully mature sperm. To help

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remember its function, just think of a hair

follicle, the little place from which hair grows. So, FSH helps the little egg and sperm grow. There is
also luteinizing hormone (LH), also called the ovulating hormone, which allows for the ovaries to
release a mature egg. Estrogen is a hormone that is responsible for female sexual maturation,
influencing the menstrual cycle and pregnancy and sexual behavior. Progesterone, on the other

hand, is a hormone responsible for the preparation of the uterus for implantation of the fertilized
egg and for the maintenance of pregnancy. Note how ‘pro'-‘gest'-erone is ‘pro' or for, 'gest'-ation.
‘Gestation' is just another term for a pregnancy. And, finally, let us not forget testosterone, a
hormone responsible for male sexual maturation, sexual behavior, and muscle strength.
(Source: https://
An individual’s reproductive system has many functions, including ensuring one’s fertility and
providing sex hormones that support his/her sexual well-being. Although problems that arise in the
system are often curable, several disorders can have potentially serious consequences. An
understanding of these problems can definitely have positive effects on one’s sexuality.
Below are the common problems of the male reproductive system:
In men, infections can be caused either by bacteria or a virus and may develop in the scrotum
area where the testes reside. For example, prostatitis, a bacterial infection, can start in the
prostate gland surrounding the urethra. This can result to potential inflammation and pain in the
testes or other structures. In one of the testes, the infection is called orchitis (or orchiditis). The
mumps virus can be the cause of an infection in the system and may result in sterility. Bacterial
causes also include sexually transmitted diseases such as chlamydia or gonorrhea.
Cancer can develop in any of the organs that make up the male reproductive system. The most
common is prostate cancer usually related to aging. Symptoms include difficulty urinating and low
back pain or pain with ejaculation. Cancer may also develop in one of the testes, where it develops
most often in men aged 20 to 39 and can cause pain, swelling or lumps in the scrotum or in the
penis. Penile cancer, though rare, can be caused by the human papilloma virus, or HPV, the virus
that also causes most cervical cancers in women.
Male infertility can develop because of genetic factors causing low or absent sperm production,
a blockage in the duct system, a hormonal imbalance that interferes with sperm production, or
certain medications. A condition called varicocele, in which veins in the scrotum that carry blood
back to the heart become enlarged, can also cause fertility problems. These veins help cool warm
blood flowing into the scrotum, where sperm production depends on a reduced temperature. When
blood flow in the veins is slow, the scrotum heats up and interferes with sperm production.
Varicocele can often be treated successfully with surgery or other procedures.
Disorders in the penis may compromise either urination or sperm production. A condition called
erectile dysfunction, or ED, interferes with a man's ability to develop or sustain an erection,
compromising his ability to have sex and father children. Among the many different causes include
poorly-managed diabetes, which can cause nerve problems in the penis, low levels of male
hormones, side effects from certain prescription drugs such as antidepressants, or psychological
factors such as stress or anxiety.

The following are the common diseases associated with the female reproductive system
(adopted from https://medlineplus.gov/femalereproductivesystem.html):
Reproductive tract infection for women such as vaginal escherichia coli (E. Coli) infection caused
by bacteria or virus can result to pelvic inflammatory disease and fertility problems.
Sexually-transmitted diseases (STDs) that include chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis, genital herpes and
yeast are also often caused by infections. Chlamydia and gonorrhea infections go undetected in
women most of the time because they frequently do not cause symptoms. Note that these infections
can lead to pelvic inflammatory disease, or PID if left untreated. This infection occurs when bacteria
from the vagina and cervix migrate upward into the uterus and fallopian tubes — the structures that
carry eggs from the ovaries to the womb. The fallopian tubes can also be scarred with PID, leading
to infertility, which also increases the risk of ectopic pregnancy in which a fertilized egg implants in
the fallopian tube rather than in the womb. Some women experience painful or abnormal
menstruation which may also be due to infection or hormonal imbalance.
The tissue lining the womb or the uterus is the endometrium, which grows during the menstrual
cycle. Endometriosis is a condition where the endometrial tissue grows outside the uterus, usually in
other sites within the pelvis such as the ovaries, fallopian tubes and the outer surface of the uterus.
A related condition called adenomyosis describes endometrial tissue that has grown into the
muscular wall of the uterus. Endometrial tissue in abnormal locations undergoes the same growth
and sloughing as the endometrial lining of the womb, which may lead to cyclic pelvic and/or
abdominal pain.
The ovaries containing a woman's eggs, which mature and are released together with the
monthly menstrual cycle can be affected by several disorders. Polycystic ovary syndrome, or PCOS,
indicates women who have abnormally high levels of sex hormones called androgens, causing an
imbalance that leads to cysts in the ovaries. Among the symptoms are irregular or absent periods,
increased body hair and acne. Because ovulation (or the monthly release of a mature egg) does not
occur normally with PCOS, women with this condition may be infertile. Ovarian cysts also sometimes
occur in women without PCOS. These cysts typically go away on their own without treatment, but
may cause pelvic pain. Ovarian torsion is an uncommon but serious condition in which an ovary
becomes twisted, cutting off its blood supply.
Defined as the absence of menstrual periods for 12 months, it is the time in a woman's life when
the function of the ovaries ceases. Note that the process of menopause does not occur overnight.
Instead, it is a gradual process. This is when women stop ovulating and menses stop entirely,
ending child-bearing ability. Since production of the estrogen is reduced, the ovaries finally stop
functioning as endocrine glands. Other common symptoms include night sweats, sleeplessness,
vaginal dryness, irritability, lack of voluntary control over urination and urinary tract infections, low
mood and a reduced interest in sex.
Although men experience decline in testosterone secretion, they do not experience menopause.
Take note, men are capable of reproducing even beyond their 80s if they are healthy.

Now that we have a general overview of the primary sex characteristics, we now move to our
discussion of the secondary sex characteristics, which refer to other visible changes that mark adult
maturation (Garn, et. Al., 2009). These include body hair growth, body odor, and a sudden increase
in height. Also, changes to body shape or voice may occur. The first noticeable change to one’s
appearance will be a quick growth spurt. This sudden increase in height may cause them to feel
awkward and uncoordinated as they are adapting to their new bodies, but in reality, they are
increasing in strength and coordination at
this time as well.
As the increase in body hair takes
place, boys begin to develop facial hair.
Both boys and girls begin to develop
pubic hair and underarm hair. Body odor
(B.O. as they call it), a new smell under
the arms and other parts of the body,
also begins to increase as you begin to
experience sweat under your arms as
hormones stimulate glands at the age of
puberty. At this point, as the adolescent
begins to show an interest in new
http://www.healthworry.com/puberty-my-body-is-changing/
grooming habits, shaving and applying deodorant become a new part of his/her routine.
Girls also experience a significant change in their bodies' shape. Their hips widen, and their
breasts begin to develop. Meanwhile, boys will experience changes to their voice. Their voice begins
to deepen as their voice box, or larynx, grows larger. During this time, their voices may 'crack'
while they are talking.
What about those little spots that suddenly
appear on your smooth face? Certainly, you
have got them as a teenager as your skin
becomes oilier at puberty. These acne or
pimples are due to hormonal changes during this
age.
Girls and boys notice more changes at this
stage. Girls can see or feel white stuff coming
out of their body known as vaginal discharge —
an indication that hormones are changing their
body. In boys, they can experience their penis
http://www.healthworry.com/puberty-my-body-is-changing/
becoming hard called erections. Either it

happens when boys start thinking about things sexually or for no reason at all. This is also the
time when they may experience nocturnal emissions or wet dreams. The penis becomes erect and
ejaculates to release a white fluid containing sperm.
Changes in primary and secondary sex characteristics can be strange and embarrassing to
both boys and girls when they begin. This is why it is important that you have enough information to
understand the changes that your bodies are going through. This is also why each of us had to have
the uncomfortable experiences of our parents giving us 'the talk,' or watching those awkward films
in health class. Do you see how uncomfortable it can be if we did not know that these changes were
coming?

The physical changes of puberty can likewise cause social and emotional
changes for adolescents. Remember the release of gonadotrophins,
androgens, and estrogens mentioned earlier? These are the so-called
‘raging hormones' experienced during puberty. Our bodies at this stage are
adjusting to these fluctuating hormone levels. This is why we experience mood
swings while our bodies are getting used to these new chemical reactions, and
emotions may alternate from sad to irritable to happy to angry for little or
no apparent reason.
Experiencing these physical and emotional changes during puberty also
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result in new and unfamiliar social experiences for you. For example, as others
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notice your body changes, they may start treating you differently, or you may
notice that other teenagers are now paying more attention to how they look. This is also the
beginning of romantic interest in the opposite sex.
, , ,
Love is a very difficult thing to define, classify, and explain. According to anthropology
professor Helen Fisher (1998), there are three stages of falling in love: lust, attraction and
attachment. In each stage, a different set of brain chemicals run the show.
Teenagers, just after puberty, experience the desire to experience “love” as a result of an
activated estrogen and testosterone in their bodies for the first time. These desires, also known as
lust (or erotic passion, also referred to as a person’s sex drive or libido), play a big role in their
teenage life. It is about a general desire for sexual gratification with a partner you deem
appropriate. However, lust is different from attraction (or infatuation), which is passionate and
obsessive love. Here, a person focuses their energy and attention on a mating partner they prefer
in particular (Bowlby, 1982). But, while lust keeps us “looking around,” what leads us to attraction is
our desire for romance (Lewis, et. Al, 2000).
What happens next as the relationship progress is attraction (whether or not the initial feelings
come from lust). When attraction (or romantic passion) comes into play, the old saying “love is
blind” is at work, wherein we often lose our ability to think rationally (at least when it comes to the
object of our attraction). This is the stage when we often do not see any flaws our partner might
have and this is the time when we cannot get them off our minds. In this stage, the couple spends
many hours getting to know each other. If this attraction remains strong and is mutually felt, then
they usually end up entering the third stage, which is attachment.
The attachment, or commitment (or the emotional union with a long-term partner) stage is love
for the duration. You are done with fantasy love and are now entering into real love. This stage of
love has to be strong enough to withstand many problems and distractions. According to Berscheid
& Regan (2005), the more we idealize the one we love, the stronger the relationship during the
attachment stage becomes. Idealization appears to keep people together and keep them happier
in marriage.
So how does the chemistry of love work? That initial happiness that comes when we are first
falling in love includes a racing heart, flushed skin and sweaty palms. Researchers say this is due to
the dopamine, norepinephrine and phenylethylamine that we are releasing (Carmichael, et. Al., 1994).
Dopamine is thought to be the "pleasure chemical," producing a feeling of bliss. Norepinephrine is

similar to adrenaline and produces the racing heart and excitement. According to Fisher (1998),
these two chemicals produce elation, intense energy, sleeplessness, craving, loss of appetite and
focused attention. Another possible explanation for the intense focus and idealizing view of people
in love in the attraction stage comes from having lower levels of serotonin, which are the same as
those found in people with obsessive-compulsive disorders, possibly explaining why those in love
"obsess" about their partner. Playing a key role in the romantic love stage are
oxytocin, vasopressin and endorphins, which are released during sex and orgasm. These explain why
sex builds attachment between couples and why oxytocin is colloquially called the love hormone or
cuddle chemical. According to researchers (Turner, et. Al., 1999), the hormone oxytocin has been
shown to be "associated with the ability to maintain healthy interpersonal relationships and healthy
psychological boundaries with other people." When it is released during orgasm, it begins creating
an emotional bond - the more sex, the greater the bond. Vasopressin, an antidiuretic hormone, is
another chemical that has been associated with the formation of long-term, monogamous
relationships. Fisher (1998) believes that oxytocin and vasopressin interfere with the dopamine and
norepinephrine pathways, which might explain why passionate love fades as attachment grows..
Endorphins, the body's natural painkillers, also play a key role in long-term relationships. They
produce a general sense of well-being, including feeling soothed,
peaceful and secure.
Another important concept in understanding one’s sexual self is

the erogenous zone, which refers to region in the human body that
has increased sensitivity, which, when stimulated, may create a
sexual response such as relaxation, thoughts of sexual fantasies,
sexual arousal and orgasm.
Some of the most common erogenous zones, which may actually
vary from one person to another, are the mouth (or lips), breasts
(or the nipples), genitals and the buttocks. There are people who
becomes extremely sensitive when touched in the ears, neck,
abdomen, thighs and even feet or the toes.
To further examine the sexual self, let us set off to discussing

the human sexual behavior.
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Any activity that stimulates sexual arousal — may it be solitary (involving only one person),
between two persons, or in a group, is considered as human sexual behavior with two major
determinants: (1) the inherited sexual response patterns that have evolved to ensure reproduction
and at the same time, a part of each individual’s genetic inheritance, and (2) the degree of
restraint or other types of influence exerted by the society on the individual in the expression of
his or her sexuality (Gebhard, 2017).
To classify the types of human sexual behavior, we will consider the gender and the number of
participants. An individually-induced sexual arousal is called solitary behavior. Then again, it is called
socio-sexual behavior if it involves more than one person. Considering the gender of the
participants, this can be extended to other types called heterosexual behavior (male with female)

and homosexual behavior (male with male or female with female). Naturally, if there are three or
more individuals involved, then it is possible that a combination of heterosexual and homosexual
activity is taking place instantaneously.
Let us examine the types of human sexual behavior one by one:
The main objective of this behavior is to satisfy oneself through self-masturbation or

self-stimulation that intends to cause sexual arousal and, usually, orgasm or sexual climax. Most of
the time, masturbation is done in private but may sometimes be practiced to facilitate socio-sexual
relationship (Darby, 2004).
Generally beginning at or before puberty, masturbation is very common among males, young
males in particular. However, this becomes less common or is even abandoned when socio-sexual
activity is accessible. Accordingly, masturbation is likewise most frequent among the unmarried.
Fewer females masturbate and tend to reduce or discontinue masturbation when they develop socio
-sexual relationships, too. The frequency, so to speak, varies for each individual hence the ‘normal
range’ cannot be certainly defined.
Solitary behavior is common among individuals who are deprived of socio-sexual opportunities.
While solitary masturbation does provide pleasure and relief from the tension of sexual excitement,
it does not have the same psychological gratification that interaction with another person provides.
A greater number of males and females are involved in fantasies of some sort of socio-sexual
activity while they try to satisfy themselves sexually. These fantasies generally involve an ideal sexual
partner or an activity that has not yet been experienced by the individual and might even be avoided
in real-life.
With the increasing exposure to sexual stimuli such as advertising and mass media themes that
are sexual in nature, adolescents and teenagers like you become more aggressive, contributing
more to teenage pregnancy incidents. Hence, response to such visual and other stimuli should be
controlled. Problems related to STDs and pre-marital sex can be prevented if young adults like you
know how to cope with your own sexual arousal.
Considerably, heterosexual behavior (one that takes place between one male and one female
only) comprises the mainstream of socio-sexual behavior. Because at childhood, an individual
becomes too curious up to the point of showing or examining his or her genitals, heterosexual
behavior is said to have began at this stage. Think about those children who play bahay-bahayan or
are engaged in sex play because it is pleasurable. Again, the sexual impulse and responsiveness of
most children differ from each other.
Consider the urge for sexual arousal to occur, physical contact, usually labelled as necking or
petting (i.e. hugging, kissing, or generalized caresses of the clothed body to techniques involving
genital stimulation as an expression of affection and a source of pleasure), is an important
component not only of the learning process to interact with another person sexually, but of
courtship and in selecting one’s marriage partner. Note that petting may occur as a preliminary to
coitus (or the insertion of the male reproductive structure into the female reproductive organ). This
last form of petting is known as foreplay. In some cases, petting can lead to orgasm and may
even be a substitute for coitus (Penke & Asendorpf, 2008).

You have probably heard the saying, “To see is to believe.” For scientists, this is particularly true
as they conduct study on human behavior since their observed data provides the most complete
results in their investigations. There are some behaviors, however, that are difficult to observe.
Take for example those that are private and taboo, like sexual behavior. Observing the
physiological responses that the human body undergoes during intercourse is essential because of
the insights that it provides with regards to one’s issues of sexuality. It also provides information
on the dynamics of building relationships and evidence of the physical processes of the human body.
Akin to food, sex is said to be an important part of our lives (Morales, 2017). From an
evolutionary point of view, sex obviously ensures that the human species continues. In a 1966
study, two researchers namely Masters and Johnsons took the investigation on sexual behavior a
step further by physically observing participants having intercourse and/or masturbating. Note that
these volunteers have agreed and volunteered to participate in their study and allowed Masters and
Johnson to witness the sexual activity. As uncomfortable to imagine as it may seem, the said study
was considered significant as it resulted to the development of the sexual response cycle, a series
of four physiological phases that both men and women go through during intercourse. This was done
by measuring the blood pressure, respiration rate and indicators of sexual arousal. As a result,
Masters and Johnson concluded that sexual response follows a pattern of sequential stages or
phases during sex, which include: excitement, plateau, orgasm and resolution.
The first stage is the excitement phase, which is characterized by (1) an increase in heart rate
and blood pressure, (2) increase in blood supply to the surface of the body causing an increased
skin temperature, (3) blushing, (4) enlargement
of all distensible body parts (mainly manifested
in the penis and female breasts), (5) more rapid
breathing, (6) the secretion of genital fluids, (7)
vaginal expansion, and (8) a general increase in
muscle tension. Usually, this phase is marked by
the erection of the penis or clitoris and
lubrication and expansion of the vaginal canal.
These symptoms of arousal ultimately lead
to the second stage called, the plateau phase,
which typically lasts for a short period of time.
At this stage, women experience further
swelling of the vagina and increased blood flow
to the labia minora, while men experience full
erection often accompanied by pre-ejaculatory
https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=sexual+response+cycle&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH76 7&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&
ved=0ahUKEwjNr6GJsfHaAhWFjJQKHRccBnIQ_AUICigB&biw=1366&bih=662#imgrc=Vf53g2QLXWwaGM:
fluid. If stimulation is continued, orgasm usually

follows. The third stage is called sexual climax or orgasm, commonly marked by rhythmic contractions
of the pelvis and uterus along with increased muscle tension in women and pelvic contractions
accompanied by a buildup of seminal fluid near the urethra in men that is ultimately forced out by
contractions of genital muscles, a process known as ejaculation. Orgasm is also exhibited by a

feeling of sudden intense pleasure, an abrupt increase in pulse rate and blood pressure.
Involuntary vocalization may likewise occur. Take note, orgasm lasts for a few seconds only (normally
not over ten). The final stage, the resolution phase, is the relatively rapid return to an unaroused
state, accompanied by a decrease in blood pressure and muscular relaxation. This is the state
where both males and females return to a normal or subnormal physiological state. The time until
women and men can repeat the cycle following resolution is known as a refractory period. Many
women can quickly repeat the sexual response cycle, but men must pass through a longer refractory
period after resolution. During a refractory period, an individual is incapable of experiencing
another orgasm. In men, the exact duration of the refractory period can vary dramatically from
individual to individual, with some refractory periods as short as several minutes and others as long
as a day. Also, as men age, their refractory periods tend to span longer periods of time. Women,
on the other hand, are physically capable of repeated orgasms without taking a rest period
demanded by men.
(Source: Schiavi, R. & Segraves, R., 1995)

“Sex” refers to physiological differences between male,
female, and intersex bodies. Such variation between male and
female may involve genital ambiguity and/or combinations of
chromosomes other than XY (typically found in males) and XX
(typically found in females). Then again, intersex is defined as a
person born with a combination of male and female biological
characteristics, such as chromosomes or genitals, that can make
it difficult for doctors to assign their sex as distinctly male or
female). In addition to the most common XX and XY chromoso-
mal sexes, there are several other possible combinations com-
monly known as intersex, such as Turner syndrome (XO), Triple X
syndrome (XXX), Klinefelter syndrome (XXY), de la Chapelle https://www.google.com.ph/search?rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH767&tbm=isc h&sa=1&ei=vS
syndrome (XX male), and Swyer syndrome (XY female). Due to the nvWvXLMIum0gT3-qvoBA&q=xx++and+xy+chromosome&oq= xx++and+xy+chromosome
&gs_ l=img.3...3997.5963.0.6235.12.10.2.0.0.0.217.1117.0j5j1.6.0....0...1c.1.64.img..5.1.1
64...0i67k1j0i24k1.0.f-k4Y1rYMgU#imgrc=VPYeZWgWWJp7HM:
existence of multiple forms of intersex conditions (which are more

prevalent than researchers once thought), many view sex as existing along a spectrum, rather than
as simply two mutually exclusive categories. Intersex infants with ambiguous outer genitalia are
often surgically “corrected” at birth so that they more easily conform to a socially accepted sex
category. What is considered male, female, or even ambiguous is largely classified by society, and
this kind of “corrective” surgery is a highly controversial topic. Defenders of the surgery argue that
it is necessary for individuals to be clearly identified as male or female in order for them to
function socially. Many intersex individuals, however, argue that such a procedure is invasive and
unnecessary. Some individuals may be raised as a certain gender (boy or girl) based on the sex
(male or female) that was chosen for them at birth, but then identify with another gender later in
life; some may even opt for sexual reassignment surgery later in life to align more truly with who
they are.
As mentioned earlier, a person’s sex includes both primary sex characteristics (those that are
related to the reproductive system) and secondary sex characteristics (those unrelated to the
reproductive system, such as breasts and facial hair). In humans, biological sex is typically
determined by doctors at birth in adherence to the five factor namely, (1) the presence or absence
of a Y chromosome, (2) the type of gonads, (3) the sex hormones, (4) the internal reproductive

anatomy (such as the uterus in females), and (5) the external genitalia.
Given the overview of the female and male reproductive systems in the beginning of this lesson,
we realize that different sexes are anatomically very similar, although they each function differently
to perform sexual acts and procreate.
Going back to the female anatomy, it can be said that the female external genitalia is
collectively known as the vulva, which includes the mons veneris, labia majora, labia minora, clitoris,
vaginal opening, and urethral opening. Female internal reproductive organs consist of the vagina,
uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries. The uterus hosts the developing fetus, produces vaginal and
uterine secretions, and passes the male’s sperm through to the fallopian tubes while the ovaries
are responsible for releasing the eggs. A female is born with all her eggs already produced. The
vagina is attached to the uterus through the cervix, while the uterus is attached to the ovaries via
the fallopian tubes. Females have a monthly reproductive cycle — at certain intervals, the ovaries
release an egg, which passes through the fallopian tube into the uterus . If, in this transit, it meets
with sperm, the sperm might penetrate and merge with the egg, fertilizing it. If not fertilized, the
egg is flushed out of the system through menstruation.
Like females, males also have both internal and external genitalia that are responsible for
procreation and sexual intercourse. Males produce their sperm on a cycle, and unlike the female’s
ovulation cycle, the male sperm production cycle is constantly producing millions of sperm daily. The
main male sex organs are the penis and the testicles, the latter is responsible for producing semen
and sperm as a result of sexual intercourse, which can fertilize an ovum in the female’s body. The
fertilized ovum (zygote) develops into a fetus, which is later born as a child.
The brain is the structure that translates the nerve impulses from the skin into pleasurable
sensations. It controls nerves and muscles used during sexual behavior. It regulates the release of
hormones, which are believed to be the physiological origin of sexual desire. The cerebral cortex,
which is the outer layer of the brain that allows for thinking and reasoning, is believed to be the
origin of sexual thoughts and fantasies. Beneath the cortex is the limbic system, which consists of
the amygdala, hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, and septal area. These structures are where emotions
and feelings are believed to originate, and are important for sexual behavior.
The hypothalamus is the most important part of the
brain for sexual functioning. This is the small area at the base
of the brain consisting of several groups of nerve-cell bodies
that receives input from the limbic system. Studies with lab
animals have shown that destruction of certain areas of the
hypothalamus causes complete elimination of sexual behavior.
One of the reasons for the importance of the hypothalamus
is its relation to the pituitary gland, which secretes the
https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=hypothalamus&tbm=isch&tbs=rimg:Cay7IB3SwXq7Iji3PuQ0NyUh
hormones that are produced in the hypothalamus. Aside
PRvS WEvuz7op8v6SH2KO2RBvC-11GilSz5b45Vb09ZPhSdV3eSUXU2p19x-1osXGSoSCbc-5DQ3JSFAE
Qo1eR4B ZR_ 19KhIJ9G9JYS7PugR3ygWPdeUeysqEgmny_1pIfYo7ZBHR9sHMXJgKwyoSCUG8L7XUaK from the hormones mentioned, several important sexual
VLEXo5X_1Ra LID OKhIJPlvjlVvT1k8R5-KGgi5S5QqEgmFJ1Xd5JRdTRGZOyoVwsTSoioSCanX3H7
WixcZEYVzs5kfNdtG&tbo=u&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwic5Vw_HaAhUCJZQKHQBtDjkQ9C96BAgBEBs&biw
hormones are secreted by the pituitary gland. Oxytocin,
also known as the “hormone of love,” is released during
sexual intercourse when orgasm is achieved. This is also released in females when they give birth
or are breast feeding that stimulate milk production in females. It is also believed that oxytocin is
Understanding the Self Unit I1I Unpacking the Self

involved with maintaining close relationships.
(Source: American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistic Manual)

Sexual issues or sexual disorders are
influenced by many factors that are biological,
emotional, and socio-cultural in nature. Human
sexuality refers to people’s sexual interest in and
attraction to others, and the capacity to have
erotic or sexual feelings and experiences. The
World Health Organization ‘s International
Classifications of Diseases defines sexual problems
as “the various ways in which an individual is
unable to participate in a sexual relationship as
he or she would wish.” Sexual disorders, according
https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=sexual+disorders&tbm=isch&tbs=rimg:CUbONFcanMqxIjhP5bIsz7OBQnQ6AmfSvPe RAKbcPXzKSe
EugubSxR41AFkuqho2dQIrPXYxnqPeGdqYMMS52lBhNyoSCU_1lsizPs4FCEa_1KomVSKycpKhIJdDoCZ 9K895ERFEeFKYVKxkMqEgkA
to the 5th edition of the American Psychiatric

ptw9fMpJ4RHpVLHHme7TXCoSCS6C5tLFHjUAERwM3DVeAcyXKhIJWS6qGjZ1Ais RFPI0XAjcIi8qEgk9djGeo94Z2hH2wiN-
dEn7fMCoSCZgwxLnaUGE3EYV_12SptV35N&tbo=u&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwic4drH yvHaAhVLl5QKHUc5BKoQ9C96BAgBEBs&biw=
1366&bih=662&dpr=1#imgrc=AKbcPXzKSeHosM:
Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual

(DSM-5), are disturbances in sexual desire and psycho-physiological changes that characterize the
sexual response cycle and cause marked distress and interpersonal difficulty. The DSM-5 includes sex
-specific sexual dysfunctions, and subtypes for all disorders include “lifelong versus acquired” and
“generalized versus situational.” Sexual dysfunctions in the DSM-5 (except those that are
substance- or medication-induced) now require a duration of at least 6 months and must meet
more exact criteria in order to be diagnosed.
Sexual problems are often categorized in one of four ways: desire disorders, arousal disorders,
orgasmic disorders, and sexual pain disorders.
This disorder takes place when there is an decreased libido, often characterized by a lack or
absence of desire for sexual activity or of sexual fantasies. The condition may have started after a
period of normal sexual functioning or the person may always have had low or no sexual desire. The
causes differ significantly, but most of the time includes possible decrease in the production of
normal estrogen in women or testosterone in both men and women. Other causes may include
aging, fatigue, hormone imbalance, pregnancy, postpartum depression, medications (such as SSRIs
or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors used to treat depression), or psychiatric conditions such
as anxiety and depression.
This disorder was used to be known as frigidity in women and impotence in men, though these
have now been replaced with less judgmental terms, such as erectile dysfunction. In the revisions to
the DSM-5, sexual desire and arousal disorders in females were combined into female sexual
interest/arousal disorder. These conditions can manifest themselves as an aversion to and avoidance
of sexual contact with a partner. In males, there may be partial or complete failure to attain or
maintain an erection or a lack of sexual excitement and pleasure in sexual activity. There may be
medical causes to these disorders, such as decreased blood flow or lack of vaginal lubrication.
Chronic disease, history of trauma and the nature of the relationship between partners can also

contribute to this disorder.
This type of disorder involves persistent delays or absence of orgasm following a normal sexual
excitement phase. The disorder can have physical, psychological, or pharmacological origins. SSRI
antidepressants are a common pharmaceutical culprit, as they can delay orgasm or eliminate it
entirely.
This disorder affects women almost exclusively, raising the question of possible societal
influences. In the DSM-5, the conditions of dyspareunia and vaginismus were combined into the new
diagnosis of genito-pelvic pain/penetration disorder. Dyspareunia, or painful intercourse, may be
caused by insufficient lubrication (vaginal dryness) in females. Poor lubrication may result from (1)
insufficient excitement and stimulation, (2) hormonal changes caused by menopause, pregnancy, or
breast-feeding, (3) irritation from contraceptive creams and foams; or (4) fear, anxiety, or past
sexual trauma. Vaginismus is an involuntary spasm of the muscles of the vaginal wall that interferes
with intercourse. It is unclear exactly what causes it, but it is thought that past sexual trauma may
play a role. Another female sexual-pain disorder is called vulvodynia or vulvar vestibulitis where
women experience burning pain during sex, which seems to be related to problems with the skin in
the vulvar and vaginal areas. The cause, again, is unclear.
Different factors may result in a person experiencing a sexual dysfunction. Emotional factors
include interpersonal or psychological problems and can result from depression, anxiety, past sexual
trauma, sexual fears, or guilt. Ordinary anxiousness can cause erectile dysfunction without
psychiatric problems, but clinically diagnosable disorders such as panic disorder commonly cause
avoidance of intercourse and premature ejaculation. Pain during intercourse is often correlated with
anxiety disorders among females.
Physical factors include the use of drugs, such as alcohol, nicotine, narcotics, stimulants,
anti-hypertensives, antihistamines, and some psychotherapeutic drugs. Other factors include back
injuries, enlarged prostate gland, problems with blood supply, and nerve damage (as in spinal cord
injuries). Diseases such as diabetic neuropathy, multiple sclerosis, tumors, and tertiary syphilis may
also have an impact, as can failure of various organ systems (such as the heart and lungs),
endocrine disorders (thyroid, pituitary, or adrenal gland problems), and hormonal deficiencies (low
testosterone, other androgens, or estrogen).
(Adopted from https://www.plannedparenthood.org/learn/stds-hiv-safer-

sex)
At this point, you should realize the importance of practicing safe sex. This topic will teach you
about bacterial and viral sexually transmitted diseases to help you prevent or minimize the chances
of getting a potentially nasty, painful, and sometimes incurable disease.
Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs), also known as Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs), are
terms for a disease that is passed from an already infected person during sex. STDs are
transmitted through a wide variety of ways, including oral sex, vaginal sex, and anal sex. Some of

infectious agent. Very important to note is the fact that you can get an STD from a person who is
showing no signs or symptoms of the disease. Remember, just because you cannot see it, that does
not mean it is not there. For your information, STDs are caused by microscopic organisms like
bacteria and viruses that are invisible to the naked eye.
Let us first go over the different kinds of bacterial STDs

that individuals may get. The first major one is chlamydia. This
is the most common sexually transmitted infection in the U.S.
and is caused by a bacterium called Chlamydia trachomatis. This
disease usually causes no symptoms. But again, that does not
mean it cannot be passed on to another person. Chlamydia can
cause pain during urination, itching around the sexual organs of
a person, and, critically, a problem called pelvic inflammatory
disease in women. This problem can lead to infertility in women
affected with chlamydia. This is why treatment with antibiotics,
drugs that kill bacteria, is very important. https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=sexually+transmitted+diseases&tbm=isch&tbs=ri mg:CadS
wnVmtiYpIjgq0f2y-gCS6tcbGV20-8lzHk8uggUZ01HI_1mLFsx8O1YhBS7-bGpdA2zXNF52sQx
ZdDXj3jM6bvCoSCSrR_1bL6AJLqEUntQRj8x7t0KhIJ1xsZXbT7yXMR1s9ftKP-VkcqEgkeTy6CB
An infection caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae,

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qEgnbNc0XnaxDFhEzkg0Xs9rHXCoSCV0NePeMzpu8ESTNHPsbcnAB&tbo=u&sa=X&ved=2ahU
KEwj71fT7zfHaAhWSq5QKHVvCAgUQ9C96BAgBEBs&biw=1242&bih=602&dpr=2
called gonorrhea, can also result in burning during urination.

#imgrc=p1LCdWa2JikkuM:
Additionally, gonorrhea causes a wonderful colorful discharge from the penis in men. It is usually
pretty yellow, green, or white in color and can also cause the testicles to become very painful. In
women, gonorrhea also cause pain during urination, and, if left untreated, can result in the inability
to have children, just like chlamydia.
Note that gonorrhea (like many STDs) is an infection that can also be passed from mother to
child during childbirth. This is why if you have any of these signs or symptoms, make sure to get
treated with antibiotics ASAP.
Finally, the last major bacterial STD is called syphilis, caused by a bacterium known as Treponema
pallidum. Syphilis is the STD that is famously known for causing a painless sore, called a chancre, at
the point where the bacterium enters the body. The problem with syphilis is that it likes to disappear
inside the body for decades without causing the person any trouble. However, when it reappears, it
ends up causing everything from blindness to difficulty walking to dementia and eventually death. This
is why the infection must be stopped right away with antibiotics, just like gonorrhea and chlamydia
need to be.
Moving on to the viral STDs, for sure, the names here may sound more familiar than those STDs
caused by bacteria.
The most famous viral STD is known as HIV, or

the Human Immunodeficiency Virus, which ends up
causing AIDS, a problem that results in immune
system compromise. This is because HIV destroys
white blood cells known as CD4+ T cells. When these
cells are destroyed, a person is more susceptible
https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=hiv+aids&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH767&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0
ahUKEwiO1M6l0vHaAhVGmJQKHTahBvsQ_AUICigB&biw=1242&bih=602&dpr=1.1#imgrc=LwD8fom16c-yBM:

to a secondary infection by another virus or bacterium. Unlike the bacterial stuff discussed
previously, HIV/AIDS has no known cure or magic pill like an antibiotic. This is why combinations of
different drugs, known as antiretroviral therapy, is used to hold-off AIDS as a result of HIV.
While HIV is devastating, especially if left
untreated, another viral STD is also quite a signifi-
cant problem and also has no cure. This is known
as genital herpes, a sexually transmitted infection
mainly caused by a virus called herpes simplex virus
2. This virus is in the same family that causes the
cold sores that pop up on your lip for everyone to
see. Except genital herpes causes sores in the
unspeakable regions down below. Again, there's no
cure for herpes. Medication can be taken to minimize
https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=genital+herpes&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH767&sou rce=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ah
or shorten outbreaks of these sores, but you will not UKEwi3wuyR0_HaAhUMjZQKHVmmBt4Q_AUICigB&biw=1242&bih=602#imgrc=3V8MIwES0MYBqM:
be cured. These medicines are called antivirals, because they target the virus causing this disease,
although not always very effectively so.
A further virus that causes problems is
known as the human papillomavirus (HPV). This
is a virus that has been linked to causing warts
and cervical cancer. Cervical cancer is the
second-most common cancer in women, after
breast cancer, and therefore is nothing to
laugh about. If genital sores and painful
urination do not scare you, it is hoped that by
this time, you realize the seriousness of viral
STDs. There is no cure for the virus itself, and
therefore treatment is aimed at whatever
problems HPV causes, including the cancer.
However, importantly, you should be aware that
https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=hpv&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH767&d=lnms&
tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiLiMbz0_HaAhUMlJQKHQ6TBL8Q_AUICigB&biw=1242&bih=602#imgrc=jRN_aQBeoOhTzM:
there is a safe and effective vaccine that is

available that can help protect you against the diseases HPV causes.
(Source: https://www.webmd.com › Health & Sex › Reference)

It is wise to believe that your health is the most precious thing you have. Otherwise, it becomes
quite difficult to enjoy the food you like, the sports you play, and even the time you spend with family
and friends. This means that being unsafe is definitely not a good idea. This topic will introduce you
to some of the most important ways with which you can protect yourself from injury or disease,
focusing on the ways to reduce your risk for STDs.
The most effective way to protect yourself from sexually transmitted infections is
through abstinence, meaning, withdrawing from sex. Whether you do it as a result of a personal
health conscious choice or for a religious reason, it does not really matter. As discussed earlier,
STDs can be passed on through any type of sex, be it vaginal, oral, or anal. Even gentle touching or

contact between these aforementioned regions can end
up causing an STD. This is why abstinence, just keeping
away from it all, is the surest way you can avoid some
terrible and even deadly sexually transmitted infections.
Another important and reliable way to avoid STDs
is mutual monogamy, a process where both you and
your sexual partner agree to be sexually active only with
one another. What's important to note here is that both
you and your partner should be screened for STDs and
be honest with one another about any STDs you may https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=mutual+monogamy&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH 767PH767&source=lnms&tbm=is
have. Otherwise, this type of safe sex strategy may fail. ch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwju2v3X1vHaAhUBHZQKHU1OA7MQ_AUICigB&biw=1242&bih=602#imgdii=0Ri-
KUJjWHl0KM:&imgrc=R0nkSWmSIPPrYM:
If mutual monogamy is not a possibility for one

reason or another, then another strategy, although
not as effective, is to simply reduce the number of
sexual partners you have. In a crude way, it is
similar to rolling the dice when it comes down to
many sexual partners, especially if you do not know
them very well or they are not very honest with you.
The less often you stand out in an open field while
lightning strikes, the less likely that you will be struck
https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=mutual+monogamy&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767P H767&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X
&ved=0ahUKEwju2v3X1vHaAhUBHZQKHU1OA7MQ_AUICigB&biw=1242&bih=602#imgrc=7-mPfsjc_QdUTM: by lightning. The fewer the number of sexual
partners you have, the smaller the chance that you
will catch an STD.
Besides that, the use of condoms is another thing that helps avoid getting a nasty STD. It has
been shown that condoms, if used correctly and every time you have sex, can massively decrease
the chances of getting an STD. Correct use, by the way, means you should use it during any act of
sex, be it vaginal, oral, or anal. It also means you should use the condom from the very start of sex
to the very end. Otherwise, it may be useless because STDs can be passed from one partner to
another very quickly.
Other than everything mentioned above, some STDs can be prevented with the help of a vaccine.
Just like you can take a flu shot to stop the flu from affecting you, you too can vaccinate yourself
against a few types of STDs that includes the human papillomavirus and hepatitis B. Take note that
there are tons of STDs that cannot be vaccinated against, so relying on just those vaccines only
serves a limited purpose. Other important steps you can take to help prevent STDs are the
avoidance of drugs and alcohol, which can impair your judgment and lead you to not follow the rest
of the advices and reminders mentioned. Additionally, refrain from seeking out anonymous sex
partners and make sure that you communicate with all of your potential sexual partners about their
history of disease. You should not be embarrassed to ask. Remember, it is your lifelong health at
stake here.
Furthermore, make sure that you do not engage in rough sex or sex without enough lubrication
as both can cause tears in the skin and mucous membranes of genital organs. These tears are like

gaping holes for the much smaller bacteria and viruses. They serve as an invitation to enter your
body and infect you sometimes for life. By the way, these tears may not cause any visible bleeding,
and therefore avoid assuming that you are safe if you do not see any blood. Finally, wash yourself
before and after sex, do not share any towels or clothing, and make sure you get regularly tested if
you think you may be at risk of getting an STD.
(Source: www.familyplanning.org.nz/advice/contraception/contraception-methods)
With the growing incidents of people acquiring sexually transmitted diseases and unwanted
pregnancies, there is a need to understand the various ways and methods of contraception or birth
control for prevention purposes. These methods can be natural or artificial. Note that most of the
methods that will be discussed are not 100% effective. Each method has its advantages and
disadvantages. Hence, finding the best method to use still depends upon the person.
Natural Family Planning (NFP) takes into consideration the

natural changes in the physical body of a woman to identify when
she is fertile and could become pregnant. This is also known as a
fertility-based awareness method., which discounts the entry into
the body of any chemical or foreign body.
You have learned in the past about the physiological
developments and observable changes during a woman’s menstrual
cycle. Once a month an egg is released from one of a woman’s
ovaries (called ovulation), which can stay alive in the uterus for
about 24 hours. On the other hand, men can always produce
https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=natural+family+planning&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH
767&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi_5b64w4_bAhUG6LwKHYlCAQgQ_AUI
CigB&biw=1242&bih=602#imgrc=4nV6ewQ8sLgtiM:
sperm cells, which can stay alive in the female reproductive system
for about two to five days after being deposited in the vagina during sexual intercourse. In short,
there are periods during a woman’s cycle when she is unlikely to conceive, while men do not have
what we call the ‘safe period’.
How, then, is it possible to identify when a woman is in the ‘safe period’ (when pregnancy is not
possible) and when she is in the ‘unsafe period’ (when she could get pregnant)? Natural family
planning methods prevent pregnancy by making it impossible for the egg and sperm to meet. There
are three major classifications of natural family planning methods: 1) Periodic Abstinence (fertility
awareness) method, 2) Use of breastfeeding or Lactational Amenorrhoea Method (LAM) and
3) Coitus Interruptus (withdrawal or pulling out) method.
Periodic Abstinence (fertility awareness) methods

Throughout the menstrual cycle, the female hormones known as the estrogen and progesterone
trigger some noticeable effects and symptoms — as ovulation approaches, the estrogen causes the
cervical mucus to change from thick, opaque, and sticky to thin, clear and slippery, while the
progesterone, on the other hand, produces a slight increase in basal body temperature after
ovulation, which basically causes the opposite effect of estrogen, making the cervical mucus thick,
opaque and sticky.
Let us now discuss the three most common techniques used in periodic abstinence methods,
namely: Rhythm (calendar) method, Basal Body Temperature (BBT) method and Cervical Mucus
(ovulation) method.

Calendar or Rhythm Method
Known to be the most widely used periodic abstinence technique, the calendar method is an
approach based on calculation using previous menstrual cycles to predict the first and the last
fertile day in future menstrual cycles. In this method, one must have a clear understanding of the
fertile and infertile phases of a woman’s menstrual cycle based on its regularity and on the fact
that an ovum (egg) can only be fertilized within 24 hours of ovulation.
A woman has a regular menstrual cycle when monthly bleeding happens every month or 28 days.
On the contrary, an irregular menstrual cycle is when monthly bleeding changes from month to
month (for example, from 25 to 32 days in some women).
You also have to understand
that before relying on this method,
a woman needs to keep count of
the number of days in each of her
menstrual cycles for a period of at
least six (6) to eight (8) months,
taking into account that the first
day of menstrual bleeding is always
counted as the first day).
How to use the Calendar Method

For irregular cycles, you have
to identify the longest and the
shortest cycles recorded over six to
eight cycles. Subtract 18 from the https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=calendar+method&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH767&source=lnms&tb m=is ch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiPlM-xipLbAhXCXrwKHZFFAXIQ
_AUICigB&biw=1242&bih=602#imgdii=mwbblvRVKoK fRM:&imgrc=BeJnvuvBZAnslM:
shortest cycle (which gives the first
day of the fertile phase) and then subtract 11 from the longest cycle (which gives the last day of her
fertile time). Remember, during the fertile phase calculated, you have to avoid sex, use a barrier
method, or use withdrawal to avoid getting pregnant.
Let take this as an example: Jenni’s last six menstrual cycles were: 26, 29, 27, 27 and 28 days.
Using this information, let us calculate and instruct her about how to use the calendar method to
prevent pregnancy.
Step 1: Identify the longest and shortest cycles recorded over six cycles.
Jenni’s shortest cycle is 26 days.
Jenni’s longest cycle is 29 days.
Step 2: Subtract 18 from the shortest cycle to identify the first day of the fertile phase.
First day of her fertile phase is 26 - 18 = 8.
Step 3: Subtract 11 from the longest cycle to identify the last day of the fertile phase.
Last day of her fertile phase is 29 - 11 = 18.
Therefore, Jenni’s fertile period is between the 8th–18th days, so she should avoid having sexual
intercourse during this period to prevent pregnancy.
What if Jenni’s menstrual cycle is regular and comes every 28 days or close to it? Then,
ovulation should occur about 14 days before the next period. For this reason, she should count
backwards 14 days from her next period to calculate the day she will ovulate. Accordingly, she should
avoid having sexual intercourse from about seven days before that day until about two days after
ovulation is expected.

According to World Health Organization (WHO, 2017), the calendar or rhythm method is 95%
effective when used correctly. One advantage of the calendar or rhythm method is that, one does
not have to monitor the fertility indicators everyday. The drawback is, it has a high failure rate and
can be difficult to use especially if the woman has an irregular menstrual cycle. Plus, it takes a while
before one can learn and use it accurately.
Basal Body Temperature (BBT) Method

This method is founded on the idea that there is a slight increase in the body temperature of a
woman at rest by about 0.3–0.5°C during and after ovulation brought about by an increased level
of progesterone secreted by the corpus luteum. When this rise in body temperature takes place for
three consecutive days, then ovulation has occurred. This will remain at this elevated level until the
beginning of the next menstrual cycle.
Similar to the calendar method, BBT has no side-effects. It even provides the couple an
opportunity to discuss family planning. The disadvantage is, of course, a high failure rate if the
couple does not fully understand the method. Aside from the fact that it needs a longer time to
practice, understand and use properly, it also requires several days of abstinence. There may also
be chances when indications of an increased body temperature are interpreted incorrectly, as in the
case of fever.
According to WHO (2017), this method is about 98% effective when used correctly. But it is
equally important to remember that two out of 100 women who use BBT in a year can get pregnant.
To make it more effective, the couple must limit unprotected sexual intercourse up to the period
after ovulation.
How to use the BBT

Using a special thermometer, a woman must take the temperature immediately after waking
up, before getting up from the bed in the morning, and before doing anything like drinking tea or
coffee. The temperature should be recorded on a special chart or graph placed on her bedside.
The figure below shows the period of time when a couple must avoid sexual intercourse or use other
protective methods.
https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=basal+body+temperature&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH767&source=lnms&tbm=isch &sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjzldPcppLbAhVMxbwKHWUnBs0Q_AUICigB&biw=1242&bih=602#imgrc=P_rZNmRHMjexvM:

Based on the figure on the previous page, which days of the woman’s menstrual cycle does her
temperature show a three-day rise? As seen on the graph, the body temperature rises on days 15,
16 and 17 — an indication that ovulation has happened and passed. Consequently, if the temperature
falls on or below the normal basal temperature of the woman during the three-day count, that may
indicate that ovulation has not yet occurred. One must wait until three successive temperatures are
recorded above the normal basal temperature to avoid getting pregnant. Take note that after the
beginning of the infertile phase (which is the third day of a rise in temperature or the ‘peak day’), it
is not advisable to take the temperature. Also, it is possible to continue having sexual intercourse
until the first day of the next menstrual cycle.
Using the BBT Method, one may decide to take her temperature either vaginally or rectally for
about three minutes, or orally for four to five minutes. The rectal and vaginal routes are said to
provide a more consistent result but the oral route may be enough if used consistently. After
reading the thermometer, one must record the temperature, interpret whether there has been an
increase in the body temperature.
Cervical Mucus Method (CMM)

Also known as the Billings Method, CMM recognizes and interprets the changes in cervical mucus
and sensations in the vagina as a result of the changes in the estrogen levels during the menstrual
cycle. This method is also an ovulation method used by women trying to get pregnant and have a
child.
It was discussed earlier that the rise in the estrogen levels can result to the cervical gland to
secrete mucus during ovulation that changes from a sensation of dryness in the vagina (which is
characterized by thick, viscous and sticky mucus), to a sensation of wetness in the vulva (which is
characterized by thin, white, slippery and stretchy thread-like, transparent strands just like an
uncooked egg white).
So when is it safe to have sexual intercourse? There are two instances: 1) At the onset of the
dry days (after menstruation ends when there is absence of cervical secretions) and 2) From the
evening of the fourth day after the peak day, up to the beginning of the next menstruation. Once a
woman has ovulated, her cervical mucus will begin to dry up, so the peak day is the last day of
cervical or vaginal wetness.
According to WHO, there is about 97% effectiveness if women use the CMM method correctly
(WHO, 2017). However, there are conditions that can influence the cervical mucus patter in women:
1 ) If a woman has a vaginal or cervical infection; 2) If a woman has recently had sexual stimulation
(that will increase vaginal secretions); 3) If a woman is currently taking drugs for colds or sinusitis,
which may dry up mucus secretions; 4) If a woman is in physical or emotional stress; and 5) If a
woman is currently breastfeeding.
The advantages of this method are similar to those associated with the use of the basal body
temperature method. The downside is the high failure rate since abstaining from sex must be
religiously done. A lot of experience in using the method is needed because it can also be difficult
to use it in women with vaginal infections, as the cervical mucus secretions may be misleading.
How to use Cervical Mucus Method (CMM)

A woman must have a chart to record her mucus pattern. In the morning, she must look at her
cervical mucus and every time after she uses the toilet, she must determine the color and
consistency of the mucus using a clean cloth or tissue paper. Then, she must touch the secretion to

determine its stretchiness
and slipperiness. One
must abstain from sexual
intercourse on the day the
mucus appears, regardless
of its consistency, until the
third evening after the
‘peak day.’
https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=cervical+mucus+method&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH767&source=lnms&tbm=isc
h&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjypo3LspLbAhXFkJQKHXeNAz0Q_AUICigB&biw=1242&bih=602#imgrc=3504lehAAyANaM:
OBSERVATIONS OF CERVICAL MUCUS AND

HOW TO INTERPRET WHEN SEXUAL INTERCOURSE IS ALLOWED
(Source: Family Planning Methods and Practices: Africa, Second Edition, 1999, p.485)
Approximate day of How to identify Intercourse allowed?

menstrual cycle
(phase)
1‒5: Menstruation* Bleeding No
6‒9: Dry days Absence of cervical mucus On alternate nights only, to

avoid confusion between mucus
and sperm
10: Fertile day Onset of sticky mucus secretions No

(gradually becoming slippery over the
following days)
16: Peak fertile day Last day on which slippery mucus No

(resembling raw egg white) is observed
20: Fertile period ends Evening of the fourth day after the peak After fertile period ends
day
21‒29: Safe period From end of fertile period until onset of Yes
(dry days) bleeding
* The cycle begins on the day of menstruation.
Lactational Amenorrhoea Method (LAM)

You know how breastfeeding is used as a contraceptive method? Well, this temporary
contraceptive is simply known as Lactational Amenorrhoea Method. Lactational means
breastfeeding and amenorrhoea means not having the monthly period. How does menstruation stop
in this case? Breastfeeding causes a delay in ovulation because of the prolactin hormone. While the
baby’s suckling of the mother’s nipple sends neural signals to her hypothalamus (part of the brain),
the anterior pituitary gland is triggered to secrete prolactin to stimulate the breast for milk
production. This, in turn, inhibits the secretion of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing
hormone (LH), and as a result ovulation does not occur. While women are exclusively

breastfeeding, prolactin continues to be
secreted and pregnancy is unlikely. When
prolactin levels decrease, the woman’s
monthly bleeding may return, and if she
continues to have unprotected sexual
intercourse she may get pregnant.
To be fully effective the following three
conditions must be met: 1) The woman’s
menstrual period must not have returned;
2) The baby must be exclusively and
f r e q u e n t l y b r e a s tf e d , day and
night. Exclusive breastfeeding, means that
https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=lactational+amenorrhea+method&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH7 67PH767&source=lnms&tbm=isch&
the infant receives no food or fluids other

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than breastmilk.; and 3) The baby must be

less than six months old. This is because from six months onwards the baby needs to begin
receiving complementary foods while continuing to be breastfed. The reduction in the amount of
suckling at the breast may affect the hormonal mechanism, resulting in ovulation and menstruation
returning, indicating a return of the woman’s fertility.
The effectiveness of this method prevents pregnancy for at least six months. While it can be
sued immediately after giving birth, it also encourages the best breastfeeding pattern for the baby.
It has no hormonal side-effects and it does not have to interfere with having sexual intercourse.
The weaknesses of this method lies on its suitability for mothers who are working outside the home.
It provides no protection against STDs including HIV and if the mother has HIV, there is a slight
chance that she may pass it on to her baby through the breastmilk.
According to WHO (2017), if used correctly, there is a 98% to 99% percent effectiveness for
Lactational Amenorrhoea Method (LAM).
Coitus Interruptus or Withdrawal Method

This is a traditional method of contraception where the man withdraws or pulls out his penis
from his partner’s vagina and ejaculates outside, keeping his semen away from her genitalia.
Basically, coitus interruptus prevents fertilization by discontinuing contact between the spermatozoa
in the sperm and the ovum or egg.
One advantage of this method is that, it costs nothing and requires no devices or chemicals. It
is available in any situation and can be used as a back-up method of contraception. However, it
also has several disadvantages. The excitement during sexual intercourse may interrupt or may
result in the incorrect or inconsistent use of this method. It also decreases sexual pleasure for
both partners. A lack of self-control may likewise result to a high failure rate. With the possibility of
premature ejaculation by the man, the semen containing the sperm may actually leak into the vagina
before the person ejaculates. In addition, the couple is not protected from STDs, including HIV.
According to WHO (2017), the Coitus Interruptus Method is the least effective method as it
depends on the man’s capability to withdraw before ejaculation with about 73% effectivity rate when
used correctly.
It is the least effective method because it depends on the man’s ability to withdraw before he
ejaculates. However, it is about 73% effective if used correctly ( Family Planning: A Global Handbook
for Providers, WHO, 2017).

Other natural methods known to be useful also are Symptothermal Method and Ovulation
Detection.
Symptothermal Method
This method is plainly a combination of the BBT method and the cervical mucus method. The
woman takes her temperature every morning before getting up and also takes note of any changes
in her cervical mucus every day. She abstains from coitus three days after a rise in her body
temperature or on the fourth day after the peak of a mucus change.
Ovulation Detection
This method involves an over-the-counter kit that can predict ovulation through the surge of
luteinizing hormone that happens 12 to 24 hours before ovulation using a woman’s urine specimen.
The kit is 98% to 99% accurate and is fast becoming the method of choice by women.
ARTIFICIAL METHODS
Sometimes called, Hormonal Contraception, the artificial methods involve managing the
hormones that directly affect the normal menstrual cycle to prevent ovulation from occurring. These
include: 1) oral contraceptives, 2) transdermal patch, 3) vaginal ring, 4) subdermal implants,
5) hormonal injections, 6) intrauterine device, 7) chemical barriers, 8) diaphragm, 9) cervical cap, 10)
male condoms, and 11) female condoms.
Oral Contraceptives
Commonly known as the pill, oral
contraceptives are comprised of
synthetic estrogen (that suppresses
the FSH and LH to control ovulation)
and progesterone (that decreases the
sponginess of the cervical mucus to
limit the sperm’s access to the ova).
As recommended, the woman may
choose to start the pill as soon as it
is prescribed by the doctor, or in
some cases, she must take the first https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=oral+contraceptives&tbm=isch&tbs=rimg:CarkPWRyPzfDIjgvP5btgMNymQYBtUOAS-oOUVzqHbJDShRPg9mJKUYa_1_1I6qT2WEU
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2KhIJ8jqpPZYRTZ0RpWNr-bBN-ugqEglfwPIV2byMmhHcMBPfpw0QjCoSCQJb0lvZS4L7EXUDXVnaQrPV&tbo=u&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjE0-CwgJPbAhXHa7wKHYgXCMkQ9
pill on the first Sunday after the C96BAgBEBs&biw=1366&bih=662&dpr=1# imgrc=3k3DR8kRWpKPiM:
start of a menstrual flow. Though the pill would not have an effect on the first seven days of taking
it, it is suggested that the couple use another contraceptive method on the initial seven days. What
if the woman forgot to take the pill and skipped one day of taking it? It is recommended that she
must take it immediately after remembering than still follow the regular use of the contraceptive. If
the woman has missed for more than one day, she and her partner must consider an alternative
contraception to avoid ovulation.
Of course, there are side effects for using this method, which includes nausea, weight gain,
headache, breast tenderness, breakthrough bleeding, vaginal infections, mild hypertension,
and depression.
Women who are breastfeeding and are at the age of 35 years and above, or those who have
cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, smoking, diabetes, and cirrhosis, should not use this method.

Transdermal Patch
This method has a combination of both estrogen and progesterone but in form of a patch. The
contraceptive patch can be worn on four places on your body: on the abdomen, upper outer arm,
upper torso (front or back except on your breasts) and on buttocks.
Abdomen Upper Outer Arm Upper Torso Buttocks

(front or back but not
on breasts)
To use this, the woman should apply one patch every week for three weeks on any of the said
areas. But on the fourth week, no patch should be applied as menstrual flow would then occur.
Women using this method should make sure that the area where the patch is placed should be
clean, dry, and without irritation. Note also that patches can be worn while bathing or swimming,
but when the patch becomes loose, the woman should immediately replace the patch. However, the
woman is unsure of how long the patch has been loose, she should replace it and start with a new
week cycle, together with an additional contraceptive method.
Vaginal Ring
The vaginal ring is a silicon ring inserted into the female
reproductive organ, which releases a combination of estrogen
and progesterone that surrounds
the cervix. The vaginal ring
remains inside the vagina for
three weeks, and is removed on
the fourth week as menstrual flow
would occur. As soon as the ring
is removed, the woman becomes https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=vaginal+ring&rlz=1C1C HBD_enPH767PH7
67&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi5-MKElpPbAhWFn 5QKHXt-
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fertile. This method is as 7MiW8tIOCIM:
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effective as the oral contraceptives.
&bih=662#imgrc=qS67MiW8tIOCIM:
Subdermal Implants
The subdermal implants, which contains
etonogestrel, desogestrel and progestin, are two
implants akin to a rod embedded under the skin of the
woman during her menstrual period or on the 7th day
of her menstruation to make sure that pregnancy will
not occur. This method can be of use for three to
five years.
Taken from Healthwise Incorporated

Hormonal Injections
It is a progesterone-based injection, given in the arm or
buttocks, that provides contraception for 12 weeks at a time.
You can think of it as if depositing progesterone into the body
whose job is to fool the body into thinking that it is already
pregnant. Think of it this way: when a woman is pregnant, the
ovaries start producing higher levels of natural progesterone
to let the brain and the rest of the reproductive system know
that 'a baby is on the way’. Thus, obstructing the production
of more eggs. Most of the time, Depo Provera, a hormonal
https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=hormonal+injections&rlz= 1C1CHBD_enPH767PH767&source=l
injection that consists of medroxyprogesterone and
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&bih=662#imgrc=t3HC0SobxniYwM:
a progesterone, is given once every 12 weeks intramuscularly.

It deters ovulation and causes changes in the endometrium and the cervical mucus. With an
effectiveness of almost 100%, this method is one of the most popular choices for birth control.
Intrauterine Device (IUD)

This is a small, T-shaped object that is placed
inside the uterus (just like the name ‘intra-uterine’
suggests) through the vagina, and is left there for
up to five to ten years. It has small strings that
hang outside the cervix that allow the doctor to
check the IUD and help in its removal from the
uterus. It prevents fertilization by impeding sperm
passage. While it may sound a little
uncomfortable, most women only experience a
slight discomfort for the first few days and then
https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=intrauterine+device&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH767&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved
0ahUKEwisyubIoZPbAhVCFpQKHYImAicQ_AUICigB&biw=1366&bih=662#imgrc=_txiNA5ixFpX0M:
do not even notice that it is there. Note that the

IUD containing progesterone is fitted only by the doctor and inserted after the woman’s
menstrual flow to make sure that she will not get pregnant.
Chemical Barriers
Examples of chemical barriers are
spermicides, vaginal gels and creams,
and glycerin films that are used to kill
sperms before they can enter the
cervix and also lower the pH level of
the vagina so it will not become
conducive for the sperm.
However, these chemical barriers
cannot prevent sexually transmitted
infections, although they can be
bought without any prescription. Note
that the ideal fail rate of this method
is 80%. https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=chemical+barriers+for+family+planning&tbm=isch&tbs=rimg:CeDrCdgEWzY MIjgFAzkBnOd_1EwcxBTvnwFxy3MnA1kH2MPIIOkpxRep
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qYKHdSODQ4Q9C96BAgBEBs&biw=1366&bih= 662&dpr=1#imgrc=4OsJ2ARbNgzaZM:

Diaphragm
A diaphragm is a circular, rubber disk
that fits the cervix. It works by inhibiting
the entrance of the sperm into the vagina.
The diaphragm should only be fitted by a
doctor, and should remain in place for six
hours after coitus. If left in place for
more than 24 hours, inflammation or
irritation may occur.
Taken from Healthwise Incorporated
Cervical Cap
Cervical Cap
This is another barrier method made of soft rubber and fitted on the rim
of the cervix. Shaped like a thimble with a thin rim, it could stay in place for
not more than 48 hours.
Male and Female Condoms

A male condom is a latex or synthetic rubber
sheath that is placed on the erect penis before
vaginal penetration, trapping the sperm during
ejaculation. It can prevent STDs and can be
bought over-the-counter without prescription.
Ideally, it has a fail rate of 2% and a typical rate
https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=male+and+female+condoms&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767 PH767&tbm=isch&source=iu&ictx=1&fir=
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of 15% caused by breakage or spilling.

j6z-aAgJTbAhUEvrwKHSS4B3cQ9QEIVzAF#imgrc=7XfYZarcmYgHRM:
Like the male condoms, female condoms are also latex rubber sheaths that are specially
designed for females and are pre-lubricated with spermicide. It has an inner ring that covers the
cervix and an outer, open ring that is placed against the vaginal opening. These are also disposable
and requires no prescription. This method has a fail rate of 12% to 22%.
Surgical Methods
https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=vasectomy&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH767&source= https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=tubal+ligation&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH767&source =lnms&tbm=isch&sa

lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi4uoKW_5PbAhVEgrwKHSOfAs8Q_AUICigB&biw=1366 =X&ved=0ahUKEwj2jomrgZTbAhXFUZQKHRwQBUIQ_AUICigB&biw=1366&bih=662#imgrc=voq-PDp1H_EkMM:
&bih=662#imgrc=y5l00Ef79RkMqM:
This method requires a surgical procedure that renders a person sterile. There is the vasectomy
for males where the tubes (vas deferens) that transport the semen are cut through a small incision
made on each side of the scrotum to block the passage of the sperm. There is the tubal ligation for
females where the fallopian tubes are either cut or tied to block the passage of both the sperm
and the ova. While these types are considered permanent, some can be surgically reversed. The
doctor tells the couple that sterilization for women is about 99.5% effective and sterilization for
men is about 99.9% effective.

EVALUATE
Worksheet 1
‘Only For…’
Using the table below, give examples of what is ‘only for’ boys and girls (such as ‘playing sports’
for boys or ‘tidying up’ for girls). Write down EVERY suggestion, even (and especially!) very
controversial ones. Then answer the questions that follow.
Only for BOYS Only for GIRLS
1. Have you ever been told that you could not do something because you are a girl or a boy?
___________________________________________________________________________
2. If yes, what is it that they told you that you could not do? If your answer is ‘no’, what do you
think is it that you probably could not do because you are a girl or a boy?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. How did that make you feel?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

4. What can you say to someone who tells you that you cannot do something just because you are
a boy or a girl?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
5. Do you really think that boys and girls in our society should be treated the same way? Why?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Extended Learning at Home:

1. Interview a family member about their own experience of being told that they could not do
something because of being a boy or a girl. Find out about their perception of how boys and girls
in your generation should act in the present time as compared to their time in the past. Cite at
least five (5) situations for this.
2. Prepare a short skit (maximum of 4 minutes) about the differences between boys and girls at
puberty stage (from the point of view of any of the following aspects: physical, emotional, social,
etc.) and be ready to present it in class next meeting.

Worksheet 2
Create a Metaphor
Sex is a completely natural and normal activity – meant to be an intimate act, whether it is self
-pleasuring or masturbation, or shared with someone you trust. If you are to present SEX in a
creative manner, how will it look like? Draw your metaphorical symbol of sex below and provide a
brief explanation about it.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

Worksheet 3
Create a slogan or a poster that you can use in your school or community to raise awareness
about the importance of a healthy sexual self to prevent the spread of sexually transmitted
diseases among the youth. Use the rubric on the next page to guide you in this activity.

RUBRIC for Grading the Slogan / Poster
CRITERIA 4 3 2 1 Score
The slogan/ The slogan/ The slogan/ The slogan/

poster is poster is poster is poster is
exceptionally attractive in acceptably distractingly
Craftsmanship attractive in terms of attractive messy.
terms of neatness. There though it may
neatness. It is is good be a bit
well- construction messy.
constructed and not very
and not messy. messy.
The slogan/ The slogan/ The slogan/ The slogan/

poster is poster is poster is poster does
exceptionally creative and a creative and not reflect any
Creativity creative. A lot good amount some thought degree of
of thought and of thought was was put into creativity.
effort were put into decorating it.
used to create decorating it.
an awareness
program..
There was There was There was There was no

exceptional use good use of average use of use of new
Originality of new ideas new ideas and new ideas and ideas and
and originality originality to originality to originality to
to create the create the create the create the
slogan/poster. slogan/poster. slogan/poster. slogan/poster.
The message is The message The message The message
remarkable as captures the somewhat does not
it captures the objective of captures the meet the cap-
objective of the activity. objective of ture the
the activity. the activity. objective of
the activity.
There are no There is 1 There are 2 There are

grammatical grammatical grammatical more than 2
Grammar mistakes on mistake on the mistakes on grammatical
the slogan/ slogan/poster. the slogan/ mistakes on
poster. poster. the slogan/
poster.

Worksheet 4
Doctor for a day!
Pretend that you are a doctor for today. A patient comes to you and asks about using the
calendar method to prevent pregnancy. When you ask her about the history of her menstrual cycle
over the last six months, she tells you it comes regularly every 30 days. Calculate the fertile period
of your patient and advise her when to avoid sex in order to prevent pregnancy.
Regular Cycle
First day of fertile phase
Last day of fertile phase
Therefore, her fertile period is between the ___th and ___th days, and she should avoid sex
between these days of the cycle.
Then another patient with the same situation comes in and tells you that over the last six months,
her monthly period is a little irregular. Her menstrual cycle were as follows: 29, 29, 30, 26, 28, 27.
Calculate her fertile period so you can assist her and his husband in their family planning.
Regular Cycle
First day of fertile phase
Last day of fertile phase
Therefore, her fertile period is between the ___th and ___th days, and she should avoid sex
between these days of the cycle.
Before each of your patients left your clinic, they asked why it is important to be aware of one’s
fertility period. What would you tell them? What good does family planning or birth control give
them? Cite at least five (5) advantages so you can convince them to take family planning seriously.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

Berscheid, E., & Regan, P. C. (2005). The psychology of interpersonal relationships. New York: Prentice
Hall.
Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1: Attachment (2nd ed.). New York: Basic Books.
Carmichael, M., Warburton, V., Dixen, J., & Davidson, J. (1994). Relationships among cardiovascular,
muscular, and oxytocin responses during human sexual activity. Archives of Sexual Behavior,
23, 59–79.
Darby, R. (2004). "Solitary Sex: A Cultural History of Masturbation". Journal of Social History.
Diamond, L. (2003). What does sexual orientation orient? A biobehavioral model distinguishing
romantic love and sexual desire. Psychological Review, 110, 173–192.
Fisher, H. (1998). Lust, Attraction and Attachment in Mammalian Production. Human Nature, 9, (1), 23-
52. New York: Walter de Gruyter, Inc.
Gordon C. & Laufer, M. (2005). Chapter 4: Physiology of puberty. In Emans S., Goldstein D., & Laufer,
M. Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology (5th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.
Kail, R. & Cavanaugh J. (2010). Human Development: A Lifespan View (5th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Laurie, T. & Stark, H. (2017), Love's Lessons: Intimacy, Pedagogy and Political Community. Journal of
the Theoretical Humanities, 22 (4): 69–79, doi:10.1080/0969725x.2017.1406048
Lewis, T., Amini, F., & Lannon, R. (2000). A General Theory of Love. New York: Random House.
Marshall W. & Tanner, J. (1986). Chapter 8: Puberty. In Falkner F. & Tanner J. Human Growth: A
Comprehensive Treatise (2nd ed.). New York: Plenum Press.
Penke, L.; Asendorpf, J. B. (2008). "Beyond global sociosexual orientations: A more differentiated
look at sociosexuality and its effects on courtship and romantic relationships". Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology. 95 (5): 1113–1135. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.95.5.1113.
Rosenfield, R. (2002). Chapter 16: Female puberty and its disorders. In Sperling, MA. Pediatric
Endocrinology (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders.
Rubin, Zick (1973). Liking and Loving: an invitation to social psychology. New York: Holt, Rinehart &
Winston.
Schiavi, R. & Segraves, R. (1995). The biology of sexual function. Psychiatric Clinics of North America,
18 (1), 7-23.

Turner, R., Altemus, M., Enos, T., Cooper, B., & McGuinness, T. (1999). Preliminary research on plasma
oxytocin in normal cycling women: Investigating emotion and interpersonal distress. Psychiatry,
62, 97–113.
(No Author). (2017). Family Planning: A Global Handbook for Providers. World Health Organization.
Online Sources:
https://www.plannedparenthood.org/learn/stds-hiv-safer-sex
https://www.britannica.com
https://medlineplus.gov/femalereproductivesystem.html
www.familyplanning.org.nz/advice/contraception/contraception-methods
https://www.plannedparenthood.org/learn/stds-hiv-safer-sex
https://www.webmd.com › Health & Sex › Reference
American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistic Manual

LESSON 3
THE ECONOMIC SELF
Lesson Objectives:
a. Explore the material/economic self.
b. Recognize the various ways shape the way we see ourselves.
c. Assess the role of consumer culture on our sense of self and identity.
ACTIVATE
Let us examine another aspect of our ‘self’. But before we do that, list down below your
favorite things first and try to describe what each say about you. Then, answer the questions that
follow.
Me and My Favorite Things
Favorite Things What it says about you
1. How do you feel after listing down your favorite things? Was it easy or difficult? Why?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

2. Among the favorite things that you listed above, which one do you like the most? Why?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. If you were given a chance in real-life to have one of your favorite things, which among them
would you choose? Explain your answer.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. Pair-up with your seatmate and ask her/him to read your list. Ask your seatmate to write
below his/her impression about you after reading your list on your favorite things.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
5. Compare your impression (the one you wrote beside each favorite thing on your list) with that
of your seatmate’s. Do you feel that there is some truth behind your seatmate’s impression of
you? Why do you think so?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
EMPOWER
Here is a little trivia for you:

Can you imagine how modest ‘luxury’ is 1000 years ago? As Trentmann described in his article
on Consumer Culture (2016), people can get punished with just a special piece of pastry, which
could also trigger horror and shock to society. He added that in the 18th century, “women were
fined a month’s pay or thrown in jail for sporting a fashionable cotton neckerchief” in
Württemberg, Germany. This was due to the fact that the pursuit of material possessions
endanger the society—it sparks off envy among the people, sets-off people to show-off and
aggravate social and gender hierarchies. Reputable individuals end up as bankrupt squanderers,
disfiguring the society in which they live in and the desire for goods and novelties from afar
started to become a hobby (Henriques, 2004).
Knowing these two instances in Venice and Germany reminds us how people’s attitudes have
immensely changed to what is now deemed more important, that is material wealth.
Plato, in his Republic (Lear, 1999) described the people’s quest for comfortable couches and
rich embroidery a form of corruption that drove them to wars against each other. In
Christianity, too much possessions might literally possess one’s soul, which in turn, distract them
from understanding the true life of the Holy Spirit. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, in the 18th century,
believed that luxury brings inequality to the society and slavery in the New World.
The ancient view of the term ‘luxury’ states that the ‘self’ existed apart from the material
world. However, modern outlook believed otherwise — that material things were an essential part
of the human self (Kanagawa, et. Al, 2001).
In the words of William James, a Harvard psychologist in the late 19th century, the
‘self’ can be assessed based on three elements: 1) its constituents or the selves (composed of
four sub-categories namely a) the material self, b) the social self, c) the spiritual self) and d) the
pure ego; 2) the feelings and emotions they arouse or the self-feelings; and 3) the actions to
which they prompt, that is self-seeking and self-preservation (James, 1890).
Elaborating more on the first sub-category of the first element of the ‘self’, James (1890)
asserts that people had a ‘material self.’ According to him, a “man’s ‘Self’ is the sum total of all
that he CAN call his,” which includes his body, clothing, family and his house (James, 1890). Our
tendency to become affected by and attached to these possessions can be rooted to the fact
that we invest too much of our self to them — the more we invest of ourselves in these
possessions, the more attached we inevitably become to them, hence, the more it becomes part
of our ‘self.’
The body is the core of one’s material self. Do you invest in your body? Do you buy
commodities to take care of your body? Do you exercise and eat healthy food? Do you observe
proper hygiene? If your answer is yes, then it means that you are one of those who make every
effort to make sure that the body functions properly and is in good condition. When we get sick,
we get affected. Some people even become emotionally involved to their certain body parts
because of the value that it has on them. Take for example, Miley Cyrus insured her tongue for a
million dollars after a controversy stirred up from her performance in the 2013 MTV Video Music
Awards. One of the most powerful and influential woman in the music industry, Jennifer Lopez
(JLo) had her voluptuous booty insured from $27 million to $300 million. Mariah Carey has the
most expensive body part insurance in the world, whose legs are insured for a massive one billion
dollars (Glamour Vanity, 2016).
The clothes come next in the hierarchy of the material self. How would you feel if you are on
your worst attire and you saw your ultimate crush coming? Would you be embarrassed or would
you be so confident to even wave hello to him/her? According to Watson (2014), our clothes

reflect our self-image. Most of the time, they are a form of self-expression. Our style and the
clothes we choose to wear reflect and affect our mood and overall confidence. Professor Karen
J. Pine of the University of Hertfordshire in U.K. says, “When we put on a piece of clothing, we
cannot help but adopt some of the characteristics associated with it, even if we are unaware of
it” (Mind What You Wear: The Psychology of Fashion, 2014). In one of the studies that Pine
conducted, one participant admitted, “If I’m in casual clothes I relax and am tomboyish, but if I
dress up for a meeting or a special occasion, it can alter the way I walk and hold myself.” In
other words, the features of the clothes we wear bring impressions to the body that directly
influence our attitudes and behavior.
Our family is certainly an important part of our self (Tannen, 2001). Just like the body and the
clothes, we invest in our immediate family, simply because our immediate family is our role model
that serves as the closest imitation of our ‘self’. We first learn many things inside the circle of
the family. Their actions, thoughts and ideas affect us. When a family member is going through a
rough time, we sympathize because we are affected. When a significant accomplishments achieved,
that success becomes part of the entire family’s milestone. When a brother or a sister is in dire
need, we help without second thoughts.
The final component of our material self is the house. All of us inherently knows that where we
live represents who we are to the outside world (Lemert, 2010). As a child, the home is our world.
It is an outward manifestation of our experiences. In the same way that we influence our home,
our home influences us. Our first explorations took place inside the four corners of our home
that is why while growing up, we developed our attitudes, goals, values, roles, and priorities in
connection to our own homes and the people in it. As they say, we perceive our house as a
mirror of our self — an extension of our self-image.
As we invest in the material self, our attachment to our body, clothes, family, and home
strengthens as well as they become part of our ‘self.’ As these possessions grow, we, too, feel
good about ourselves. Otherwise, we feel incomplete. To James, people are concerned about
achieving a respectable reputation by acquiring homes and filling them with possessions, which are
considered to be one’s treasures. These treasures are said to be investments of self to things,
which are means for people to demonstrate their character and social status. Hence, James
asserts that ‘we are the sum of our possessions’ (Belk, 1988).
The concept of “extended self” by Russel Belk tells us that whatever we possess greatly
contributes to and reflects our identities. The objects that we possess can literally extend ‘self’ as
when a teenager boy who owns an expensive car allows him to convince himself that he is a
different person than he would be without it (Tanay, 1976). In his study about consumer behavior,
he theorizes that if possessions are viewed as part of the ‘self,’ it follows that the loss of it is
similar to a loss of the ‘self.’ People who suffer a loss of a loved one, or lost of possessions due
to a natural disaster or due to theft, go through a process of grief and depression and
becomes a different person completely lost about himself/herself.

EVALUATE
Worksheet 1
Create Your Own Ad
Think of any product or service that you would like to advertise considering the kind of
generation that you are in. As the Marketing Manager of this product or service, your goal is to
prepare an advertisement for its launching. How will your ad look like? Use the space provided below
to create your advertisement. Then, answer the questions that follow on the next page.

1. What are you advertising? __________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
2. Why should people buy it? __________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
3. Describe the technique/s you used to convince people to buy your product/service. ____________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
4. What do you think is the role of mass media in shaping the buying behavior of consumers? _____
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
5. How is your product/service a representation of an extended self for the people who will buy
it? _________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
6. How has mass media influenced your sense of ‘self’? ________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Worksheet 2
Watch a TV program show during primetime (Weekdays and Sundays from 12nn to 2pm or 6pm
to 9pm). Record the commercials during this program. Make a tally of how many times each
commercial appeared during primetime. Analyze them and write a reflection paper based on the
following guide questions:
1. What commercial/s during the TV program appeal/s to your age group?
2. What is the commercial ad promise to fulfill?
3. How do/es this/these commercial/s affect/s you and your economic self?
4. What makes the ad effective or ineffective?
5. What affects your buying behavior?
6. How can you resist the advertising messages of these commercial ads?

Worksheet 3
Below is Johanne Morissette Daug Amon, better known by her stage name,
Morissette, is a Filipina singer and occasional actress. She is dubbed as "Asia's
phoenix" and joined the ‘The Voice’ Philippines in 2013.
https://www.google.com.ph/search?rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH767&biw=1242&bih=557&tbm=isch&sa=1&ei=cS4mW-yJJcea0gSD4KkY&q=morrisette+before+and+after+liposuction&oq=morrisette+before+and+after+liposuction&gs_l=im
g.3...47232.51012.0.51179.28.18.0.0.0.0.384.2178.2-6j2.8.0....0...1c.1.64.img..20.4.1086...35i39k1.0.Sb tgoPonaIw#imgrc=cbqC6BAvwxUhaM:
How do you define ‘beautiful’ based on the Belo advertisement above?

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Describe your standard of beauty.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
If you were Morissette, will you try liposuction in order to be beautiful? Why or why
not?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

Baumgartner, J. (2012). You Are What You Wear: What Your Clothes Reveal. Boston: Lifelong Books.
Belk, R. (1988). Possessions and the Extended Self. The Journal of Consumer Research, 15 (2): 139-168.
Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2489522 last August 3, 2017.
Henriques, G. (2004). One Self or Many Selves? Understanding why we have a multiplicity of self-
estate. Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com
James, William (1890). The Principles of Psychology. New York: Dover Publications.
Kanagawa, C., Cross, S. Markus, HR. (2001). "Who Am I?" The Cultural Psychology of the
conceptual Self. Sage Publication. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. Retrieved
from: http://www.sagepub.com/dimensionsofmulticulturalcounselingstudy/articles/section1/
Article32.pdf
Lemert, C. (2010). Social Theory: The Multicultural and Classic Readings (4 th ed.). Boulder, Co :
Westview Press.
Lester, D. (2010). A multiple self theory of the mind. Comprehensive Psychology, 1-5. Retrieved from
https//doi.org/0.2466/02.09.28.CP1..15
Pine, K. (2014). Mind What You Wear: The Psychology of Fashion. Amazon Kindle Direct Publishing.
Tanay, E. (1976). Reactive Parricide. Journal of Forensic Sciences, Vol. 21, No. 1, 1976, pp. 76-
82, https://doi.org/10.1520/JFS10340J. ISSN 0022-1198
Tannen, D. (2001). Power maneuvers or connection maneuvers? Ventriloquizing in family interaction.

In D. Tannen; J. E. Alatis. Linguistics, Language, and the Real World: Discourse and Beyond:
Georgetown University Round Table on Languages and Linguistics. Washington, DC: Georgetown
University Press.
Trentmann, F. (2016). Empire of Things: How We Became a World of Consumers, from the Fifteenth
Century to the Twenty First. London: Penguin Books Ltd. Retrieved from https://
www.unlimited.world/unlimited/the-material-self.
(No Author). (2016). Glamour Vanity Magazine.

LESSON 4
THE SPIRITUAL SELF
Lesson Objectives:
a. Characterize the spiritual self.
b. Identify and explain the major world religions, its practices and principles.
c. Construct a sense of ‘self’ with respect to religious beliefs.
d. Rationalize various ways of finding life’s purpose.
ACTIVATE
Do you still remember how your parents make you
behave when you were still a child? Do they use rewards and
punishments? What about when you reached your teenage
years? Do they yell at you? Do they ground you? Specifically
list down the various ways by which your parents discipline
you then and now.
Among the ways you identified above, which of them do you find the most effective of all? Why?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Which of them do you find the least effective? Why?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

EMPOWER
Recall the categories in William James’ components of the ‘self.’ The first category, the
constituents, are further divided into sub-categories, some of which have already been discussed
in the previous lessons: the social self, the material self, the
spiritual self and the pure ego. In this lesson, we will discuss
the third sub-category, the spiritual self, also known as our
inner self or our psychological self using religious beliefs and
practices.
The spiritual self, as said by James (Richardson, 2010), is
considered to be “the most intimate version of the self” as we
take a purer satisfaction when we think of our ability to argue https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=inner+self&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH767&so
urce=lnms&tbm=isch&sa =X&ved=0ahUKEwjutueymprbAhUMfLwKHRbuA5QQ_AUICigB&biw=
1093&bih=490#imgdii=xLSCYjfz23WrUM:&imgrc=MU69C3IOXk2hBM:
and discriminate, of our moral sensibility and conscience, of our
unconquerable will, as compared to our other possessions (Ladik, et. Al, 2015). How, you may ask,
did our moral sensibility and conscience came into being? Based on the activity on the previous
page, there are many ways by which parents instill discipline in their children — some are physical,
some are emotional, but others are spiritual. In fact, it is through religion that we learn about
what is moral, and what is holy. It is through this set of beliefs that help us answer our
questions about life, about why we exist on Earth or what happens after we die (Hick, 1990).
Defining the term religion is a difficult task even for the most studied of sociologists and
theologians since it means many different things to many different people. According to Fitzgerald
(2000) and Dubuisson (2007), some definitions may appear too narrow or too vague. For
example, some define religion as a belief in an all-powerful being which cannot be truly defined.
On the other hand, some say religion is simply a cultural world view, which is still unclear. In order
to deal with this, many choose to take an alternate route. Rather than trying to define what
religion is, they explain what it looks like.
The examination of the spiritual self will focus on the traits that most religions seem to share,
which include the belief in the supernatural, an inclusion of a moral code and the carrying out of
prescribed ritual acts (Vail, et. Al, 2012).
The foundation of most religions is the belief in the supernatural (McNamara & Bulkeley, 2015).
To state it simply, it is the idea that there is something greater or bigger than us in the universe.
This has been witnessed across time as the early Babylonians bowed to Marduk, while the Jews
worshipped their Yahweh.
In most cases, these supernatural beings are regarded as holy and sacred. For one,
according to Almocera (2005) and Scott (1994), the indigenous Filipinos worship Bathala and a
multitude of tree and forest deities (like diwatas). When the Spaniards introduced Roman
Catholicism in the country, many Filipinos started believing in a single Supreme Being who created
the world and everything in it.
Many religions have value frameworks that are meant to guide us in determining what is right
and wrong. These regulations act as a code of conduct that we must all follow based on our
respective religions. An excellent example of this is the Judeo-Christian Ten Commandments. For

ages, young children have memorized the rules of 'thou shall not kill,' 'thou shall not covet,' 'thou
shall not steal' and so on. In addition to these moral “do’s”, religion also provides a list of
“don’ts,” Known as taboos, these actions or things are considered forbidden (Scott, 1994). A
great example of this is the Jewish belief that all meat from a pig is unclean and therefore
forbidden. Note that things are not the only ones considered as taboos, but sacred or holy
places can also be forbidden to non-ordained members of the faith, commonly known as laymen.
Again using the Jewish religion, any laymen who dared step foot into the Holy of Holies in the
temple of Jerusalem will face the risk of being struck dead (Almocerra, 2005).
Building on the belief in the supernatural and the inclusion of a moral code, the last trait of
religion is the carrying out of prescribed ritual acts. Rituals are ceremonial acts dictated by
tradition or a sacred order (Almocerra, 2005). According to David Noss (2012), author of A
History of the World's Religions, ritual acts sometimes stem from anxiety, which are often
motivated by the desire to please, consult and even manipulate the supernatural beings. A simple
example of this is prayer. While we try to find the right consolation to our anxieties, we take a
moment of silence to petition our worries and problems to the Supreme Being.
Our religious beliefs lies within the spiritual self. How we abide by the teachings of our
religion, represents our inner self.
(Adopted from Noss, 2012)

Learning about other faiths can help us to understand our inner self better, and improve our
relationships with people of those beliefs. The most prominent world religions include Hinduism,
Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, and Judaism.
Considered as the oldest and the third largest

religion in the world, Hinduism is based on the belief
on the belief that the soul, upon death of the body,
comes back to earth in another body or form. This is
known as reincarnation (also called samsara or
rebirth). The belief in reincarnation leads to the
next Hindu belief called Karma, which means that a
person’s actions in life will determine their fate in the
https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=hinduism&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH767&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=
X&ved=0ahUKEwjL5_b_1aDbAhVTO7wKHcoWAjgQ_AUICigB&biw=1242&bih=602#imgrc=VPt_AdMWyS4wwM:
next life. If a person is kind and selfless in this life,
he or she will be rewarded in the next life. The opposite is also true for a person who is evil to-
day, who will experience a tremendous hardship in life in his or her next tomorrow such as dis-
ease, pain, or poverty. This is the same as the phrases in our culture that says, “What goes
around, comes around.”
With the belief in karma, Hinduism holds firmly to dharma, which refers to the moral force that
orders the universe. In other words, it refers to the ethics and duties in life as exemplified in the
ancient Hindu story about dharma, known as the Bhagavad Gita, in which a ruler is advised to kill in
order to achieve the greater good.

Most Hindus worship one being of ultimate oneness called Brahman as infinitely represented by
gods and goddesses. These various deities become incarnate within idols, temples, gurus, rivers,
animals, etc.
In Hinduism, the ultimate goal is to free oneself from the cycles of life and reincarnation —
one is supposed to learn freedom from ignorance, selfishness and many other negative human
traits. When this is finally accomplished, a person’s eternal self (called atman) can rise above the
need to be reborn, the cycle of reincarnation will end and the person’s atman is released to
transcend beyond the human existence.
Hindus practice various customs and traditions that vary from region to region and caste to
caste. Some of them include: greeting each other by putting together the palms of both hands
while saying “Namaste” or “Namaskar;” they do not wear footwear inside their homes, the temples
and other holy places (they do not enter the temples after alcohol consumption or after eating
non-vegetarian food; they apply a spot or standing line of kumkum between the eyebrows on the
forehead during worship time; marriages are arranged within the caste system only (marrying
outside the caste is considered a bad practice); pictures or figures of Hindu deities are not
placed facing the South because it is believed that the hell is located at South and paradise at
North.
Buddhists do not believe in the existence of gods. They

also do not worship Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama). Instead,
they view Buddha as someone who has attained Buddhism’s
ultimate goal and that is, spiritual enlightenment (or Nirvana)
which entails freedom from the never-ending cycle of life and
death. One of the beliefs of Buddhism consists of person’s
countless rebirths that include suffering, which stems from his
or her desires, dislikes and illusions. In other words, to attain
the ultimate goal of Buddhism is to purify one’s heart of all the
longings to physical desires. Tripitaka or Pali Canon, the
sacred text of Buddhism, holds on to the beliefs in arhat or a
person who has attained Nirvana, and of bodhisattva or a
person who has the ability to attain Nirvana but delays it in
order to help others. Note that a person who wears the title
‘arhat’ should be living a life that is free from ego, pride
https://www.google.com.ph/imgres?imgurl=https://www.lotussculpture.com/mm5/graphics/00000001/1-Buddha-
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Among the diverse rituals and practices of Buddhists are: meditation (or mental concentration
and mindfulness); the belief in mantras (or sacred sounds), mudras (or the symbolic hand
gestures), prayer wheels (or reciting mantras with the turn of a wheel), monasticism, pilgrimage
(visiting of sacred sites) and veneration of Buddhas and Deities. Buddhists do not celebrate feasts
under the influence of alcohol, merry-making or even slaughtering of animals. Instead, Buddhists
abstain from all evil, practice charity and help others relieve themselves from suffering.

Founded on the life, teachings, and death of Jesus Christ
of Nazareth, Christianity has become the largest of the
world’s religions, whose largest groups are the Roman
Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox churches, and the
Protestant churches.
Christians believe in one God that exists as three beings:
the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. This concept is
known as the 'Trinity' in the Christian faith. Roman Catholic
Christians interpret the Trinity as one Godhead made up of
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three divine beings. However, the Eastern portion of the
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Christian Church views the Holy Trinity in a similar fashion, but with one important distinction: that
the ‘Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father’ - rather than as the Catholics state, ‘from the Father,
and from the Son.’
Christian faith believes that Jesus Christ is the Anointed Son of God who died on the Cross to
save all of us from sin, and resurrected from the death. As the Bible (Christianity’s holy book)
states, ’whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life’ (John 3:15).
Christian practices vary from one group to another but common among them include the
Sunday worship service (or the Sunday Mass), Prayer, Bible Study, and participation in the
sacraments of baptism (for new believers to confess their faith in Christ, to cleanse their soul
from original sin, and unite themselves with the church), and communion (wherein Christians
drink juice/wine to remember Jesus Christ and eat bread — the bread symbolizes the body of
Christ and the juice/wine symbolizes the blood of Christ). Other practices include devotions such
as praying the rosary, going on pilgrimages and devotion to the Virgin Mary and the saints. In
addition, Christians also worship holy relics and holy places. Christmas (birth of Jesus Christ) and
Easter (Christ’s Resurrection) are two major feasts that Christians celebrate.
Similar to Christianity, Islam is a monotheistic

religion that believes in only one God, known as
Allah. On the other hand, Muhammad, the last
prophet, is called the messenger of God.
Believers of Islam are called Muslims who
surrenders to the will of Allah by through the
Qurʾān (also called Koran). This sacred scripture is
said to be the verbatim speech of God delivered to
Muhammad by the archangel Gabriel. For the
Muslims, everything that happens is the will of Allah,
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judge and whose mercy is bestowed on those who

submit to Him through good works. After death, a person is either rewarded or punished accord-
ing to their religious devotion. Giving up one’s life for Allah, for Muslims, is a sure way of entering
Paradise.

To be a Muslim, one must follow five religious duties or the five pillars of Islam: (1) Repeat a
creed about Allah and Muhammad (known as the statement of faith or Shahadah that says: “There
is no God but the one true God and Muhammad is his messenger); (2) Recite certain prayers (or
Salat) in Arabic five times a day; (3) Give to the needy (or Zakat), which covers 2.5% of a Muslim’s
wealth ; (4) Fasting (or Sawm) from food, drink, sex and smoking from sunrise to sunset for one
month each year during the celebration of Ramadan ; and (5) Pilgrimage (or Hajj) once in a
lifetime to worship at a shrine in Mecca.
To be a Jewish entails different cultures but most of these

revolve around a shared aspect of life: religion. Judaism is one of
the world's dominant religions and like Christianity and Islam, it is
also based on the monotheistic belief in a single God. The beliefs and
practices of Judaism are centered on two writings: the Torah and
the Talmud. The Torah is the Jewish holy book that is made up of the
first five books of the Bible, the counterpart of what Christians call
'the Old Testament.' It contains the traditional laws of the Jews as
well as the foundation of their history and system of belief.
The Talmud, on the other hand, is the comprehensive collection of
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source=lnm s&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiMtJHFmKHbAhVFVZ
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interpretation of the Torah's scriptural writings.

What these sacred texts reveal is that Judaism supporters believe in the existence of exactly
one God, who has always existed, and who is responsible for the creation of everything and
everyone. God is unique, all-knowing, and all prayer should be directed specifically towards God.
Since Judaism focuses far more on deeds than on beliefs, it is considered a practice, too.
Hence, Judaism is a Way of Life. The Jewish beliefs are founded on the mitzvoth or mitzvah, which
translates to “commandment” or “religious act.” Mitzvot consists of rituals as well as ethical acts,
by which the Jews follow based on the principles in the Torah. Some practices fall under the
category of minhag (custom), like wearing the head covering (kippah or yarmulka). Undoubtedly
the most famous mitzvot are those called “The Ten Commandments” or the “Decalogue.” They also
go to the synagogue (or temple) to pray or worship. While the Catholics have the priest, the
Jews have the rabbi, known as an educator, counselor, and the officiator at life-cycle events like
baby-namings, weddings, funerals and Bar or Bat Mitzvah ceremonies. According to the Jewish
law, when Jewish boys become 13 years old, they become accountable for their actions and
become a bar mitzvah. A girl becomes a bat mitzvah at the age of 12 according to Orthodox and
Conservative Jews, and at the age of 13 according to Reform Jews.
The spiritual self is comprised of the religious beliefs, rituals, customs and practices depending
on one’s religion. These may vary from one faith to another because we come from different
cultures but what we believe in and how we display these beliefs, no matter how varied it is from
other religious groups, are important aspects of our ’self.’

( )
Ethnolinguistic groups in the Philippines believe in supernatural beings, specifically the spirits or
the soul. Prevalent in Visayas is the dungan or soul of the Illonggos, which, according to Alicia
Magos (1986), is not normally seen. The dungan arises out of the body and takes on a visible form
as in the case of a fly or a moth, or a small animal like a lizard. Ancient grandmothers would
always tell their children to “eat even just a small amount of food before going to bed because if
the child’s dungan gets hungry at night, it might go to the kitchen and be mistaken for an insect
(and be killed).
According to the Bisayans, the dungan may leave the body voluntarily, which takes place when
the person is asleep (Magos, 1996). Have you ever experienced seeing yourself in your dreams?
This means that your ‘other self’ has left your physical body. This is the reason why ancient Filipi-
nos have this belief that a sleeping person must be awaken softly with a voice that goes louder
little by little so as to give the soul a chance to return to the body. Note that the dungan’s travel
outside the body should be free from accidents because it is only when the soul has returned
home to the body will the owner be able to wake up. In other words, whatever happens to the
Dungan happens to the physical body as well. At death, the dungan leaves the body through
any of the openings and goes with the air toward the upper regions, and there it wait until it
finds another body to enter (Magos, 1986).
Witchcraft is a general term that refers to the belief and practice of magic. Found in various
cultures in different cultures, its definition is distinct to every group. According to anthropologists,
witches are differ from sorcerers because their magic comes from the inside, and not through
the use of tools. Simply, a witch can curse someone without having to use a wand or crystal, while
a sorcerer must use something.
In many cultures during the course of history, people blamed witchcraft for unexplainable and
unpredictable situations like a disease, physical deformities, famine, and even social problems.
Those accused of causing these events are often considered as outcast of the society because of
non-conformity to the culture’s religion (Buckland, 1986).
In the European history, the ancient Roman Empire also believed in magic and curses, but
when they were Christianized, any worship of Roman gods became associated with evil magic
designed to cause mischief or hurt others. In Christian Europe, witchcraft remained associated
with either worshipping Roman gods or with worship of the Devil. However, many European
peasants also firmly believed in the use of magic for good and sought 'cunning-folk' to cure their
diseases. Although we often tend to associate witchcraft with this European tradition, magic is a
recognized phenomenon across the world that is used and interpreted in a wide variety of ways
that reflect the culture. For example, in southern Africa, many groups recognized people who used
magic: 'sangoma' is a fortuneteller, The 'inyanga' is a curer who treats magical curses and the
'thakathi' is a horrid person who uses magic to harm others, and is the closest thing to the
western witch. In Japanese folklore, witches were associated with the use of magical animals to
enact evil. Foxes, considered magical and prone to mischief, could change form, cast illusions, and
even possess people. Russian customs, derived from a culture of deep superstition, called a magic
-user 'ved ma', or one who knows. This magic involved the use of herbs to create spells for
shape-shifting, keeping husbands faithful, and other practical needs. Placing magical items

together in bundles could protect from curses, bring good fortune, and control mystic energy.
Understanding the self involves a great deal of

finding meaning in our life. But how exactly do we
find meaning in life? Does it even exist objectively?
This lesson discusses Logotherapy, a technique
used in psychiatry that tries to help patients find
meaning in life, despite the terrible circumstances
that they encounter (Franklin, 2006).
Think about the times when you experienced the
most difficult time of your life and you were not
even sure if you will be able to get over it. Maybe,
some of you almost gave-up and even tried https://www.google.com.ph/search?rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH767&biw=1242&bih=557&tbm=isch&sa=1&ei=8UYIW5ftPMPy8QX-
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questioning your purpose in life.

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Dr. Viktor Frankl (2006) is a Viennese Psychiatrist who came up with the idea of Logotherapy.
He lived through the horror and torture of four different concentration camps in Nazi Germany,
and lost his wife, brother, and parents by the end of the War. He developed a theory about the
people who made it through. He believed that the ones who had a strong desire to finish some-
thing they considered important in their lives or who longed to see loved ones were the ones who
survived the devastations of the camps. In a book he wrote in 1963, Frankl quoted Friedrich Nie-
tzsche as saying, ''He who has a why to live for, can bear almost any how.'' He built his entire the-
ory, and life, on that statement.
Logos a word of Greek origin, has several different meanings ('spirit', 'God', 'study', to name a
few), but Dr. Frankl chose the definition 'meaning'. In short, Victor Frankl believed that every
person was born with a specific purpose. Despite the horrible circumstances he faced, he be-
lieved that we can find meaning in life even in the worst times.
The basic philosophical premises of Logotherapy include: 1) Humans have freedom of will, which
means that we all have the ability to make choices in our life. While we are restricted by different
factors, we still have the power to shape our own lives. It is like saying, “if you want to be happy,
you have to choose to be happy.” In a nutshell, we can still choose to get out of life’s darkest
times. 2) We all have a will to meaning. Aside from having free will to make choices, we need to
be striving for something as well. We need to have goals that we can accomplish. Frankl believed
that experiencing something like true love can also help us achieve a will to meaning. Finally, Frankl
believed that 3) there is always meaning in life. In other words, he meant that meaning exists
objectively. It might look different in each of our lives, but it is always there. We just need to try
and find it.
To Frankl, mental illnesses result from feelings of worthlessness. If we feel meaningless, as if

there is no reason to live, we can fall into a depression. Frankl called this existential frustration.
There are three main techniques associated with logotherapy (Frankl, 2006):
 Dereflection: this is used to try and help someone who is too focused on a goal or an issue or
a problem. The idea here is a therapist or practitioner tries to help the patient focus less on

this by reflecting their attention away from themselves. Focusing too much on something like,
say, an upcoming exam, can make us perform worse.
 Paradoxical intention: this is a technique that can be used when people experience a lot of
fear or anxiety. It can be used to treat phobias. Basically, you use this technique to wish for
or do something you are afraid of. The paradox is, by wishing for what we are afraid of, we
reduce the fear.
 Socratic dialogue: in this method a therapist listens to a client's harmful thoughts, maybe even
repeats them back in a way that affirms them, but then tries to get the client to see
alternative ways of thinking. The hope is to change the harmful thoughts and help a client
develop different ways of thinking.
Basically, we are all unique in our own ways. We face many situations and we are constantly
looking trying to find our purpose in life. Observing the basic premises of Logotherapy can be
useful for treating conditions like anxiety, depression, and substance abuse.
Frankl, in his book entitled, Man’s Search for Meaning (2006), identifies three sources of
meaning: (1) in work (doing something significant gives us a goal to work on. When we build a task
for us to accomplish, it becomes the meaning of our life); (2) in love (caring for another person
gives meaning to our life. As Frankl puts it, “the salvation of man is through love and in love.” For
him, “Love goes very far beyond the physical person of the beloved. It finds its deepest meaning
in his spiritual being, his inner self."); and (3) in courage (suffering itself is meaningless, but our
response to it gives meaning. By enduring our sufferings in the right and honorable way, we can
achieve fulfillment).

‘
EVALUATE
Worksheet 1
Compare and contrast the tenets of the five major world religions (i.e., Hinduism, Buddhism,
Confucianism, Taoism and Christianity). using the template below:
Hinduism Buddhism Christianity Islam Judaism
Founder
Principal
Belief/s
Brief
Explanation of
the Principal
Belief/s
View of the
Self

Worksheet 2
Think about your principles in life. Cite 3 specific instances wherein you are able apply any of
the beliefs of the five (5) world religions as discussed in this lesson. Use the template below to show
a comparison between your own principles and the basic tenets of the five world religions.
Religion & its basic principle:

Situation representing your principle:



Worksheet 3
Let’s Brainstorm
Form a group of five and examine your spiritual selves through sharing.
1. How many of you believe in ceremonies, rituals, religion, spirits, souls, magic and witchcraft?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
2. What were the reasons for your beliefs in these?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Cite 5 examples of the beliefs identified during the brainstorming activity.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
4. How do you think these factors influence your spiritual self?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Almocera, R., (2005). Popular Filipino Spiritual Beliefs with a proposed Theological Response. in
Doing Theology in the Philippines. Suk, John., Ed. Mandaluyong: OMF Literature Inc.
Buckland, R. (1995). The Urantia Book. Chicago: Urantia Foundation.
Dubuisson, D. (2007). The Western Construction of Religion : Myths, Knowledge, and Ideology.
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Fitzgerald, T. (2000). The Ideology of Religious Studies. New York: Oxford University Press.
Franklin, V. (2006). An Introduction to Logotherapy. Massachusetts: Beacon Press.
Hick, J. (1990). Philosophy of Religion. Florida: Prentice Hall.
Ladik, D., Carrillat, F., & Tadajewski, M. (2015). Belk’s Possessions and the Extended Self Revisted.
Journal of Historical Research in Marketing. 7 (2), 184-207. doi.org/10.1108/JHRM-06-2014-
0018.
Magos, A. (1986). (Untitled). Retrieved from https://sirmykel.files.wordpress.com/2013/08/the-

sugidanon-of-central-panay-alicia-p-magos.pdf last July 22, 2016.
Magos, A. (1996). "The Suguidanon of Central Panay, Danyag". Journal of the Social Sciences &
Humanities, UPV.
Masuzawa, T. (2005). The Invention of World Religions. Chicago: Chicago University of Chicago
Press.
McNamara, P. & Bulkeley, K. (2015). Dreams as a Source of Supernatural Agent Concepts.

Frontiers in Psychology. 6:283. doi:103389/fpsyg2015.00283.PMC4365543.
Noss, D. (2012). A History of the World’s Religions. New York: Routledge.
Richardson, R. (2010). The Heart of William James. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
Scott, W. (1994). Barangay: Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture and Society. Quezon City: Ateneo de
Manila University Press.
Vail, K., Arndt, J., & Addollahi, A. (2012). Exploring the Existential Function of Religion and
Supernatural Agent Beliefs Among Christians, Muslims, Atheists, and Agnostics. Personality
and Social Psychology Bulletin. 38: 1288–1300.

LESSON 5
THE POLITICAL SELF
Lesson Objectives:
a. Describe the political self.
b. Explain the Filipino identity through the Filipino values and traits.
c. Examine one’s political self in relation to his or her national identity.
ACTIVATE
‘Pilipino Ako’
(I am Filipino)
A. Cut-out pictures that are 100% Filipino and paste them on the space provided below to create
a collage. Then, answer the question that follow.
Describe the characteristics of the pictures you used in your collage that represent being a
Filipino. What makes them Filipino?
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________

EMPOWER
If you are to say something about being a ‘Filipino,’ what would it be? Will you name famous
personalities such as Jose Rizal or Manny Pacquiao or will you describe the Filipino’s skin color, the
Filipino language, the Filipino race and ethnicity, the Filipino traits and values, or simply describe the
beauty of the Philippines? Answering the question, ’Who are the Filipinos?’ may seem so easy but do
we really know who is a Filipino?
Section 1 of Article IV of the 1987 Philippine Constitution defines the Filipino citizens as follows:
 Those who are citizens of the Philippines at the time of the adoption of the 1987 Constitution;
 Those whose fathers or mothers are Filipino citizens;
 Those born before January 17, 1973 of Filipino mothers, who elect Philippine citizenship upon
reaching the age of majority; and
 Those who are naturalized in accordance with law.
However, an individual’s citizenship (which, according to Ayson & Reyes (2008) refers to his/her
membership in a political community enjoying political and civil rights) is not the only definition of
being a Filipino, or one’s political self. In this lesson, you will learn that the one’s culture, race and
ethnicity, religion and physical characteristics are not the only indicators of being a Filipino. We know
for a fact that the great majority of the Philippine population is bound together by a rich history
which stems from a diversity of beliefs, culture, language and religion from centuries of contact
with different colonizers and civilizations of both the East and the West. Hence, Filipino values and
traits from this evolution have emerged, which also make up a Filipino.
(An excerpt from Garcia’s textbook in Philippine History for College Students, 2015)
Many foreign nationals characterized the Filipino people with commendable traits and values
(FSI, 2003). Among these are: being warm, friendly and intimate people; caring and sharing people;
family-centered people; and highly spiritual people.
, ,
We enjoy being with others. This particular trait enables us to easily adjust to other
nationalities. While many people in the world have become interpersonal in their relationship with
others, Filipinos preserved their being intimate with their friends and acquaintances. Thus, it is rare
to find a Filipino dining or going to movies alone, for they prefer to be with company.
Owing to the fact that people have the ability to understand the feelings and concerns of
others, our country has been perceived as essentially caring and sharing. We find it easy to
empathize with our fellows in their problems, triumphs and failures. This is evident in our bayanihan
spirit. This caring and sharing value professed by the Filipino people is an indication that there is a
strong sense of belonging in Filipino community.
The Filipino considers his family vital to his achievement of personal happiness and well-being.
This stems from the nature of the Filipino family, which is closely knit and socially cohesive. For a

Filipino, the family is a support system that provides him and the other family members not only with
financial but also emotional security in troubled and stressful times.
We are a highly religious people. We believe that there is God governing the world and the
destiny of its people. As a consequence of this philosophy, we have become tolerant, resilient and
brave in the face of problematic circumstances.
Other traits and values identified by Andres and Andres (1987) in Garcia (2015), include
amor-propio, pakikisama, sensitivity to personal affront, euphemism, and cleanliness.
-
“Amor propio” is Spanish word which means self –love; a sense of self-esteem or self respect
that prevents a person from swallowing his pride. For instance, when insulted by a friend, you can
expect a Filipino not to accept any help offered to him by that friend who insulted him. To damage
another person’s amor-propio is to invite conflict, even violence.
This trait is very important to a Filipino. For us Filipinos, pakikisama is ease of getting along with
our fellows for the purpose of maintaining good and harmonious relationships both within and
outside our homes. As a result of pakikisama, our peers, co-workers, and even neighbors socially
accept us. Thus, when one becomes successful in his career or business, he has to be very careful
in not setting us aside his friends, otherwise he would be labeled as not worthy of their friendship in
as much as he had become very arrogant.
Although the Filipino has become too dependent owing to his closeness to his family, he also
craves for independence. He wants to be on his own. To us, pagsasarili is the ardent desire to be a
person in our own right. Pagsasarili is often manifested in our desire to get a good education, earn
modest income, and improve our economic status for us to support ourselves, without forgetting or
disregarding our respective families.
The Filipino avoids personal affront or the feeling of hiya. To us, hiya is a feeling of anxiety,
fear of being exposed, fear of abandonment. As pointed by Andres and Andres (1987), it is this hiya
that regulates our social behavior as a people. Thus, we feel a deep sense of shame when we fail to
follow the standards of our society. While a Filipino avoids personal affront, he also tries not to
cause embarrassment to his fellows. For instance, when he refuses to grant the favors asked from
him by others, he tries to avoid offending them by explaining the reasons behind his refusal to do
so.
Filipinos are generally euphemistic. We are skillful in stating an unpleasant truth, opinion or
request in pleasant way. Euphemism is highly regarded in our society even today. Thus, we avoid
uttering harsh or insulting words when refusing favors asked form us. Oftentimes, we are quoted

saying, “I’ll see” or “I’ll try.” Rarely would you hear them say ‘no.’
We are a generally clean people, as children are trained to keep themselves clean during their
early years. Girls and boys are taught personal hygiene by their mothers, even in areas where
there are no bathrooms. To us taking a bath everyday is a ritual. While we try to maintain the
cleanliness of our homes and surrounding, we, however, have the tendency to disregard rules on
cleanliness when we visit public places.
According to Garcia, there are other traits and values possessed by Filipinos as cited in Zaide
(1987) and Agoncillo (1990). Among them are the following: propensity for gambling, extravagance,
hospitality, respect for elders, fatalism, loyalty to a friend or benefactor, tendency to be indolent,
individualism, lack of initiative and regionalism.
Filipinos are fond of betting for almost everything. This can be considered one of our
weaknesses as people. We lay bet on which team will win the basketball championship, which among
the presidential candidates would win, or whether the first child would be a boy or girl and many
more. Among the many games of chance, Filipinos are engaged in include jueteng ,ending score in
basketball, mahjong, sabong and horse races.
The Filipinos in celebration of town fiesta, wedding, baptism, birthday and graduation often
display this trait. During such occasion, Filipinos spend lavishly for food, clothes, gifts, decorations
and giveaways.
This is most admired trait of the Filipino people. We receive our visitors warmly and make them
feel that they are in their own home. We offer them the best of what we have and make them feel
convenient, while they are with us. This trait is practiced not only by the rich Filipinos but even the
masses.
One of the norms in our society is respect for elders. This respect is shown in our use of polite
expression like po and opo when talking to elder people. To us, lack of respect for elders is taken to
mean as lack of breeding in the family. Besides, elderly men and women in our society demand that
they be respected and obeyed.
Filipinos are generally fatalistic. We believe that what happens to us is due to our fate or
destiny. This fatalistic outlook in life is often manifested in our expression ‘bahala na.’ When
confronted with a problem or a difficulty, we often say bahala na as if we have nothing to do with
what happens to us. As a result, we often accept whatever life brings to us, without question.

This trait is very strong among us Filipinos. We are grateful to those people who had helped us
in different ways. All the members of the family throughout their lives will forever remember this
help. Once aided in his need, the Filipino is expected to be loyal to his friend and expected to
reciprocate that help in some other ways. Thus, loyalty to a friend or benefactor is one of the
factors that could explain why some unworthy officials are elected to office during election time.
This particular trait was attributed by Dr. Jose Rizal to the tropical climate the country has.
Nonetheless, there are other reasons for the inclination of our people to be lazy. As a
consequence of close family ties, many of our people are prone not to exert too much effort in
solving their personal and financial needs as they are assured that their family members and
relatives will come to their rescue in times of grave needs and adversities.
The Filipino is also individualistic. He seems not to be concerned with the welfare of others. He
would not dare extend help to somebody in the crime scene considering that his welfare is not at
statke. Instead of lending his hand to the one in need at that time, he would pass the other side of
the road, as if nothing happened on his way.
According to Agoncillo (1990), this trait can be accounted for by the Filipino’s fear of
competition. A Filipino can be compared to a nail, which has to be hammered for it to penetrate
the post. Take for instance our college student today. They will not study their lessons unless they
are told that a quiz is to be given next meeting or volunteer to do library research on a topic
unless assigned by their professors.
In addition to the foregoing traits and values, we are also a highly regionalistic people. We tend
to be loyal to the region where we belong. This regionalistic attitude is very much prevalent during
election time. People would rather support a candidate coming from their region instead of voting
for the candidate coming from another region, despite the latter’s qualification, competence and
track record.
The Filipino people are also diverse in terms of regional differences due to variations in
economic conditions and geographical locations (Andres & Andres, 1987 and Agoncillo, 1990).
Ilocanos and those living in the North are called kuripot but in truth, they are thrifty because they
value their hard-earned money wisely. For people who live in a location such as theirs, extra
hardwork is necessary in order to harvest crops. Thus, they learned to spend their income on
essentials only.
The Tagalogs in Luzon believe that they are superior among the Filipinos probably because they
live in the country’s center of economic, cultural and political activities.
The Visayans, however, have a tendency to be lazy, which can be attributed to the fact that they
are in a location where the soil yields crops easily, allowing them to earn a definite income. As a

result, they are characterized to be happy-go-lucky and are prone to merry-making that involves
singing, dancing and drinking.
In the south of the country are the Muslims who are often considered as the fiercest lovers of
freedom which can be attributed to the fact that foreign invaders were unsuccessful in conquering
their region during the colonial period of the Philippine history.
It is noteworthy to identify a number of Filipino

characteristics according to the country’s Department
of Tourism. Filipinos are fond of music and dance. Our
love of sosyalan (socializing), dancing and music,
www.tourism.gov.ph
culminate in the province-wide street party and town talent show – the fiesta (festival). We are
great supporters of fiestas as evident we join the parade of elaborate townfolk’s crafty work of
the floats, masquerades, mud fests, pilgrim processions, pageant parties, and island-style parties.
Filipinos are also naturally artistic as seen in our inclination for color and craftsmanship even
outside museums and galleries. This can also be realized in the kinds of handicraft, design and
fashion that Filipinos produce here and abroad. Simply take a glimpse of our churches or our parks,
our native baro’t saya and the early jeepneys on the road.
If there is one person who could best represent the rich culture of
Kalinga, it is none other than Apo Whang Od, also known as Maria Oggay,
the "last" and oldest mambabatok of the Butbut people of the larger
Kalinga ethnic group (Catalan, 2016).
She has been tattooing for the past
80 years. Whang-Od is a living proof
of the tribe’s batok (hand-tapping)
culture, putting the Philippine map on
https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=apo+whang+od+tattoo&rlz=1C1
the must-visit places for local and

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KEwjRzP-Q2KXbAhXLGpQKHdEZBzwQ_ AUICigB&biw=1517&
bih=735#imgrc=KV_-AveKU9RyAM:
foreigners alike. An expression of

courage, beauty and art, tattoos are in these days.
https://theculturetrip.com/asia/philippines/articles/meet-apo-whang-od-the-last-hand-poke-
The Department of Tourism (DoT) also identifies our distinct tattoo-artist-in-the-philippines/
cuisine as another marker of Filipinos, which came from the comfort food that reminds Filipinos of
family, home, and simple joys. Our adobo (pork stewed in garlic, soy sauce and vinegar) has as many
recipes as the many islands in the country. But Filipinos (and even foreigners) love it.
Three centuries under Spanish rule followed by 50 years of American influence has made the
Philippines an Asian country unlike any other. Indeed, it is amazing to experience these unique values
and traits of the Filipinos (Garcia, 2015).
’
The Philippines is a vibrant democracy, as evidenced by 12 English national newspapers, 7 national
television stations, hundreds of cable TV stations, and 2,000 radio stations (Sable, 2016). The
distinguishing feature of democracy, as stated by Garcia (2015) in his book entitled, Philippine
Government and Constitution, is that the government derives its authority from the people. Hence,
democracy means government by the people, ether directly or indirectly with free and frequent
elections, which is the cornerstone of democratic institutions. Voters see their power to choose
their leaders as their strongest check on the behavior of the government, their one chance to exact
accountability.

Analysts and commentators have branded political
campaigns in the Philippines as “highly entertaining.” The mix
of old political clans, showbiz personalities and the
ever-present song and dance during campaigns provide
plenty of amusement. Despite these, the Filipinos give so
much importance on the power to choose a political leader
as it is a right and a responsibility at the same time. In the
Philippines, a government that engages its citizens in its https://www.google.com.ph/search?rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH767&biw=1517&bih=735&tbm=isch&sa=1&e
i=iJAKW8XXKIq80gTbiqYQ&q=election+in+the+philippines+&oq=election+in+the+philippines+&gs_l=img.3..
decision-making can count on the trust of its electorate for 0j0i30k1j0i5i30k1l2j0i8i30k1l4j0i24k1l2.10343.17786.0.18011.30.23.2.3.3.0.142.2015.17j6.23.0....0...1c.1.64.

img..2.21.1606...0i67k1.0.AC6DNNjz0Oc#imgrc=lOUZI92TRHIVJM:
public support.
In a study conducted by Sable in 2016 entitled, “Democratizing democracy in the Philippines,” he
described the current attributes of Philippine democracy then and now as “democracy on the
surface only... as oligarchic interests pervade in the system, power and affluence of the political
elites make wealth inaccessible to the poor, decision-makers remain unaccountable for their actions
and governance is weak in terms of policy-making and implementation.
Miranda, et.al. (2011) asserted on a rigorous re-examination of the concept of democracy in the
country, believing that the Philippines is by no means a democracy, but simply a façade of it.
Lucham, et.al. (1998) in Sable (2016) believed that for true democracy to be implemented in the
Philippines, there should be a “process of implanting formal institutions of liberal democracy, norm
creation and cultural change to facilitate one which accommodates diversity, opposition and which
aims at building social consensus.”
Although many political analysts and economists believe that democracy in the country is just a
democracy of formality (Sable 2016), the Philippine government strives to promote democracy
through give personal liberty, which includes freedom of expression, equality of opportunity,
respect for the individual and popular consent (Garcia, 2015).

EVALUATE
Worksheet 1
A. Describe your Political Self using the acrostic, Pinoy Ako, as regards being a Filipino. For foreign
students, you may describe your Political Self using the same acrostic in relation to the Filipino
culture that you have come to adopt during your stay in the Philippines.
P-
I-
N-
O-
Y-
A-
K-
O-
B. What characteristics of being a Filipino have contributed to your own concept of ‘self’?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
C. As a college student, what can you do to become a better Filipino? How can this contribute to a
better version of yourself?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Name: ______________________________________________________________ Year/Section: ________
Worksheet 2
Pretend that you are going to represent the Philippines in an important occasion abroad, how
would you present yourself? Draw a representation of yourself below and give a brief explanation
detail about it.
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tplate+for+a+person+&oq=template+for+a+person+&gs_l=img.3..0i30k1j0i8i30k1.4571.6672.0.7208.12.9.2.0.0.0.177.939.5j4 .9.0....0...1
Brief Description:
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________

Worksheet 3
Aside from the indicators of being a Filipino discussed in this lesson, there are other trademarks
that describe a Filipino, which include proverbs or salawikan, superstitions, myths and legends and
Filipino heroes icons. Can you think of examples of these trademarks and relate it to your
self-identity?
SALAWIKAIN (PROVERBS) RELATION TO YOUR SELF-IDENTITY
1.
2.
3.
SUPERSTITIONS RELATION TO YOUR SELF-IDENTITY
1.
2.
3.
MYTHS & LEGENDS RELATION TO YOUR SELF-IDENTITY
1.
2.
3.
FILIPINO HEROES OR ICONS RELATION TO YOUR SELF-IDENTITY
1.
2.
3.

Worksheet 4
Francis Michael Durango Magalona, also known as Francis M., the ‘Master
Rapper’ and the ‘King of Rap’, is a renowned Filipino artist for his musical and
artistic brilliance, his deep faith in the Filipino and his sense of national pride
that continue to inspire the Filipinos. Read the lyrics of his song entitled,
‘Mga Kababayan’ (Fellow Countrymen) and write a short reflection about it in
relation to your Filipino sense of self.
Mga Kababayan https://www.google.com.ph/search?

(Taken from http://www.lyricsmode.com/lyrics/f/francis_m/mga_kababayan_ko_lyrics.html) q=francis+magalona&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH767&tb
m=isch&source=iu&ictx=1&fir=5Q4Ctyoyj-JDaM%253A%
252Cs5eWNMpbB8XpPM%252C_&usg=__-
KvXn8Ru_fEej7AFrVMdHxfg1Lg%
Mga kababayan ko 3D&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiX7uzEiqbbAhVKErwKHU33Av
oQ_h0IwgEwDg#imgrc=5Q4Ctyoyj-JDaM:
Dapat lang malaman nyo

Bilib ako sa kulay ko Respetuhin natin ang ating ina
Ako ay Pilipino Ilaw siya ng tahanan
Kung may itim o may puti Bigyang galang ang ama
Mayron naman kayumangi At ang payo n'ya susudan
Isipin mo na kaya mong At sa magkakapatid
Abutin ang ‘yong minimithi Kailangan ay magmahalan
Dapat lang ay pag-usapan ang hindi nauunawaan
Dapat magsumikap para tayo'y di maghirap
Wag takasan ang pagkukulang
Ang trabaho mo pagbutihin mo
Kasalan ay panagutan
Dahil pag gusto mo ay kaya mo
Magmalinis ay iwasan
Kung kaya mo ay kaya nya
Nakakainis marumi naman
At kaya nating dalawa
Ang magkaaway ipag bati
Magaling ang atin
Gumitna ka at wag kumampi
Yan ang laging iisipin
Lahat tayoy magkakapatid
Pag-asenso mararating
Anong mang mali ay ituwid
Kung handa kang tiisin
Magdasal sa Diyos Maykapal
Ang hirap at pagod sa problema
Maging banal at wag hangal
Wag kang malunod
Itong tula ay alay ko
Umaahon ka wag lumubog
Sa bayan ko at sa buong mundo
Pagka't ginhawa naman ang susunod
Iwasan mo ang ingit
Mga kababayan ko
Ang sa iba'y ibig mong makamit
Dapat nga ika'y matuwa sa napala ng
Bilib ako sa kulay ko
iyong kapatid
Ako ay Pilipino
Ibig kong ipabatid
Kung may itim o may puti
Na lahat tayo'y kabig-bisig
Mayron naman kayumangi
Mga kababayan ko Isipin mo na kaya mong
Bilib ako sa kulay ko
Ako ay Pilipino
Kung may itim o may puti
Mayron naman kayumangi
Isipin mo na kaya mong
Abutin ang ‘yong minimithi

Reflection

Abad, J. (2014). What the Philippines tells us about democracy. Article of the World Economic Forum
on East Asia retrieved from https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2014/05/philippines-democracy-
east-asia-2014/ last March 4, 2017.
Agoncillo, T. (1990). History of the Filipino People. Quezon City: Garotech Publishing.
Ayson, F. & Reyes, D. (2000). Fundamentals of Political Science (2nd Ed.). Mandaluyong City: National
Book Store.
Catalan, Maria Elena (October 5, 2016). "Chasing Whang–od, the oldest Kalinga mambabatok". Sun
Star Baguio. Retrieved from http://www.sunstar.com.ph/article/102315/ last February 28, 2017
Garcia, C. (2015). Philippine History for College Students. Mandaluyong City: Books Atbp. Publishing
Corp.
Miranda, F., Rivera, T., Ronas, M. & Holmes, R. (2011). Chasing the Wind: Assessing Philippine Democracy.
Quezon City: Commission on Human Rights of the Philippines (CHRP) with the Support of the
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Retrieved from http://www.ombudsman.gov.ph/
UNDP4/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/DEMOCRACY-with-INDEX-LAYOUT-JAN-04-2012.pdf
Sable, S. (2016). Democratizing democracy in the Philippines. Conference Paper retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.netpublication/309390546_Democratizing_democracy_in_the_
Philippines last April 2 2017. Doi: 10.13140RG2.2.12797.56801
www.tourism.gov.ph
Video:
Kapuso Mo, Jessica Soho: Munting Obra para kay Apo Whang-Od [Kapuso Mo, Jessica Soho: Small
Art for Apo Whang-Od]. Official YouTube channel of GMA Public Affairs (Video of the February
26, 2017 episode of Kapuso Mo, Jessica Soho where the host said that Whang-od turned 100 on
February 17, 2017) (in Tagalog). GMA News. February 26, 2017. Retrieved from https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=bXfwrL9COI0 last February 28, 2017.

LESSON 6
THE DIGITAL SELF
Lesson Objectives:
a. Define the Digital Self.
b. Compare and contrast real identity and online identity.
c. Examine the many online factors that influence one’s sexuality and gender.
d. Identify and discuss the importance of ethical behaviors online.
ACTIVATE
Below is an excerpt taken from an article online about the effect of Internet on one’s
identity. Read the passage below and answer the questions that follow.
“When a British 14-year-old Hannah Smith turned to popular social networking site Ask.fm in
July 2013, she wanted reassurance.
Stressed out from studying for exams and anxious about the return of eczema that made her
feel ugly, Smith opened up about her feelings on the site, which allows users to pose questions
others can respond to anonymously.
The responses came in rapid succession. Anonymous posters urged Smith to cut herself and
drink bleach. One even said, “Do us all a favor n kill ur self."
When Smith did just that a month later, her father blamed the anonymity of Ask.fm's commenters
for his daughter's death. The family demanded action against the site, and Smith's death made inter-
national headlines about the effects of cyberbullying. What detectives found was arguably much
more tragic — that Smith sent the hateful messages to herself, hoping her friends would rally in her
defense.”
(Source: https://www.deseretnews.com/article/865603981/Growing-up-digital-How-the-Internet-affects-teen-identity.html).
1. What could be Hannah’s reason for turning to a social networking site to open-up her emotions?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
2..Was the father reasonable enough to blame the anonymity of the site’s commenters for Hannah’s
death? Why do you say so?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
3. How did the internet affect Hannah’s decision?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
4. How do you define the Digital Self based on the excerpt above?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

1
EMPOWER
Internet has become a very powerful platform that has influenced a lot of aspects of our lives
— be it about business, communication, education, politics, religion, relationships with different
people, and even our personal identity, the internet has, indeed, become part of our everyday life
(Internet Usage Statistics, 2018). According to the Internet World Stats, the Internet has incredibly
evolved so fast that 54.4% of the world population, comprising of 4,156,932,140 individuals have been
using it as of December 2017.
A US-based social media management platform reports that as of January 2018, the Philippines
has 67 million Internet users, with all of them active on social media (Kemp, 2018). Note that in this
same report, Facebook has the most number of active users in terms of global social platforms,
with teenagers between the ages 13 and 19 as the most avid users.
The 2018 key findings as revealed in their “Digital in 2018” report include:
 the increase in the Internet users by 7% in the last 12 months, hit 53% of the world population;
 the 13% increase in the social media usage globally, reaching 3.196 billion users; and
 the 14% increase in the mobile social media usage, with 93% of social media users have access
using their mobile phones.
The story of Smith in the previous activity represents what most teenagers like you do:
searching for some support from friends or even strangers using social media—more like, an identity
validation. Think of those times when you posted something on Facebook and you felt really good
because somebody has hit the ‘Like’ button. The way teenagers seek this kind of affirmation online
has become a vital part of how teens form their identity (Long & Chen, 2007). In a 2010 survey
from the Girl Scout Research Institute, 74% of girls claimed that their peers used social media to
"make themselves look cooler than they are.” Another study in the same year from York University
revealed that people with lower self-esteem spent more time online and posted more
"self-promotional" content to sites like Facebook.
According to Investopedia, Cyber Identity refers to the “personality or personalities that are
created through a person’s online interactions.” Other references define Internet Identity (IID),
also online identity or internet persona, is a social identity that an Internet user establishes

in online communities and websites. It can also be considered as an actively constructed
presentation of oneself (Nabeth, 2009).
Cyber identities were commonly used as a way to escape reality (Source: Investopedia). This
just goes to say that even before the emergence of social media, people have an idea already of
having a separate cyber identity totally different from his or her own. Some used this idea of
’escape’ reasonably in order to take a break from real life, to pretend that they were someone else
online where no one could easily call them out.
In the same manner, Wiszniewski and Coyne (2002) emphasized
the concept of ‘masking’ identity as they explored online identity in
a book entitled, Building Virtual Communities. They underscored that
whenever an individual interacts with others in the online world, he
or she portrays a mask of their identity. The kind of mask that one
chooses to use somewhat reveals something about the person’s
actual self. One might call this the ‘metaphor’ of the mask—it does
not reveal the true identity of the person behind the ‘mask’ but an
example of what lies behind the mask. For instance, a person
chooses to act like an antisocial online, this metaphor reveals that
the true self is disruptive or is going through a rough time that
causes the unfriendly attitude online. This mask perspective is
https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=online+persona+vs+real+life+persona&rlz=1C1CHB
likened to the concept of ‘blended identity’, where the offline-self D_enPH767PH767&tbm=isch&source=iu&ictx=1&fir=dC5ALbqVot4tSM%253A%252C
7yCEhwn2wgqhWM%252C_&usg=__nyZGtgn-DSB5ck2ajjxQis7KkcE%3D&sa=X&ved=0
ahUKEwj0vdPwqabbAhXJJ5QKHcbcCF8Q9QEIUTAD#imgrc=7rDh6rLQiB80lM:
informs the creation of a new online self, which in turn, informs
the offline-self through further online interactions with those he or she first met (Ganda, 2014).
The use of the Internet contributes to the development of more versions of an individual’s "self,"
which makes it more difficult for those who may already be struggling to figure out who they really
are. Rushkoff (2004) in a video mentioned that in his book entitled, Present Shock, he believed in the
term (which he himself coined), “digiphrenia,” saying that "There's more than one of us online, living
simultaneously not under our control." He further discussed 'Digiphrenia' as “the experience of trying
to exist in more than one incarnation of yourself at the same time. There's your Twitter profile,
there's your Facebook profile, there's your email inbox. And all of these sort of multiple instances of
you are operating simultaneously and in parallel. And that's not a really comfortable position for
most human beings." In short, a different identity comes into existence when we are online.
-
Our interaction with the technological world has created a digital self among ourselves.
Sometimes, as a mask for self-promotion (Omojola, 2008), and other times to protect the true self
from insult and danger. According to Winnicot (1965), “in an attempt to share that online identity or
digital self with the world, we engage our decoy selves to manage the day-to-day anxieties and
challenges that come before us.” In the Encyclopedia of Mobile Phone Behavior (Stefania, 2015),
this is called Selective Self-Presentation, which refers to the process of creating a digital artefact
which is a carefully chosen representation or expression of one’s real world self.
One sociologist theorized on the methods of presenting oneself. Erving Goffman (Burns, 1992), in
his theory on Dramaturgy, studied human social interaction in comparison to a theatrical
performance. – the actors in a stage play are the humans performing for others in real life. One
can think of sociologists as directors who observe and analyze what happens on the stage of

life. Every social status that humans have is a part in a play and the role associated with it
serves as the script.
Basically, Goffman (Burns, 1992) is telling us that we care about how the 'audience' reacts and
how they will judge our performance. This is where impression management comes in, which refers
to the attempt to control the impressions and opinions that other people have of one's self. We
control others’ impressions because we want others to think well of us. Simply, think of a lady who
is applying for a job. First, she tries to sell her potentials using her impressive resume and then
tries to control the employer’s impressions during the interview by dressing up properly and
answering the questions correctly. It is important to remember that impression management is not
limited to job interviews. It actually happens all the time as we make an effort to change our
behavior depending on the expectations of others – as in how we behave in a funeral compared to
when we are in a birthday party.
Since we want others to have a positive impression of us, we practice idealization, which is an
exaggeration of our positive qualities. This is when we attempt to present the best possible version
of ourselves and convince others that our actions and intentions are clean and unselfish – a typical
view of politicians running for public office during the campaign period.
Idealization also involves attempting to conceal our negative feelings and the secrets that
others do not approve of. Think of the times when we tend to act friendly towards people we dislike
because it is the polite thing to do and we do want to seem rude or disrespectful.
However, nonverbal communication (or the use of facial expressions, postures, gestures, eye
contact or anything other than words to communicate something such as tone of voice or
appearance) sometimes says the opposite of what we portray to other people – remember the
saying, “actions speak louder than words.” Certainly, if somebody says “You look good today” with a
disgusted look on his or her face, you would not care to believe that person, would you?

EVALUATE
Worksheet 1
Part of your digital self is how you present yourself in online interactions. Create a Facebook
Account by answering the template below.
Paste Photo
First Last summer, I went to...
Name When I graduate, I want to…
Last
My favorite thing about school is…
Name
I like teachers that…
Name I
My main goal this year is…
Go By
My One thing I want to know is…

Birthday
If I could have one magic power, it would be…
Favorite
Book
My favorite song is...
Favorite
My favorite person is...
Subject
Favorite I would love to visit…
Food Right now, I am feeling...

Best
1. Do you have a Facebook account? Why or Why not?
Friends
__________________________________________________
Favorite
__________________________________________________
Hobby __________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Are your status updates in your social media account always true? Why or Why not? (If you do
not have an FB account, would you post status updates that are always true? Explain your answer.)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Cite an example of a status update that is untrue, which you already posted online.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
4. What made you post this false status update?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
5. Why do you think you had to post the said status update?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
6. Describe your FB experiences. Why do you go online?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
7. How do you define one’s digital self?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Worksheet 2
Research on the impact of online interactions on the self. In your personal
experiences as a teenager, how has your online relationships with others affect
your sense of self? What could be the possible factors that affected your identity
at present? Write a 150-word essay on this. Use an extra sheet of paper if
necessary.

Burns, T. (1992). Erving Goffman. London;New York: Routledge.
Ganda, M. (2014). Social Media and Self: Influences on the Formation of Identity and Understanding
of Self through Networking Sites. University Honors Theses Paper retrieved last April 13, 2017
from file:///C:/study.com%20(understanding%20self)/Social%20Media%20and%20Self_%
20Influences%20on%20the%20Formation%20of%20Identity%20an%20(1)__.pdf
Kemp, S. 2018. Digital in 2018: Data, Trends & Opportunities. Retrieved from https://hootsuite.com/en-
sg/webinars/digital-in-2018
Long, J. & Chen, G. (2007). The Impact of Internet Usage on Adolescent Self-Identity Development.
China Media Research, 3 (1), 99-109. Retrieved from file:///C:/study.com%20(understanding%
20self)/The%20Impact%20of%20Internet%20Usage%20on%20Adolescent%20Self-Identity%
20Developm.pdf last April 13 2017.
Nabeth, T. (2009). Social web and identity: a likely encounter (Editorial of the special issue Social web
and identity). Identity in the Information Society, 2 (1): 1-5. Doi:10.1007/s12394-009-0029-z.
Omojola, O. (2008). Audience Mindset and Influence on Personal Political Branding. Journal of Social
Sciences, 16 (2), 127-134. India: Kre Publishers. Doi:10.1080/09718923.2008.11892609
Winnicott, D. W. (1965). "Ego distortion in terms of true and false self". The Maturational Process and
the Facilitating Environment: Studies in the Theory of Emotional Development. New York:
International Universities Press, Inc: 140–57.
Wiszniewski, D. & Coyne, R. (2002). Mask and Identity: The Hermeneutics of Self-Construction in the
Information Age. In K. Renninger & W. Shumar (Eds.), Building Virtual Communities: Learning and
Change in Cyberspace (Learning in Doing: Social, Cognitive and Computational Perspectives,
pp.191-214). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Doi:10.1017/CB09780511606373.012
(No Author). 2010. Who’s that Girl? Image and Social Media. Girl Scout Research Institute.
Retrieved from https://www.girlscouts.org/content/dam/girlscouts-gsusa/forms-and-documents/
about-girl-scouts/research/gsri_social_media_fact_sheet.pdf
(No Author). 2018. Internet Usage Statistics. Retrieved from https:.//www.interneteworldstats.com/

stats.htm
https://www.deseretnews.com/article/865603981/Growing-up-digital-How-the-Internet-affects-teen-
identity.html
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/cyber-identity.asp-0
Video:
Rushkoff, D. (2004). Digiphrenia. Video retrieved from https://www.reddit.com/r/JoeRogan/
comments/1bvs62/douglas_rushkoff_digiphrenia/

https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=CARING+FOR+THE+SELF&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH767&source=lnms&tbm=
isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjd54ybmq7bAhUJE5QKHT-JBdMQ_AUICigB&biw=1366&bih=613#imgrc=1f2MmmoHDig8SM:
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. Learn to become a better learner.
2. Set goals towards success.
3. Take care of one’s health.
Understanding the Self Unit III: Managing and Caring for the Self
LESSON 1
LEARN TO BECOME A BETTER LEARNER
Lesson Objectives:
a. Discuss what happens during learning.
b. Identify and describe metacognition and metacognitive process.
c. Begin the process of reflection on personal learning.
d. Recognize different ways of managing own learning.
ACTIVATE
Knowing yourself will help you become a more effective and efficient learner. Take the
Jung Typology Test by following this link: http://www.humanmetrics.com/cgi-win/jtypes2.asp, which
should only take you a few minutes. This is to determine your personality type to help you identify
your learning style and become a more effective and efficient learner. Remember, you will get the
best, most accurate results if you are as honest as possible when you answer the questions. Think
about how you ARE and not how you WANT to be. After you have completed the questionnaire, you
will receive your type (ex. INTJ) and will have a few links to read about what that type means.
After reading your results, write a short reflection on the space provided below based on the
following guide questions:
1. Were the results consistent with how you see yourself?
2. Do you think the results describe how others see you?
3. How will your knowledge of your type effect how you approach tasks and problems?
EMPOWER
We use our brains whenever we eat lunch, read a book, or text a friend. Our thinking
processes are not only restricted to classroom learning. The fact is, we learn all the time — from
people like our teachers, from the things we see online, or from everyday experiences. Every time
you solve a problem, apply a strategy, plan for a trip, reflect on the results of your test, or simply,
you are being aware of your thoughts, how you understand, adapt, change, control or use your
thought processes, you are developing a powerful skill that can directly relate to academic and
career success. In short, you are being metacognitive because you stop and think about yourself as
a thinker.
Metacognition is a deeper level of thinking that includes your ability to What’s going on
inside our head?
think about your thinking (Livingston, 2003). It involves thinking about
one’s own thinking process (like study skills, memory capabilities, and the
ability to monitor learning) to maximize learning (Demetriou et. Al., 1993).
It refers to what you know about your own thoughts or being aware of
what you already know and what you still do not know (Zohar and David,
2009).
What do you do when you notice that something does not make sense
while reading a paragraph in your book? Do you continue to read on or https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=metacognition&rlz=1C 1CHBD_e
nPH767PH767&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjDp_yz4
do you pause first and try to comprehend the part which you do not
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understand? This is a simple example of metacognition, when the brain realized, ‘Wait, my thinking is
not quite right.’ It is metacognition when you are aware of what you know about yourself as a
thinker and learner.
Metacognition can be broken down into two categories (Livingston, 1997): metacognitive
knowledge (or self-appraisal) and metacognitive regulation (or self-management).
1. Metacognitive Knowledge or Self-Appraisal
What do you know about yourself as a thinker? Try to evaluate the different ways you use to
study for your tests. How come some students take down important notes, or while others even
make a reviewer for themselves? This is metacognitive knowledge, which refers to what people
know about themselves as learners — the basic knowledge of ourselves and our thoughts. This
also refers to your personal reflection on your knowledge and capabilities (Flavell, 1979; Paris
and Winnograd (1990) in Papaleontiou-Louca, 2003).
Three deeper ways to look at metacognitive knowledge that influence how you know yourself are::
a. Person variables (Content Knowledge or Declarative Knowledge)
This defines how individuals understand their own capabilities which include their learning styles,
strengths, and weaknesses.
b. Task variables (Task Knowledge or Procedural Knowledge)
When a person can predict and make a plan about how to complete a task, like the time and
effort needed to study for a test, the focus is on the task variable. In other words, this deals
with a person’s ability to evaluate the difficulty of a task.
c. Strategy variables (Conditional Knowledge)
Is there something you always do to get ready for a test, like go to the library or organize
note cards? If so, you are using strategy variables, or knowledge of yourself as a learner to be
2. Metacognitive Regulation or Self-Management
Metacognitive regulation refers to ways to direct thoughts and learning. This is the mental
process that you use in planning and identifying strategies to reach your goals (Flavell, 1979;
Paris and Winnograd (1990) in Papaleontiou-Louca, 2003). You might not notice, but you have
certainly used by this time — you created a study plan for a test, you rehearsed for your speech
class or a presentation, you read in a quiet place, you use a check list to make sure that you
are right on track in accomplishing a task, or you monitor your understanding when reading a
complicated text. In other words, this is how we use our metacognitive knowledge to learn
better.
Three skills, as identified by Schraw (1998) and Jacobs, et. Al (1987), essential in the
understanding of metacognitive regulation are:
a. Planning: refers to the appropriate selection of strategies and the correct allocation of
resources that affect task performance.
b. Monitoring: refers to one's awareness of comprehension and task performance
c. Evaluating: refers to appraising the final product of a task and the efficiency at which the task
was performed. This can include re-evaluating strategies that were used.
It turns out, being metacognitive and using strategies to regulate and process thinking is
related to intelligence. Recall the results of your Jung Typology Test. Knowing your personality type
as well as the many different types of intelligences and learning styles will help you manage your
own learning.
Many people view intelligence as a superficial thing wherein an individual may either be
categorized as someone who is smart and not. Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory
(Gardner, 1983) provides a different outlook on individual intelligence, stating that all people can be
intelligent in different ways because everyone is different. These multiple intelligences can be
nurtured and strengthened, or ignored and weakened.
According to Gardner (1999):
 Each person has a different intellectual composition.
 These intelligences are located in different areas of the brain and can either work
independently or together.
 Education can be improved by addressing the individual’s multiple intelligences.
 All human beings possess all nine intelligences in varying amounts which include the following:
(An excerpt on the nine intelligences identified by Gardner taken from https://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/mi/index.html and
http://web.cortland.edu/andersmd/learning/MI%20Table.htm)
Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence: well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the sounds, meanings
and rhythms of words; skills include listening, speaking, writing, teaching.
Mathematical-Logical Intelligence: ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and capacity to
discern logical or numerical patterns; skills include problem-solving (logical and math) and
performing experiments.
Musical Intelligence: ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch and timber; skills include
singing, playing musical instruments, composing music.
Visual-Spatial Intelligence: capacity to think in images and pictures, to visualize accurately and
abstractly; skills include puzzle building, painting, constructing, fixing, designing objects.
Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: ability to control one's body movements and to handle objects
skillfully; skills include dancing, sports, and performing hands-on experiments.
Interpersonal Intelligence: capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the moods,

motivations and desires of others; skills include seeing from other perspectives, empathy, counseling,
and cooperating.
Intrapersonal Intelligence: capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner feelings, values,
beliefs and thinking processes; skills include recognizing one’s strengths and weaknesses, reflective,
awareness of inner feelings.
Naturalist Intelligence: ability to recognize and categorize plants, animals and other objects in
nature; skills include recognizing one’s connection to nature, applying science theory to life.
Existential Intelligence: sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about human existence,
such as the meaning of life, why do we die, and how did we get here.; skills include reflective and
deep thinking, designing abstract theories.
Each of us is unique. For sure, you have heard the saying, “no two people are exactly alike” -
even identical twins differ from each other (Sujit, et. Al, 2011). This is because we see things
differently, we have our own opinions, our own personalities, even our own fingerprints. And akin to
a unique fingerprint, we all have a unique learning style.
In our mission to find out what works best for you in the classroom to make you better
learners, identifying your individual intelligence is not enough. It is equally important to discuss the
different learning styles that you all have to give you an opportunity to discover your learning
strengths and understand how you learn best.
A learning style is a series of theories that explain the differences in our individual patterns of
understanding information (Coffield, 2004). We all learn differently, and we prefer information to be
presented to us in a particular way - a way that makes it easiest for us to understand (Willingham,
2015).
One of the most common conception of how students learn is Neil Fleming’s Model of Student
Learning called VARK, an acronym that refers to the four types of learning styles: Visual, Auditory,
Reading (or Writing) and Kinesthetic. Sometimes, the VARK model is also referred to as the VAK
model, eliminating Reading/Writing as a category of preferential learning (Fleming and Baume,
2006). According to Fleming, the VARK model recognizes that students have different approaches to
how they process information, which is also known as their “preferred learning modes.” As outlined
in Learning Styles Again: VARKing up the right tree! (Fleming & Baume, 2006), students’ learning is
significantly influenced by their learning styles wherein an increase in their levels of comprehension,
motivation and metacognition is apparent. For this reason, it is imperative that the students’
preferred learning modes should be matched with the appropriate learning strategies.
The VARK Learning Styles are summarized below (lifted from Fleming &
Baume, 2006):
Visual Learners prefer the use of images, maps
and graphic organizers to access and understand
new information. Auditory Learners best understand
new content through listening and speaking in
https://www.google.com.ph/search? https://www.google.com.ph/search?
q=visual+&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjxq9CpjrPbAhUMzLwKHQAoY q=auditory+learners&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH767&s
situations such as lectures and group discussions
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Aural learners use repetition as a study technique and benefit from the use of mnemonic devices.
Students with a strong Reading and Writing Preference learn best
through word. These students may present themselves as copious
note-takers or avid readers, and are able to translate abstract
concepts into word and essays. Kinesthetic Learners, on the other
hand, best understanding
i n for ma ti on th roug h ta c ti l e
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These students are hands-on

learners and learn best through figuring things out by hand (such
as understanding how the clock works by putting one together).
Other references state that there are seven (7) learning styles.
q=kinesthetic+learners&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH767&
The first four, as included in the VARK mode, and the rest of the
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learning styles are as follows

(taken from https://www.learning-styles-online.com/overview/):
Logical (Mathematical) Learners are those who prefer logic,
reasoning, and “systems” to understand concepts. They, too, can
easily recognize patterns and connect the seemingly meaningless
concepts without any difficulty. https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=logical+learners&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH767&so
urce=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjTjJa_kbPbAhVLzbwKHQgIDqQQ_AUICigB&b
Social (Interpersonal) iw=1366&bih=613#imgdii=1Lo6duzKvNO_1M:&imgrc=tK0hb7Sr1q72xM:
Learners are people-person who learn best in groups or with

other people. Solitary (Intrapersonal) Learners are those who
prefer to work alone through self-
study, focusing on one’s private and
https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=interpersonal+learner&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767
PH76 7&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiotv6XkrPbAhXImJQKH
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independent introspection without
disruption from others.
While we learn in different ways, most of us may have
overlapping learning styles, just a we have a multitude of
intelligences. Our learning styles do not just affect the way we learn https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=solitary+learner&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767P
H767&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi1xumzk7PbAhXFCqYKHR2ZD
4UQ_AUICigB&biw=1366&bih=613#imgrc=aJK0ikLCiTgW4M:
but also aid in shaping our personalities and change the way we
experience life. Knowing more about our learning styles helps us to better recognize how we
remember and process information.
How then is metacognitive learning applied in relation to an individual’s multiple intelligences and
learning styles?
As you may have realized, the objective of metacognitive learning is for students like you to
become self-regulated learners to increase your likelihood of academic achievement. But how do
you manage your own learning?
Self-regulation is the process in which students activate, take control of and evaluate their own
learning (Hagger, 2010). What happens when you get a failing score in an assessment? Do you just
shrug your shoulder and tell yourself, “I’ll do my best next time” or do you ask yourself, “Where did I
go wrong?” When you monitor and evaluate your own learning, and alter the way you study based
on your past performances on your school assessments, you are engaging in self-regulation
Note that self-regulation is not the same as motivation (Butler, et. Al, 1995). Although motivation
and self-regulation share some common elements, there are some critical differences. In
motivation, choice (specifically referring to autonomy and control over the situation) does not have
to be central to the construct. Self-regulation, however, requires some degree of choice or
intentional selection of strategies designed to help the learner achieve a goal or behavior.
Self-regulated learners are characterized to 1) be aware of their strengths and weaknesses, 2)
Utilize metacognitive strategies such as questioning one's learning and monitoring one's learning, to
approach academic tasks, and 3) Attribute their success or failure to factors within their control.
Researchers identified three critical dimensions of self-regulation namely, self-observation,
self-judgment, and self-reaction (Zimmerman, 1989).
Self-observation refers to the deliberate monitoring of one's activities. Self-observation may
take the form of recording frequency, duration or quality of a behavior. Self-observation is also
critical to the regulation of performance. Self-observation may also lead to higher motivation.
For example, if you realize your study habits were causing you to perform poorly on these tests, you
may adjust the way you study, leading to higher test grades and more motivation to continue to
improve your study habits.
Self-judgment refers to evaluating one's current performance levels compared to the goal level
while self-reaction refers to one's behavioral, cognitive and affective responses to self-judgments.
Self-reactions can be motivating if one believes they are making progress toward their goal.
Negative self-evaluations are not necessarily demotivating if one believes they can still make chang-
es and progress toward their goal.
-
Self-regulation is said to be a cyclical process because during the process of self-evaluation
and monitoring, the learner will make alterations to strategies, cognition and behaviors that will the
alter learning and ultimately, the end-goal (Burman et. Al, 2015).
There are three phases of the self-regulation cycle (Zimmerman, 1989 and Williams et. Al, 2004):
1) Forethought, 2) Performance (volitional) control, and 3) Self-reflection.
Self-regulation begins with the forethought phase. This pre-action phase refers to the
processes that set up the learner for action toward their goal. This phase helps the learner to
establish a positive outlook, set realistic expectations and address questions such as: 'When will the
work begin? What conditions will help or hinder learning activities toward the goal?' and 'How often
will tasks be completed toward the goal?' Short-term and long-term goal-planning occur in this
stage.
The next stage is the performance- (or volitional-) control phase. This phase involves processes
that occur during learning that affect action and attention. Specific strategies are established
during this stage in order to help a learner be successful. Metacognitive strategies are identified,
preliminary self-evaluation occurs and motivational strategies are recognized. Questions such as:
'Am I accomplishing as much as I thought I would? Am I being distracted?' and 'What will motivate
me to continue working?' are common questions during this phase.
The final stage is the self-reflection phase. During this stage, learners reflect on their
performance. Did they accomplish the goals they set forth? Were there hurdles? Did the learner
overcome those hurdles successfully? If the outcomes were positive, the learner will continue to use
the methods established to set and proceed toward future goals. If the outcomes were negative,
the learner will re-evaluate and make necessary adjustments for future goals.
You may be wondering, what influences self-regulation. According to Iran-Nejad et. Al (1992),
there are several types of influences on self-regulation. Social and external influences include:
modeling (which is observed behaviors of others that lead to academic success), verbal description
(which is verbal instruction from others describing the processes that made them successful in their
goal achievement), social guidance and feedback. Internal influences are: one's own internal
standards for success and failure, self-reinforcement (for example, rewarding oneself after
completing a certain amount of work or studying) and one's self-efficacy beliefs (one's belief in
one's ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task).
-
Another way by which metacognitive learning can occur is by having goals as important aspects
of the things that we do. By having an idea of what we want to see at the end of the paths that we
take - by simply thinking about something that we want to achieve, we want to be or we want to
have, we are able to become effective and successful in achieving our objectives.
Using the SMART formula for setting goals will help us understand the elements necessary for
setting a good, attainable goal and some considerations to think of when setting them (Bogue,
2018). SMART stands for:
S = Specific
M = Measurable
A = Attainable
R = Realistic
T = Timely/ Time Bound
Successful students use metacognitive strategies throughout a task and actually start thinking
before they start the task itself. These four quadrants represent categories of metacognitive
strategies that successful students and adults employ throughout their daily work:
Plan & Monitor their

Organize * Set goals own Work
* Preview/Skim
assignment to decide * Check their
how progress against
to approach them timeline
* Create a timeline to divide * Troubleshoot issues
big tasks into manageable * Ask themselves if they are
chunks
* Self-assess about how * Pay attention to loss of focus

the task went * Create an optional study or
* Consider how effective learning environment
the strategies were * Advocate for their own
* Plan for next time by
identifying changes to
be made Direct their
Self-Reflect
Source: www.study.com
In summary, this is how metacognition works:
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Basically, there are three basic strategies for learning metacognitively (Blakely & Spence, 1990.
1) Connecting new information to former knowledge
2) Selecting thinking strategies deliberately
3) Planning, monitoring, and evaluating thinking processes Application of these strategies will
help you increase academic achievement by improving learning.
Metacognitive strategies include the use of KWL Approach which stands for Know, Want to Know,
Learned. When working through a reading assignment, one will be working on answering the ques-
tions using the KWL Chart:
What do I KNOW about this topic?
What do I WANT to learn about the topic? (Ask questions based on what you know)
What did I LEARN about the topic? What else do I want to LEARN about the topic?
Another is the use of SQ3R, which stands for Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review.
When you want to improve your writing skills, you may use the three phases of writing namely,
pre-writing, writing (or drafting/revising), and editing. In each phase the writer must consider 4
things:
What is the purpose of my piece? (Is it informative, persuasive, critical, etc.?)
What do I know about what I am writing about? What do I need to research? (This is
to get your points across.)
What do I want to say about what I have learned? (To express ideas/views.)
Is my message coming across? (Are you achieving your purpose? Is your writing clear
and concise?)
These and many other strategies, when applied correctly, can lead your learning experiences to
success.
EVALUATE
Worksheet 1
Keeping Track of Time
How do you spend your time? Using the daily calendar below, record all your day’s activities
from morning to evening, from Monday to Sunday. Use extra sheets of paper for multiple days.
7:00am __________________________________ 7:00pm __________________________________
7:30am __________________________________ 7:30pm __________________________________
8:00am __________________________________ 8:00pm __________________________________
8:30am __________________________________ 8:30pm __________________________________
9:00am __________________________________ 9:00pm __________________________________
9:30am __________________________________ 9:30pm __________________________________
10:00am _________________________________ 10:00pm __________________________________
10:30am _________________________________ 10:30pm __________________________________
11:00am __________________________________ 11:00pm __________________________________
11:30am __________________________________ 11:30pm __________________________________
12:00nn __________________________________ 12:00mn __________________________________
12:30pm __________________________________ 12:30am __________________________________
1:00pm __________________________________ 1:00am __________________________________
1:30pm __________________________________ 1:30am __________________________________
2:00pm __________________________________ 2:00am __________________________________
2:30pm __________________________________ 2:30am __________________________________
3:00pm __________________________________ 3:00am __________________________________
3:30pm __________________________________ 3:30am __________________________________
4:00pm __________________________________ 4:00am __________________________________
4:30pm __________________________________ 4:30am __________________________________
5:00pm __________________________________ 5:00am __________________________________
5:30pm __________________________________ 5:30am __________________________________
6:00pm __________________________________ 6:00am __________________________________
6:30pm __________________________________ 6:30pm __________________________________
Where does the time go?
You may be surprised by what you learn from your daily calendar. Take a close look at the
results. Then reflect on the questions below.
1. On which activity did you spend the most time? _______________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
2. How much did you spend watching TV? _______________________________________________________
Chatting online with friend? _________________________________________________________________
Playing video games? ______________________________________________________________________
3. How much time did you spend on your school work? __________________________________________
Reading for pleasure? _____________________________________________________________________
4. What time do you usually go to sleep? _______________________________________________________
Are you sleeping at least eight hours each night? ___________________________________________
On which activity did you spend the most time? ______________________________________________
5. Which activities did you plan ahead of time? _________________________________________________
Which activities were unplanned? ____________________________________________________________
6. Which activity was the best use of your time? ________________________________________________
Which was the worst use of your time? ______________________________________________________
7. What is the most important thing you learned about the way you spend your time? ______________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
8. How do you plan on improving the way you spend your time? __________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
9. Write 5 Study Habit Tips that you can use based on your daily calendar.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Worksheet 2
Journal Writing
1. How would you describe your learning process in the past? ____________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
2. How would you describe your study habits in the past? ________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
3. What were your preferred methods to demonstrate what you learned? (ex. Papers, tests,
projects) ____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
4. How do you think your knowledge of metacognition will change the way you learn?________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
5. Based on the Jung Typology Test, what is your type? __________________________________________
6. How well do you think your results describe you? Provide examples if applicable. _________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
7. What connections do you see between your personality type and your learning habits? ___________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Worksheet 3
My Multiple Intelligence Profile
Take the Multiple Intelligence Test on this link https://www.edutopia.org/multiple-intelligences-
assessment. Take a screenshot of your results and paste it below. Then write a reflection on the
next page based on the guide questions provided below.
Guide Questions for Journal Writing:

1. How does your results match your own thoughts about what your intelligence profile looks like?
2.What similarities or differences or both do you see from your results and your personal belief
about your intelligence?
3.Talk with a family member, friend, or classmate who knows you well about your profile and see if
they see the same or different intelligences in you. Make notes on the conversation to include in your
journal entry.
Reflection:
____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Worksheet 4
VARK Learning Styles Inventory
Take the VARK learning styles inventory on this link: http://vark-learn.com/the-vark-
questionnaire/?p=questionnaire, read about your results and answer the questions that follow.
1. Do your results surprise you or are they what you expected after your analysis of Multiple
Intelligences? Why or why not? ________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
2. How can your teachers help you learn better? Cite five (5) ways that you would want your
teachers to use when discussing challenging topics in class. _____________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Write a short reflection below on the following: a) what you knew about yourself before, b) what
you have learned while working through the worksheets in this lesson, and c) what you want to learn
about yourself. ______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Worksheet 5
Applying Learning Intelligences and Styles
Use your results from Worksheets 3 and 4 to briefly answer the questions below.
My Intelligence Profile: ____________________________________________________________________

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My Learning Styles: _______________________________________________________________________

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Because of my Intelligence Profile and Learning Styles, I know that I learn best when __________
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Choose an assignment for one of your classes to work through utilizing your knowledge of your
learning style and intelligence.
a. Briefly describe the assignment:
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b. How did you utilize your learning preferences and strengths to complete this assignment?
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c. How did your approach change as a result of your knowledge of your learning preferences?
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d. What was the result?
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REFERENCES
Blakely, E. & Spence, S. (1990). Developing Metacognition. ERIC Digest. Retrieved from https://
eric.ed.gov/?id=ED327218
Boekaerts, M. & Corno, L. (2005). Self-regulation in the classroom: A perspective on assessment and
intervention. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 54(2), 199-231. doi: 10.1111/j.1464-
0597.2005.00205.x
Bogue, Robert. "Use S.M.A.R.T. goals to launch management by objectives plan". TechRepublic.
Retrieved 10 February 2018.
Burman, J., Green, C. & Shanker, S. (2015). On the Meanings of Self-Regulation: Digital Humanities in
Service of Conceptual Clarity. Child Development. 86 (5): 1507–1521. doi:10.1111/cdev.12395.
Casenhiser, D., Shanker, S. & Stieben, J. (2012) Understanding the Nature of Self-Regulation, Milton &
Ethel Harris Research Initiative, York University, Canada.
Coffield, Frank; Moseley, David; Hall, Elaine; Ecclestone, Kathryn (2004). Learning styles and pedagogy
in post-16 learning: a systematic and critical review (PDF). London: Learning and Skills Research
Centre.
Demetriou, A., Efklides, A., & Platsidou, M. (1993). The architecture and dynamics of developing mind:
Experiential structuralism as a frame for unifying cognitive developmental theories. Monographs
of the Society for Research in Child Development, 58, Serial Number 234.
Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-developmental

inquiry. American Psychologist, v34 n10 p906-11 Oct 1979.
Fleming, Neil D. (2014). "The VARK modalities". Retrieved from vark-learn.com.
Gardner, H. (1999): Multiple Intelligences. Retrieved from http://infed.org/mobi/howard-gardner-

multiple-intelligences-and-education/ last November 13, 2017.
Hagger, M. (2010). Self-regulation: An important construct in health psychology research and

practice. Health Psychology Review, 4(2): 57-65. Doi:10.1080.17437199.2010.503594
Iran-Nejad, Asghar; Chissom, Brad S. (1 December 1992). "Contributions of active and dynamic self-
regulation to learning". Innovative Higher Education. 17 (2): 125–136. doi:10.1007/BF00917134.
Jacobs, J.E.; Paris, S.G. (1987). "Children's metacognition about reading: Issues in definition,
measurement, and instruction". Educational Psychologist. 22: 225–278.
REFERENCES
Livingston, J. (2003). Metacognition: An Overview. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/

publication/234755498_Metacognition_An_Overview last October 3, 2017.
Doi: 10.1023/A:1022213731956. PMID 10457815.
Multiple Intelligences (1999) retrieved from https://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/mi/

index.html and http://web.cortland.edu/andersmd/learning/MI%20Table.htm)
Papaleontiou-Louca, Eleonora (2008). Metacognition and Theory of Mind. Newcastle: Cambridge

Scholars Publishing.
Schraw, G. (1998). Promoting general metacognitive awareness. Instructional Science. 26: 113–
125. doi:10.1023/A:1003044231033.
Sujit, M., Kiran H, Kumar, B., Castellani, C., O'Reilly, R. & Singh, S. (2011). Ontogenetic De Novo Copy
Number Variations (CNVs) as a Source of Genetic Individuality: Studies on Two Families with MZD
Twins for Schizophrenia. PLoS ONE, 2011; 6 (3): e17125 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0017125
Zimmerman, B. J. (1990). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: An overview. Educational

Psychologist, 25(1), 3-17. doi: https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep2501_2
Zohar, A., & Ben David, A. (2009). Paving a clear path in a thick forest: A conceptual analysis of a
metacognitive component. Metacognition And Learning, 4(3), 177-195. doi:10.1007/s11409-009-9044
-6
Jung Test taken from http://www.humanmetrics.com/cgi-win/jtypes2.asp
Nine intelligences identified by Gardner taken from https://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/

mi/index.html and http://web.cortland.edu/andersmd/learning/MI%20Table.htm)
Vark Learning Styles taken from http://vark-learn.com/the-vark-questionnaire/?p=questionnaire
LESSON 2
SETTING GOALS FOR SUCCESS
Lesson Objectives:
a. Explain the importance of goals.
b. Assess oneself based on Albert Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory.
c. Compare and contrast Dweck’s growth and fixed mindset.
d. Construct a Personal Learning Plan founded on Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory
ACTIVATE
Read the story below (excerpt taken from http://study.com/academy/lesson/self-efficacy-definition-
theory-quiz.html) and answer the questions that follow:
“There is an old and frequently told story of a track coach who wanted to
teach his team to run faster. No matter what the coach did, no one seemed able
to beat his or her best time. One night, unbeknownst to the team, the coach
moved the finish line, effectively making the track 10 feet longer. The next day,
the runners clocked slower times than they usually did (because the track was
now 10 feet longer).
Discouraged, because they knew they could do better, the runners practiced
and practiced until they could again achieve their old times. At this point, the
coach let them in on the secret that he had moved the finish line and informed
them that they were now running faster.”
1. What did the coach demonstrate to the runners?

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2. If you were one of the runners, would you do the same? Why or why not?
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3. How did the coach’s action help the runners?
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4. Define self-efficacy based on the excerpt above.
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EMPOWER
Think about something that you are really good at. Maybe you are a good singer, an artist, an
excellent writer, a public speaker, or a talented athlete. Maybe you are good in giving advices or at
handling your finances. What do you think influenced you to become successful in certain areas?
Our personal goals give meaning to our lives, and setting and achieving them greatly influence
our well-being. Admit it or not, it is a process that is sometimes easier said than done. In this
lesson, you will learn how goals affect an individual’s well-being and explore theories which can help
you succeed in achieving your own goals.
Imagine if you did not have to go to school anymore or you would not have to work in the
future. What would you do? While others could feel totally lost, some of you might create art, put-up
a business, travel, or pursue other goals. Our goals are tied with our motivation and behavior. We
are motivated to make progress when our goals are clearly defined. Otherwise, we can become
dissatisfied with our lives.
When you get up in the morning to go to school,
your motivation is probably because you want to learn,
you want get the worth of your tuition fee or you want
to become productive. In simple terms, motivation is
your desire to do things.
During our younger years, other people set goals
for us like when our parents and even teachers keep us
on track throughout our elementary and high school
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goal is to our future. Now that you are in college, do you think they were right? The degree to which
you understood what they were saying about the importance of goals probably had an effect on
how well you did in school or of how you have chosen your school in college.
According to Petty & Tanjula (2014), when you do
something because you enjoy it, you find it
interesting, or because of other personal reasons, it
is referred to as intrinsic motivation. Conversely, if
your reason for doing things is for external reward
such as to please other people, to earn money, or
to avoid negative consequences or other, it is known
as extrinsic motivation .
These two types of motivation highlight the
importance of connecting your goals to your own
life — to give greater meaning so you can finally find
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value in pursuing your goals.
In some ways, the advantages of setting and achieving goals are obvious: 1) goals give us
something to work towards, 2) we feel productive when we make progress in that direction, hence,
3) our well-being is positively influenced. However, this can also work in the opposite direction: when
we set goals but fail to make progress, we may feel bad about our lack of motivation or ability to
achieve the things we set out to do.
Let us discuss the various theories on goal-setting so you can be guided in examining and
accomplishing your own.
In the excerpt about the marathon runners earlier, the runners demonstrated a strong belief
that they could do better. In order to prove this, they practiced running consistently and exerted
extra efforts to keep up with their strength, believing that they can meet the coach’s requirement
to succeed. When an individual believes in his or her ability to successfully accomplish a given task,
he or she is said to have self-efficacy.
‘ -
Albert Bandura was a well-known social-cognitive psychologist who
postulated the theory of self-efficacy (Luszczynska & Schwarzer, 2005).
Social-cognitive Psychology is the branch of Psychology that deals with
people learning from observing others and interacting with them. Self-
efficacy literally means the belief of a person that his or her actions are
effective or make a difference. Bandura also referred to self-efficacy as
the mind's self-regulatory function — it tells us when to try and when to
stop. If you do not believe that you can accomplish a task, then you are
less likely to make an attempt to finish it, and are more likely to give-up
(Bandura, 2002)..
Basically, the idea behind self-efficacy is when individuals feel that their
actions can influence the outcome of a given situation, several things occur: https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=albert+bandura&rlz=1C1
CHBD_enPH767PH767 &tbm=isch&source=iu&ictx=1&fir=vmY-
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sense of power and control over what happens; and 3) they feel hopeful in
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the situation. In short, these individuals actually act, think, and feel more differently than people
who have no ability to believe that they can succeed in any situation.
Notice how people with high self-efficacy in a specific area believe that they can control the
outcome of a situation. For example, Person A and B are in the same math class and are getting
ready for a math test. While Person A has high self-efficacy for math, Person B has the opposite.
Because Person A has high self-efficacy, it is more likely that this person believes that he/she can
control whether he/she gets a high score in the test or not. On the other hand, Person B’s low
self-efficacy in the subject means that he/she might believe that no matter how much studying he/
she does, he/she will still fail in the upcoming test.
While self-efficacy is the belief that you can succeed in a specific area of your life, locus of
control is how much control you feel like you have over a situation. People who believe that they
have control over a situation have an internal locus of control, whereas people who believe that
outside factors have more control over a situation than they do have an external locus of control
(Source: Dictionary of Psychology, 2009).
Going back to the previous example on the math test, if Person A believes that she can control
the outcome of the test by studying harder, then he/she has an internal locus of control. If Person
B thinks the test is difficult and that no matter how much effort he/she puts in would still result to a
failing grade, then he/she has an external locus of control.
Studies have shown that people with high self-efficacy also tend to have an internal locus of
control. When they are faced with failure, they tend to have an external locus of control for failure
in that arena (Schunk, 2003). In our example, if Person A has high self-efficacy for math, he/she
will have an internal locus of control unless he/she fails a math test. If this person has high
self-efficacy for math and fails a math test, Person A is more likely to say that his/her failure is
due to something outside of him/herself, such as a particularly challenging test or illness that day.
When it comes to failure in math, he/she then has an external locus of control.
The opposite is true for Person B who has a low self-efficacy for a task. He/she will have an
external locus of control when it comes to success in that task and an internal locus of control for
failure in that task. Looking at our example, Person B with a low self-efficacy for math, is most likely
to say that his/her success on a math test is because the test was easy, while he/she attributes his
failure on the test to his/her own lack of skill.
Self-efficacy also relates to motivation (or the drive to perform) since it revolves around the
beliefs that peoples' feelings and actions are based more on what they believe to be true. In other
words, a person who has self-efficacy believes that his feelings and actions actually have power
over the outcome of a given situation.
Just think of the mantra: 'If I work hard, I will be successful.' For a person who does not have
self-efficacy at work, he or she believes that no matter how hard he/she works, the situation will
still be the same — he/she will be in that low-paying job forever. On the other hand, someone with
self-efficacy believes that if he or she works hard at his/her job, he or she will be promoted to a
higher position, with a much higher salary.
But where does self-efficacy come from? According to Bandura (200), people tend to rely on
four factors when forming self-efficacy judgments about different situations:
1. Performance and accomplishments or mastery experiences
Successful performance and accomplishments increases self-efficacy, while failures diminish
them. When you succeed at something, you are likely to attempt doing it again.
2. Experience gained by observing others or social modeling
Seeing (and knowing) that the task is doable reinforces the belief that you can also
accomplish it. Most people are hesitant to undertake activities they believe are impossible so
when we see others successfully completing a task, we try to mirror their behavior and we
become motivated to experience success as well.
3. Verbal Persuasion
This usually comes in the form of being coached or getting feedback on one's performance.
When we receive positive feedback from others, self-efficacy is built. Isn’t it that when your
teacher tells you that you have done a good job, you are likely to remember the phrase and
repeat the same action or behavior in the future? Bandura also tells us that receiving
negative feedback also contributes to developing a lower self-efficacy. Think about how
demotivated you get when you receive a negative feedback.
4. Emotions and other physiological factors
People who experience anxiety and stress end-up having low self-efficacy or sometimes, it is
the other way around, people experience anxiety and stress as a result of their low
self-efficacy. Just as positive emotions can increase feelings of self-efficacy, negative
emotions (such as anxiety or fear) can decrease these feelings.
Combining all these factors together is essential in the formation of one’s self-efficacy.
Internal factors which the individual can control (because they are conscious actions) include
motivation (which is the drive to perform), self-reflection (which is thinking about one's actions and
thought processes), and forethought (which is thinking about the consequences of actions ahead of
time). These are factors that can be altered and can influence our level of self-efficacy (Stajkovic,
2006).
Several studies have identified beneficial effects of having self-efficacy (Ireland, 2016; Hsu et.Al,
2004; Stajkovic, et. Al, 2000). High self-efficacy can lower stress. Imagine, if you have a
presentation to do and you believe that you are skilled enough to present in front of your
classmates, then you will not be as stressed about your presentation. Whereas, if you have a low
self-efficacy for public speaking, you will be too anxious to present and view the task as a difficult
one than it actually is. Aside from self-efficacy’s effect on stress, it also has an effect on success
(Judge and Bono, 2001). People with high self-efficacy on a task tend to succeed more and vice
versa. This is because they believe that they are actually good at that task for reasons such as
they received compliments about it in the past that is why they are more motivated to learn or that
they already succeeded in that situation.
‘
Another way of looking at how people can achieve their goals is through an understanding of
the difference between the concept of a fixed mindset and a growth mindset.
Below is an excerpt about these two types of mindsets as discussed by Dr. Melissa Oden
(retrieved January 13, 2017 from https:www.study.com/academy/lesson/fixed-vs-growth-mindset.html):
Two brothers walk out to their backyard the day after a big storm.
They stare in shock at their fort, which has been broken apart by
heavy winds. It's now just a pile of boards. One brother begins to
complain, ''This is horrible! It took us a day to build that fort.'' The
other brother, however, starts grabbing boards and stacking them
into a pile. He tells his brother, ''This is great! Now we can build a
big fire and toast marshmallows.''
Do you see the difference between the reactions of the boys about their situation?
One brother sees the situation as a failure and the other sees it as an opportunity. Their opposing
reactions represent the difference between a fixed mindset and a growth mindset.
Carol Dweck, a Stanford psychologist, pioneered a significant
research on these two mindsets. In her book, Mindset: The New
Psychology of Success (2007), Dweck believed that we develop
these mindsets at a very early age and the development of
either of the two greatly influence our behavior, our
relationships, and even our very happiness in this lifetime.
According to Dweck, it is important to understand the
concepts of the fixed mindset and the growth mindset because
former can be potentially damaging. Let us see why.
People with a fixed mindset believe their abilities are fixed
and cannot be developed. In the social science discipline of
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psychology (Yolles & Fink, 2014) a fixed mindset refers to the belief
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that change cannot and does not occur in the brain. Hence, the
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level of a person's intelligence cannot change. In other words, a

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person either have a high or low level of intelligence.
By contrast, the concept of growth mindset denotes that intelligence can, in fact, change — not
only by learning new things, but also by the many experiences that a person has gone through. A
growth mindset thrives on challenges and sees failure an opportunity to see the situation in a new
perspective (Dweck, 2007; Yolles & Fink, 2014).
Dweck’s research focused on how people deal with difficulties and whether it is better to teach
young people that that they are innately smart, or if it is better to praise their work ethic (Dweck
2007).
In her research, a series of studies was developed where she monitored the reactions of
elementary and middle school students with respect to different successes and failures. The children
were divided into two groups. Both groups were given an easy test, and they all scored very well.
However, one group of students was told they scored well because they were especially talented or
intelligent. The other group of students was told they scored well because they studied hard.
Results showed that the students who were told they were naturally talented reported more
negative feelings about themselves when a much harder test was given that they did not perform
well on. They even seemed to question the judgment about their talents. These students have been
found to have much less regard for their abilities and did not even take test preparation as
seriously.
On the other hand, students who were told that they had scored well because they worked hard,
responded better to low scores on subsequent tests. They felt that they could work harder and do
better in the future. They studied more and did not seem to take failure as a reason to question
their own worth as students. Failure was just another reason to study harder.
Dweck recommends that praises given to children and students should be specific, and should
emphasize the behavior that influences outcomes. For instance, praising children's study skills or work
ethic helps them focus on skills that they can influence, whereas praising their intelligence, which is
something that cannot be changed, leaves them incapable of influencing an outcome.
According to Linville (2009, praise and encouragement are tools available to parents, teachers,
and counselors who are teaching young people about how to succeed in their lives. When praise is
centered around something that is inherent, which cannot be changed, this praise may lead to
disappointing children. This is because telling a child that he or she is smart will sound untrue when
he or she finds out that his or her innate intelligence is not enough for every challenge.
On the contrary, when a child is given a compliment such as
“great job,” “very good,” and the like, he or she is likely to develop a
growth mindset. This person has been encouraged to try harder in
difficult situations, and can use even his or her failures as a reason
to try harder. The growth mindset gives the child a sense of agency,
the sense that he or she can make decisions and influence outcomes.
Praise that is specific and addresses the child's work habits and
efforts raises his or her sense of agency, which goes a lot farther in
preparing her to succeed and to not take failure so personally later
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The idea that one cannot achieve more because the brain does
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not and cannot change can be a harmful line of reasoning and could
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potentially jeopardize a person's level of achievement. Adhering to

Dweck’s growth mindset, however, allows you as a person to view obstacles in your life as a means
to an end. The obstacles will make you a stronger person and eager to learn the lessons that life is
teaching you. To sum-up the difference between the two mindsets:
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‘ -
Have you ever felt so accomplished after a really challenging
task? Why does it feel so good to accomplish such goal? Edwin A.
Locke, an American Psychologist who pioneered the goal-setting
theory, provides an answer to these questions: goals that are
well-defined and challenging to attain are more likely to be met
because they hold intrinsic and extrinsic value to the individual
(Locke, 1990).
Locke's Goal-Setting Theory uses clear and challenging goals to
increase motivation and improve one’s performance. When
challenging goals are set and proper tools are provided to
accomplish those goals, coupled by positive feedback, the individual
feels satisfied. This feeling of satisfaction makes the person want
to strive to accomplish an even more challenging goal. It is
important to note, however, that challenging goals can be
accomplished when clear goals are set and timely feedback is
https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=edwin+locke&rlz=1C1CHBD_e
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Locke's theory states that there is a relationship between how difficult and specific a goal is
and the performance needed to complete the task. In other words, one has to be clear about his
or her expectations and be sure that the challenge is somewhat difficult. After all, one has to feel
motivated to really push himself/herself.
Locke & Latham published a book in 1990 entitled, "A Theory of Goal Setting & Task Performance,
which emphasized the need to set specific and difficult goals, while drawing five other characteris-
tics for successful goal setting. Locke and Latham's Five Principles that can improve our chances of
success include: 1) clarity; 2) challenge; 3) commitment; 4) feedback; and 5) task complexity.
The Five Principles discussed below are lifted from https://www.mindtools.com.

1. Setting Clear Goals
You have an idea of what you are trying to achieve when your goals are clear. You can
also measure results accurately, and you know which behaviors to reward. This is why SMART is
such a useful mnemonic. However, when a goal is vague – or when you express it as a general
instruction like "take initiative" – it is not easy to measure, and it is not motivating. You may
not even know that you have achieved it!
2. Setting Challenging Goals
People are often motivated by challenging goals, however it is important not to set a goal
that is so challenging that it cannot be achieved.
3. Securing Team Commitment
To be effective, your team must understand and agree to the goals – team members are
more likely to "buy into" a goal if they have been involved in setting it. This does not mean
that you have to negotiate every goal with your team members and secure their approval.
They are likely to commit to it as long as they believe that the goal is achievable, it is
consistent with the company's ambitions, and the person assigning it is credible.
4. Gaining Feedback
In addition to selecting the right goals, you should also listen to feedback, so that you can
gauge how well you and your team are progressing. Feedback gives you the opportunity to
clarify people's expectations and adjust the difficulty of their goals. Keep in mind that
feedback does not have to come from other people. You can check how well you are doing by
simply measuring your own progress.
5. Considering Task Complexity
Take special care to ensure that work does not become too overwhelming when goals or
assignments are highly complex. People who work in complicated and demanding roles can
often push themselves too hard, if they do not take account of the complexity of the task.
Let us take a closer look at the Goal-Setting Model (see figure 1 on the next page) to prove
that specific and difficult goals are better than vague and easy goals.
The model starts with the goal core, which defines goals as specific and difficult in the areas of
performance, learning or short-term achievements. This is followed by looking at performance (which
refers to increased productivity). Satisfaction with performance and reward comes from completing
a difficult task, which in turn, creates a willingness to commit to a new and more difficult task. As
tasks are completed, moderators like goal commitment, feedback and task complexity are evaluated:
1) Goal commitment occurs when goals are made public and are self-set, and individuals view the
goal as important, such as learning a new task to increase one's knowledge base or performing a
new task to avoid negative feedback; 2) Feedback must happen in a timely way to help individuals
track progress; 3) Task complexity must be high. When all of the moderators are met, motivation is
high (Locke & Latham, 1990).
Essential Elements of Goal-Setting Theory

and the High Performance Cycle
Taken from: https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=goal+setting+theory+model&rlz=1C1CHBD_en

PH767PH767&tbm=isch&source=iu&ictx=1&fir=O31rVaqFkJJrPM%253A%252Cx4hPflDJfZqkpM%
252C_&usg=__BQ1kDCxXLTicy43Pn9jWi5SUUTs%3D&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi-
vPW_xbfbAhVBW7wKHZquBJAQ9QEIcDAM#imgrc=smdDeraVu2f97M:
EVALUATE
Worksheet 1
Personal Mission Statement
Now that you have learned 'why' it is important to have goals and 'how' to formulate good and
attainable goals, it is time to practice writing your goals for this semester. Think about three (3)
goals that you want to accomplish in the following areas: school, career and personal. Write down
your goals as detailed as possible in the form of a Personal Mission Statement.
My Personal Mission Statement for this Semester
Reflection:
1. What do you think is the main purpose of creating a Personal Mission Statement?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
2. How do your goals make you feel?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
3. What will happen if you focus exclusively on one goal?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Are your goals SMART enough for you attain them?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Worksheet 2
Below is an activity sheet that will help you develop your growth mindset. Complete the table
below by writing down the corresponding growth mindset for each example under the concept of
fixed mindset.
FIXED MINDSET GROWTH MINDSET
1. I can’t do this.
2. I give up.
3. My work isn’t good enough.
4. This is too hard.
5. My plan didn’t work.
6. My friend can do it, but I can’t.
7. Math is too hard.
8. I’m not a good reader.
9. It’s good enough.
10. I’m awesome at this!
11. The answer is fine the way it is.
12. This is not a strength of mine.
13. I just don’t get it.
14. She is so smart.
15. This is too challenging.

https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=growth+mindset+worksheet&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH767&tbm=isch&source=iu&ictx=1&fir=T8WU04H7nDHH3M%253A%252C00PoG9_dNoLTBM%252C_&usg=__x3ZSrG6BWhgLixolOduSebr8O_4%
3D&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiEyO2F17fbAhXEwLwKHQBEDMwQ9QEIKjAA#imgrc=T8WU04H7nDHH3M:
Extended Learning at Home:

Answer the Test your Mindset Instrument at http://mindsetonline.com/testyourmindset/step1.php and
take-note of the results obtained.
Worksheet 3
Complete the Weekly Progress Journal below to help you examine your weekly goals and
accomplishments.
https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=growth+mindset+worksheet&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH767&tbm=isch&source=iu&ictx=1&fir=-W3swUo15Vi7wM%253A%252CRgxtj4IHCOmgbM%252C_&usg=__1kbqxaeI24MdUrT56-GgIasZI0s%
3D&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiEyO2F17fbAhXEwLwKHQBEDMwQ9QEIMDAD#imgrc=qfCKxiK1JPgkeM:
Worksheet 4
My Own S.M.A.R.T. Goal
Set your own SMART Goal by filling-in the table below.
https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=growth+mindset+worksheet&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH767&tbm=isch&source=iu&ictx=1&fir=-W3swUo15Vi7wM%253A%252CRgxtj4IHCOmgbM%252C_&usg=__1kbqxaeI24MdUrT56-GgIasZI0s%
3D&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiEyO2F17fbAhXEwLwKHQBEDMwQ9QEIMDAD#imgdii=Vfx1xdsL2ZUjpM:&imgrc=qfCKxiK1JPgkeM:
Bandura, Albert (2001), Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective (PDF). Annual Review of
Psychology, 52 (1): 1–26, doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.1
Dweck, C. (2007). Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. New York: Penguin Random House LLC.
Linville, R. (2009). Growth Mindset for Kids: We All Have Brain Power!. Washington: American
Psychological Association.
Locke, E. A., Shaw, K. N., Saari, L. M., & Latham, G. P. (1981). Goal setting and task performance: 1969–
1980. Psychological Bulletin, 90(1), 125-152.
Luszczynska, A. & Schwarzer, R. (2005). Social cognitive theory. In M. Conner & P. Norman. Predicting
health behaviour(2nd ed. rev. ed.). Buckingham, England: Open University Press.
Petty & Tanjula (2014). Motivating First-Generation Students to Academic Success and College
Completion. College Student Journal, 48 (1) :133-140. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?
id=EJ1034167
Schunk, D. (2003). Self-Efficacy for Reading and Writing: Influence of Modeling, Goal-Setting, and
Self-Evaluation. Reading and Writing Quarterly. 19: 159–172. doi:10.1080/10573560308219.
Stajkovic, A. D. & Luthans, F. (1998). "Self-efficacy and work-related performance: A meta-

analysis". Psychological Bulletin. 2: 240–261. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.124.2.240.
Yolles, M.I, Fink, G., 2014, Personality, pathology and mindsets: part 1-3. Vol. 43 n.(1)
Dictionary of Psychology, 2009
Excerpt in the Activate taken from http://study.com/academy/lesson/self-efficacy-definition-theory-

quiz.html
Mindset Instrument taken from http://mindsetonline.com/testyourmindset/step1.php
The Five Principles of Mindset lifted from https://www.mindtools.com
Two types of mindsets as discussed by Dr. Melissa Oden retrieved January 13, 2017 from
https:www.study.com/academy/lesson/fixed-vs-growth-mindset.html
LESSON 3
TAKING CHARGE OF ONE’S HEALTH
Lesson Objectives:
a. Identify personal stressors and individual responses.
b. Examine effective and ineffective coping responses.
c. Develop a self-care plan.
ACTIVATE
Stressful Day
Try to examine your everyday life. Identify the factors that cause you stress and write them
according to categories.
When What Stresses me Because Of This I Feel To Overcome This, I Can Others Can
Before
School
In
School
After
School
In the
Evening
During
Week-
ends
In not more than two sentences, write your own definition of stress on the space provided.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
EMPOWER
How do you know when you are stressed? As a student, you probably have an unbalanced list of
things that stress you out - ranging from school-related stuff to personal worries about
one’s self, family or relationships. Although some stress can be positive, an extreme amount of it
can cause negative effects on one’s health. Some might experience a lot of physiological pain like
headaches, stomachaches, or back and neck aches, or some might feel irritable, tired, anxious, and
depressed. While some eat more, others find eating difficult when they are stressed. In this lesson,
we will examine where stress comes from in our lives and the details of how all sorts of stress
arises so that we can develop a healthy lifestyle by learning how to handle and cope with it.
Stress was first described in the 1930s by Hans Selye (Folkman, 2013). During his second year of
medical school, Selye observed that his patients, who suffered from different illnesses, displayed
common symptoms such as fatigue, appetite disturbance, sleep problems, mood swings,
gastrointestinal problems, and diminished concentration and recall. He called this collection of
symptoms — this stress disease—stress syndrome, as the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). He
also described stress as “the syndrome of being ill” (Selye, 1983). For this reason, he theorized on
how stress influences the coping ability of a person to the pressures of injury and disease by looking
at body responses to the stresses of being ill.
According to Hill (2001), in his book entitled, “A Level Psychology Through Diagrams”, stress has
been regarded as: 1) an internal bodily response, which can be described as an automatic biological
reaction to external stimuli; 2) an external stimuli that threatens the physical well-being of the
person; and 3) an interaction or transaction between stimulus and response that depends upon the
cognitive appraisal of the situation wherein stress results only if the individual perceives a mismatch
between the demands of the situation and their ability to cope with it. Lazarus and Folkman (1984)
defines stress as “a pattern of negative physiological states psychological responses occurring
in situations where people perceive threats to their well-being which they may be unable to meet.”
Stress as defined by Selye (1983) refers to the non-specific response of the body to any demand
whether it is caused by or results in pleasant or unpleasant conditions. Others define stress as the
physiological and psychological responses to a significant or unexpected change or disruption in
one’s life brought by real or imagined factors or events (Hill, 2001). In short, stress is the
psychological and physiological response to any real or imagined disruptions, demands, stimulations,
or changes in life.
As mentioned earlier, stress can be both positive or negative. It is our response to stress or the
way by which we manage it that makes it unhealthy. Bad stress, or distress (from the Greek dys,
meaning bad, as in displeasure) is a stress that results from unpleasant events or conditions (as in
a loss of a friend or a job). Distress can cause anxiety, making an individual feel overwhelmed and
unable to cope, which leads to a decrease in performance, and even to mental and physical health
problems. This is in contrast to good stress, or eustress (from the Greek eu, meaning good, as in
euphoria) that results from pleasant events or conditions, which can motivate you, improve your
performance, excite you and is manageable. Examples of this can be participating in a school
organization or having a child. According to Hill (2001), stressful situations that are either positive
or negative cause the body to react unexpectedly or may bring the person to a highly emotional
experience. If the duration of stress is relatively short, the overall effect is insignificant because
the body will rest, renew itself, and return to its normal state. However, a long-lasting stress
caused by simultaneous multiple stressors (or factors that cause us stress) and when managed
ineffectively can take a toll on one’s body. Stress is actually normal and healthy at a certain level
(Folkman and Moskowitz, 2000). As much as possible, we do not want to eliminate all stress
because it can be beneficial at times as it aids us in adapting and functioning well in certain
situations. For example, when we feel stressed out, we are more eager to accomplish a task (as in
cramming).
(Adapted from: A Level Psychology Through Diagrams by Abrahame Hill, 2001)
a. Stress and Learning

People who are highly anxious tend to perform better at simple tasks, but perform less at
difficult ones (such as reasoning activities or timed tests). When you are more stressed or anxious,
you ability to concentrate, recall information, and master problem-solving activities is reduced.
b. Test Anxiety
Ever heard of the term, ’mental block’? You knew that you are well-prepared for a test because
you studied so hard but when you see the first test question, your mind suddenly goes blank. So you
try harder to think, but the more you do this, the more nervous and distressed you feel and you just
cannot think clearly.
c. Speech Anxiety
Also known as fear of public speaking, this is one of the most common anxiety disorders. Since
students are frequently required to give oral presentations, expected to engage in class discussion,
and graded on class-participation points, this can present a problem for some.
d. Math Anxiety
This is an intense emotional feeling of anxiety that some people have about their ability to
understand math. People who suffer from math anxiety feel that they are incapable of performing
well in activities and classes that involve math. Typically, people with math anxiety have the potential
to perform well in math — the anxiety is more of a psychological, rather than an intellectual,
problem. However, since math anxiety interferes with a person’s ability to learn math, it can create
an intellectual problem.
Putting pressure on ourselves like setting high expectations for ourselves, or being self-critical
can also generate stress within ourselves. These stressors are our internal worries, criticisms, and
negative self-talk which are common sources of stress in their lives.
a. Procrastination
Procrastinating is postponing something that is necessary to do to reach a goal. Sometimes,
it is considered as a time-management problem. In short term, procrastination helps us feel
better because delaying doing things that we do not want to do tend to temporarily ease our
anxiety and discomfort. But in the long run, procrastination usually leads to bigger problems and
more work. For example, putting off working on your school project may feel good at the moment,
but when the deadline is almost up, and you do not get to sleep at all to finish your project, your
pleasurable feelings soon turn sour.
b. Perfectionism
Perfection is an unattainable goal that is why it leads to undue stress. By setting the standard
at perfect, you set yourself up to fail. Perfectionists tend to be their own worst critic - they are
harder on themselves than anyone else is on them, and they are also critical of others. They never
feel good enough and often feel out of control in their lives. People who are perfectionists focus on
what they have not accomplished or have not done right rather than on what they have completed
or have done well. Making mistakes feels especially humiliating to persons who are perfectionistic,
and they tend to feel a strong sense of shame and low self-esteem when someone catches them in
error.
c. Problems with Goal Setting and Time Management
When students do not understand why they chose their college course, or have not yet found a
direction in their lives, they tend to lose their focus, feel pressured and quit. Some feel stressed out
because they have a difficulty setting their priorities and goals, balancing academic life with social
life, and finding time for sleeping, eating, exercising, and working along with studying.
a. Homesickness
This is one of the most common problems facing college students—which is understandable given
that they are separated from friends and family and learning to live in an entirely new environment
is a bit stressful. Your sense of safety is disrupted because you may be missing your friends and
family at home with whom you normally share important events with.
b. Relationship Problems
Along with homesickness, another very common stressor for students is relationship problems
especially when you are separated by long distances from your best friends or romantic partners.
c. Balancing Work, Home, and School
This is common to students who are working or who have children. Of course, balancing time
for school, children, work, and household responsibilities adds stress to a student’s life.
Light, sounds, smells, air quality, and temperature can all affect your stress level. Some people
feel more stressed if their environment is disorganized or messy, and feel a need to clean it up
before they can concentrate or relax. Artificial light and certain colors around us, the daily noise
that we encounter such as a construction going-on, or a crowded room, or air that is too cold or
too warm can be a source of stress. Situations in which one does not have control over one’s
environment — such as being stuck in a traffic jam, in line, or in an elevator — can also be stressful.
Your stress level might increase all the more if you do not have control over the noise, temperature
level, or appearance of your environment.
Conflict with a co-worker, unrealistic work loads, tight deadlines, last-minute projects and
difficult bosses can also cause stress and job exhaustion. How do you know that you are already
burnout at work? Either you come in late for work and leave early, you frequently call in for a sick
leave, you feel unmotivated and apathetic at work, you withdraw from our colleagues, you watch the
clock during work hours and do other things such as surf the net or chat online.
Destructive computer viruses, hundreds of junk mail ads sent through e-mail, instant messages,
cell phones, and voicemail, and increasing worry about identity theft have brought new meaning to
stress. Spending an excessive amount of time deleting these messages or losing hours of work on
one’s computer because of a virus or a worm can create a sense of powerlessness and
hopelessness. When word spreads that a new virus is circulating, people become increasingly anxious.
They can become angry with friends, coworkers, and family members for accidentally spreading a
virus to their computers.
(Adapted from: A Level Psychology Through Diagrams by Abrahame Hill, 2001)
Once a stressor is at work, our body respond in remarkable similar, predictable ways
(Schneiderman, et. Al, 2005). For example, when your teacher asked you to recite, or give a speech
for the class, you may feel that your heart rate increases, your throat becomes dry, your palms are
sweaty, and you feel lightheaded, dizzy, and nauseous. The same thing goes for an individual who lost
a loved one, or discovered that his or her partner wanted a break-up, he or might experience simi-
lar sensations. It is clear that different stressors are able to evoke common physical reactions,
which Selye (1983) described in his General Adaptation Syndrome Model (GAS). To Selye, the human
body moves through three stages when confronted by stressors, as described below.
Phase 1: Alarm Stage

When exposed to any event that is perceived as threatening or dangerous, the body immediately
prepares for difficulty, entering the first phase known as the alarm stage. The involuntary changes
as controlled by the hormonal and the nervous systems, activate the fight or flight response (which
means, in situations in which you must react immediately to danger, it is advisable to either fight off
the danger or flee). For example, you thought that your final exam is scheduled today but then you
realized that it was actually scheduled yesterday. You may begin to experience fear, panic, anxiety,
anger, depression, and restlessness. Refer to the figure on the next page for the physiological
reactions (or involuntary changes) to a stressor as controlled by the hormonal and nervous systems.
Phase 2: Resistance Stage

The second stage occurs when the body attempts to reestablish its equilibrium or internal
balance. Since the body is geared for survival, and because staying in the alarm stage for a
prolonged amount of time is not conducive for the body to function properly, it will resist the threat
or attempt to resolve the problem and reduce the intensity of stress to a more manageable level.
Specific organ systems, such as the cardiovascular and digestive systems, become the focus of the
body’s response. During this phase, you try to calm yourself down and relieve the stress on your
body: you might deny the situation, withdraw and isolate yourself from others, and shut down your
emotions. Thus, in the previous example, you may not tell anyone about missing the exam, and then
tell yourself that you do not care about that class anyway, and go back home instead.
Physiological reactions (or involuntary changes) to a stressor as controlled by the hormonal and nervous
systems adapted from A Level Psychology Through Diagrams by Abrahame Hill, 2001)
Phase 3: Exhaustion Stage

Your ability to move from the alarm stage to a less damaging resistance stage determines the
effect that the stressor has on your physical and psychological health. As you gain more control and
balance is reestablished, you can begin to recover from the stress. The length of time, the energy,
and the effort required to accomplish recovery determines how exhausted your body becomes as a
result of the stressor. Of course, the longer the body is under stress and out of balance, the
more negative the effect will be on your body. Long-term exposure to a stressor or coping with
multiple stressors at the same time often results in overloading your system. Specific organs and
body systems that were called on during the resistance stage may not be able to resist a stressor
indefinitely. When all the psychological and physical resources we rely on to deal with stress are
used up, an exhaustion stage results, and the stress-producing hormones such as adrenaline
increase again. This is when chronic stress and serious illnesses can begin to develop, and the
individual may even develop clinical depression.
It is human nature to seek a solution to

alleviate the level of stress that the body is
experiencing. Since our bodies cannot function
properly for a long period of fight or flight
response without developing serious illnesses, we
naturally strive to resolve the stress for survival.
Managing stress may be done in a positive or
negative way. A number of negative ways of
dealing with stress are quite common and often
harmful. Some people turn to alcohol or drugs to
https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=stress+management&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH767PH767&source=ln
numb their feelings and avoid their problems. ms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi26bCTtr3bAhUDJ5QKHbTHBqUQ_AUICigB&biw=1242&bih=602#imgrc=l7KJFqHJw3x9EM:
Smoking is also a way of relieving stress. Many people use food to comfort themselves, some avoid
difficult tasks and other stressful situations and some people use sleep as a means of escape.
Physical Aspects of Stress Management

This involves meeting your basic needs of sleep, exercise, and nutrition. It is recommended that
you develop healthy sleep habits so that you can get enough rest without sedatives and stimulants.
Exercising aerobically at least three times a week for 20 to 30 minutes has been found to manage
stress effectively (Hill, 2001). Eating too much or too little is not an effective way to manage stress
and can eventually lead to serious health problems, such as obesity, eating disorders, diabetes, and
hypertension.
Social Aspects of Stress Management

Make time for fun and play. Like exercise, laughter increases the release of endorphins and
requires you to breathe deeply, and so having humor in your life is an essential part of stress
management. Make sure to have adequate social interactions. Hugging and human contact have
also been demonstrated as having a significant effect in reducing the harmful physical effects of
stress. Try to participate in social activities such as social organizations, sports, or just talking with
friends since these activities can give you the break you need to rest your mind and focus on
something other than work. You may also want to own a pet to reduce stress.
Environmental Aspects of Stress Management

To effectively manage your stress, you need to take into consideration environmental stressors
such as noise level, amount of light, and aesthetic quality of the space you inhabit. Natural light
tends to elevate your mood. Having plants or photos of friends and family around your living and
workspace can also alleviate stress. Using different aromas or odors therapeutically, can lower
stress levels. When you breathe in the oils, they send a direct message to your brain via your
olfactory nerves, where they can then affect the endocrine and the hormonal systems via the
hypothalamus. Spend time with positive people, or engage yourself in stimulating but not beyond
your abilities to keep your stress at a moderate level.
Psychological Aspects of Stress Management

Relax, take a deep breath, use guided imagery or visualization and meditate — these are a few
of the things that you can do psychologically to lower your stress level.
Cognitive Aspects of Stress Management

Improve your time-management, do some cognitive self-talk (refers to what we tell ourselves),
avoid procrastination and fight perfectionism.
Hill (2001) recommends the following realistic approach to managing stress:

1. Anticipate problems and see yourself as a problem solver. Each problem that we encounter is
unique but most probably, it can be similar to the ones we encountered in the past. Learn to use
these past experiences to recognize ways to address new problems.
2. Search for solutions. Obviously, we cannot always find the complete solution to our problem but
we can act on a partial solution at times. Resolving some parts of a problem can give us more
time to focus on the remaining difficult ones later on.
3. Take control of your own future. Stay focused on accomplishing your goals. Try to be proactive
and optimistic so you can take charge of your life. This way, you can also recognize the capabilities
that you were unaware of in the past.
4. Avoid self-doubt and self-blame. Your problem is difficult enough to handle. Do not extend your
difficulties further by being too negative about yourself.
5. Visualize success. Concentrate on necessary and possible things only to ensure success.
According to Hill (2001), the very act of “imaging,” seeing oneself performing skillfully, has proven
beneficial in different performance-oriented activities.
6. Accept the unchangeable. Let go of the things that you have no control over. Remember, you
can only do so much. Focus on taking control of what you can and letting go of the rest.
7. Live each day well. Celebrate special occasions and try new things. Learn from your mistakes and
recognize your accomplishments.
8. Allow for renewal. Make time for yourself and take advantage of opportunities to pursue new and
fulfilling relationships. Foster growth in physical, emotional, intellectual, psychological, social, and
spiritual well-being. Initial renewal in one of these dimensions may serve as a springboard for
renewal in others.
9. Accept mistakes. Everybody makes mistakes. Both you and others will make mistakes. Recognize
that these can cause anger, and learn to avoid feelings of hostility. Mistakes, carefully evaluated,
can serve as the basis for even greater knowledge and more likely success in those activities not yet
undertaken. Keep life simple. Keep the demands of life as orderly and manageable as you can. Just
as adding too many appliances to an electrical circuit will quickly overload it and cause a power
outage, excess demands and commitments added to our daily schedule can quickly burn out our
psyches. Learning to prioritize and postpone activities is key to building a productive and enjoyable
life.
As you can see, there are many different aspects to consider in managing stress. This is why it
is essential that you think about how you can effectively manage your stress level more and find the
stress-management techniques that would be most beneficial for you.
Worksheet 1
Student Stress Checklist
What can you say about the number of stressors that you were able to identify? ______________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
How well do you think you are managing your stress? Make a mark in a continuum where you think
you fit.
0..…………...…..1..…………...…..2..…………..…..3..…………...…..4..…………...…..5.…………...…..6
Not at all Very Well
Worksheet 2
Am I a Perfectionist?
Allow yourself to take risks and make mistakes.

It’s okay to be a perfectionist at times but
try to overcome an unhealthy degree of
perfectionism to avoid stress.
Worksheet 3
What Do You Know about Managing Stress?
Shade the circle that corresponds to your answer. True False
1. Having stress is negative, and so stress should be eliminated

from your life.
2. Time management is the reason most college students cite for

their academic success or failure.
3. Laughing is important to managing stress.
4. Different colors, sounds, and smells can affect your stress

level.
5. Breathing is the key to stress management.
6. You can make up for not sleeping enough during the week by
sleeping more or on the weekends, and it is the same as
getting an average of seven to nine hours of sleep per night
over a week’s time.
7. Exposing yourself to stressful situations can sometimes help you

reduce your stress.
Worksheet 4
What did I do wrong?
1. What are some problems with stress described in this lesson that you have experienced?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Think back to stressful times in your life. What were some positive ways you coped, and what were
some negative things you did to cope?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Write your SMART goals for this identified stressful situation below.
S-
M-
A-
R-
T-
Folkman, S., (2013). Stress: appraisal and coping. In Encyclopedia of behavioral medicine. Springer
New York.
Folkman, S.; Moskowitz, J. (2000). "Stress, Positive Emotion, and Coping". Current Directions in
Psychological Science. 9 (4): 115–118. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00073.
Hill, A. (2001). A Level Psychology Through Diagrams. London: Oxford University Press.
Schneiderman, N.; Ironson, G.; Siegel, S. (2005). Stress and health: psychological, behavioral, and
biological determinants. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology. 1: 607–628. doi:10.1146/
annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144141
Locke, E., Shaw, K., Saari, L., & Latham, G. (1981). Goal setting and task performance: 1969–
1980. Psychological Bulletin, 90(1), 125-152.
Selye, H, (1975). "Implications of Stress Concept". New York State Journal of Medicine. 75: 2139–2145.
Selye, H. (1965). The Stress Syndrome. The American Journal of Nursing, 65 (3): 97-99. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3453119 last November 27, 2017.
Bessie L. Cruz, Ed. D. has been a faculty member of the
Department of Social Arts and Humanities of Centro Escolar
University for 35 years now. She finished her post graduate
degree in Educational Management and Planning at Manuel L.
Quezon University in 2016. She took her graduate studies at
Olivarez College, finishing Master of Education in 2000. She
finished her tertiary education at Centro Escolar University in
1979 with a degree in Food and Nutrition.
A passionate educator who willingly engages herself in continuous

learning for the students, she aspires to educate more people,
including out-of-school youth.

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Lesson 1 The Philosophy of the Self …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 2

Lesson 2 The Sociology and Anthropology of the Self …………………………………….…………………………… 15

Lesson 3 The Psychology of the Self …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 29

UNIT 2: Unpacking the Self

Lesson 1: The Physical Self ………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..… 47

Lesson 2: The Sexual Self…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….… 59

Lesson 3: The Economic Self ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 95

Lesson 4: The Spiritual Self…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………… 104

Lesson 5: The Political Self …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 117

Lesson 6: The Digital Self …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….… 130

UNIT 3: Managing and Caring for the Self

Lesson 1: Learn to become a Better Learner ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 139

Lesson 2: Setting Goals for Success ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 156

Lesson 3: Taking charge of one’s Health ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 170

Box your answer

2. Why do you think you feel that way?

3. Do you really know yourself?

4. Do you want to know yourself?

Most of what we know about Socrates come from the

What happened to Socrates dismayed his friends and

Thomas Aquinas, in his theory of self-knowledge, claimed that all

Rene Descartes is known to be the “Father of Modern

Identity has been defined in so many ways but for philosophers,

David Hume is known for his lack of self theory. He held to

therefore, sharp. This is an impression and is wild because it is

Several philosophers during Immanuel Kant's time take into

While many philosophers support, “I think, therefore I am,” Gilbert

When it comes to discussing the mind, many Western philosophers

Socrates Plato Augustine

Locke Hume Kant

Ryle Churchland Merleau-Ponty

Ayers, M. (1993). Locke: Epistemology and Ontology. New York: Routledge.

Carbone, M. (2004). The Thinking of the Sensible Merleau-Ponty’s A Philosophy. Evanston:

Hofstadter, A. (1951). The Journal of Philosophy, vol.48,No.9, pp.257-270. DOI: 10.2307/2021599

Maxwell, M. (2013). The Fundamentals of Education: A Socratic Perspective on the Cultivation of

Rozemond, M. (1998). Descartes’ Dualism. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Schofield, M. (2006). Plato: Political Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

or about your life?___________________________________________________________________________

realize that we make decisions about who we are, based on

are made about an individual. This can be

seen in a situation where an aviation

individuals to communicate with and respond to each other, the self is

themselves in different ways.

the ’we’ idea, views the self in relation to

different life experiences.

How has your family

What makes you say

How has your age,

Why do you think you

Have you overcome

If you are to change