Electronics Circuits Analysis and Design: Prepared By: Engr. Maurine C. Panergo AY 2020-2021

Prepared by:
Engr. Maurine
C. Panergo
AY 2020-2021
ELECTRONICS
CIRCUITS ANALYSIS
and DESIGN
Module
ELECTRONICS
CIRCUITS
ANALYSIS
and DESIGN
MODULE
Prepared by: Engr. Maurine C. Panergo

AY 2020-2021
1
Southern Luzon State University
College of Engineering
ELECTRONICS CIRCUITS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
COURSE GUIDE
Course Code : ECE02
Pre-requisite : The basic prerequisites for this module is Electronics 1 Electronic

Devices and Circuits that one has learnt. In particular, knowledge of the following
courses are essential for one to follow and understand the module effectively... As a
general requirement, you need the knowledge of basic electronics and mathematics.
Co-requisite : ECE02L
Course Description: High frequency transistor models; analysis of transistor circuits;

multistage amplifier, feedback, differential amplifiers and
operational amplifiers; integrated circuit families (RTL, DTL, TTL,
ECL, MOS)
Credit : 3 units, 3 hours per week
Course Outline :
Week Topics
1 Orientation/Review of Course/ Assessment of the Different Types of
Learners
2 Introduction and Review of Logarithms and Decibels
3 BJT Lower Critical Frequency Response
4 JFET Lower Critical Frequency Response
5 BJT Higher Critical Frequency Response
6 JFET Higher Critical Frequency Response
7 Cascade and Cascode Connection
8 CMOS Circuit, Darlington and Feedback Pair Connection
9 Current Mirrors and Current Source
10 Differential Amplifier
11-12 Operational Amplifiers
13-14 Feedback Systems
15 Oscillator Circuits
16 Filters
17 Transistor Fabrication
18 Designing Integrated Circuit Families
2
Required Reading (Textbook):
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory by Boylestad and Nashelsky (11th edition),
2013
Suggested Readings and References:
a. Electronic Devices by Floyd (10th edition), 2012

b. Basic Electronics by Grob (11th edition), 2011
c. Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory by Boylestad and Nashelsky (11th edition),
2013
Course Requirements:
Written exam, Quizzes, reports, recitations, assignments and seatwork
Grading System:
The minimum requirement for a passing grade is 60% of the total scores from the
following:
Major exam = 40%
Quizzes = 30%
Assignment, Seat work, Recitation = 15%
Attendance = 5%
Others = 10%
100%
Aside from academic deficiency, other grounds for a failing grade are:
• Grave misconduct or cheating during examinations.
• Unexcused absences of more than 20% of required number of meetings per
term.
• A failing academic standing.
Classroom Policies:
a. Respect self, others and learning environment.
b. Utilize time efficiently and stay on task.
c. Learn and be open to new learning.
d. Have proper manners.
3
PRE-ASSESSMENT
Are you ready to learn ECE02?
The pre-assessment is a way to determine how much one remembers and what one knows
about electronics circuits. It is to orient the mind of the learner of the readiness and
challenges work expected to be cover during the course. The intention is not to
discourage learners but rather to motivate and familiarize in the course.
SELF- EVALUTION QUESTIONS:

1. The main use of an emitter follower is as:
a. Power amplifier
b. Impedance matching
c. Low-input impedance
d. Follower of base signal
2. The smallest of the four h-parameters of a transistor is:
a. hi
b. hr
c. ho
d. hf
3. The voltage gain of a given common-source JFET amplifier depends on its:
a. Input impedance
b. Amplification factor
c. Dynamic drain resistance
d. Drain load resistance
4. The extremely high input impedance of a MOSFET is primarily due to the
a. Absence of its channel
b. Negative gate-source voltage
c. Depletion of current carriers
d. Extremely small leakage current of its gate capacitor
5. A FETs have similar properties to
a. PNP transistor
b. NPN transistor
c. Thermionic valves
d. Unijunction Transistor
6. Which of the following biasing techniques produces the most unstable Q point?
a. voltage divider bias.
b. emitter bias.
c. collector bias.
d. base bias.
7. In a JFET, the control electrode is usually the
a. source.
b. emitter.
c. drain.
d. base.
e. gate.
4
8. The beta of a bipolar transistor is another name for its
a. current amplification factor.
b. voltage amplification factor.
c. power amplification factor.
d. maximum amplification frequency.
e. optimum amplification frequency.
9. Which of the following bipolar transistor circuits can, in theory, provide the most
amplification?
a. Common emitter
b. Common base
c. Common collector
d. Common gate
e. Common drain
10. In the operation of a PNP bipolar transistor, which of the following is normal concerning
the emitter and collector voltages?
a. The collector is positive relative to the emitter.
b. The collector is at the same voltage as the emitter.
c. The collector is negative relative to the emitter.
d. The collector can be either positive or negative relative to the emitter.
e. The collector must be at ground potential.
11. A transistor has how many doped regions?
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
12. What is one important thing transistors do?
a. Amplify weak signals
b. Rectify line voltage
c. Regulate voltage
d. Emit light
13. In an npn transistor, the majority carriers in the base are
a. Free electrons
b. Holes
c. Neither
d. Both
14. The barrier potential across each silicon depletion layer is
a. 0
b. 0.3 V
c. 0.7 V
d. 1 V
15. In a transistor amplifier, what happens to the collector voltage VC, when the collector
current IC increases?
a. V C increases.
b. V C stays the same.
c. V C decreases.
d. It cannot be determined.
Answer Key:
1. B 2. C 3. D 4. C 5. B
6. D 7. E 8. A 9. A 10. C
11. C 12. A 13. B 14. C 15. C
5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No.
TOPIC 1
AC ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
TOPIC 2
FREQUENCY RESPONSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
TOPIC 3
COMPOUND CONFIGURATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
TOPIC 4
POWER AMPLIFIERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
TOPIC 5
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
TOPIC 6
OP-AMPS APPLICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
TOPIC 7
FEEDBACK SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
TOPIC 8
OSCILLATORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
TOPIC 9
FILTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
TOPIC 10
INTEGRATED CIRCUIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6
TOPIC 1
AC
ANALYSIS
7
AC ANALYSIS
Overview:
To visualize the operation of a transistor in an amplifier circuit, it is often useful to

represent the device by a model circuit. A transistor model circuit uses various internal
transistor parameters to represent its operation.
Objectives:
• Become familiar with re and hybrid model

• Learn to use the equivalent model to find the important ac parameters for an
amplifier.
• Solve the general ac characteristics in a variety of BJT and FET configurations
• Develop some skill in troubleshooting ac amplifier networks
We all know that in circuits involves numbers and graphs. For the amplifier circuits, it
was frequency that is normally permitted ignoring the capacitive elements. Frequency will
represent as the sinusoidal signal in a transistor network. Our first concern is the ac
analysis, whether it is small-signal or large-signal. There are three models commonly used
in ac analysis of transistor networks: the re model, the hybrid ᥰ model, and the hybrid
equivalent model.
BJT Transistor Modeling

➢ A model is an equivalent circuit that represents the AC characteristics of the
transistor.
➢ Transistor small signal amplifiers can be considered linear for most application.
➢ A model is the best approximate of the actual behavior of a semiconductor
device under specific operating conditions, including circuit elements
Transistor Models
✓ re- model – any region of operation, fails to account for output impedance, less
accuracy
✓ Hybrid model – limited to a particular operating conditions, more accuracy
The re Transistor Model
8
BJTs are basically current-controlled devices, therefore the re model uses a diode
and a current source to duplicate the behavior of the transistor. One disadvantage to this
model is its sensitivity to the DC level. This model is designed for specific circuit
conditions.
Defining the important parameters: Demonstrating the reason for the defined
direction and polarities:
Common-Base Configuration
We know that from diode equation re is defined as follows
Applying KVL to input and out circuit of figure we will get

Input impedance
Output impedance
Voltage gain
Current gain
9
Common-Collector Configuration
Input impedance:
Z i = (  + 1) re
Output impedance: Z o = re || RE
RE
AV =
Voltage gain: R E + re
Ai =  + 1
Current gain:
Common-Emitter Configuration
The diode re model can be replaced by the resistor re.
26 mV
I e = ( + 1)I b  I b
re =
Ie
Applying KVL to input and out circuit of figure we will get
10
Common-Emitter Fixed bias Configuration
• The input is applied to the base
• The output is from the collector
• High input impedance
• Low output impedance
• High voltage and current gain
• Phase shift between input and output is 180
re model
Note in the figure that the common ground of the dc supply and the transistor emitter
terminal permits the relocation of RB and RC in parallel with the input and output sections
of the transistor, respectively. In addition, note the placement of the important network
parameters Zi, Zo, Ii, and Io on the redrawn network. Substituting the re model for the
common-emitter configuration of the figure will result in the network of other figure from
the above re model.
Input impedance:
Z i = R B ||  re
Current Io  R B ro
Z i   re R E  10 re gain: A i = I = (r + R )(R +  r )
i o C B e
Z o = R C || rO A i   ro  10R C , R B  10 re
Output
impedance:Z o  R C ro  10R C
Voltage gain:
V (R || r ) Current gain from voltage gain:
Av = o = − C o Zi
Vi re Ai = −A v
R RC
A v = − C ro  10R C
re
Example: (From Textbook- Boylestad)

a. Determine r e .
b. Find Z i (with ro = ꝏΩ).
c. Calculate Z o (with ro = ꝏΩ).
d. Determine A v (with ro = ꝏΩ).
e. Repeat parts (c) and (d) including ro = 50 kΩ in all calculations and compare results.
11
Common-Emitter Voltage-Divider Bias
Input impedance:
R  = R 1 || R 2
Z i = R  ||  re
Output impedance:
Current Z o = R C || ro
: Io  R ro R
Ai = = Z o C ro  10R C
I
Voltage gain:
i (ro + R C )(R  +  re )
I R 
A i = oA = Vo = r− R C || ro
o 10R C
Ii v R  + 
Vi er re
Io Vo R
Ai = Av
= r 10R
oV
 − rC
C , R 10r
ro  10R C
Ii i ee
Current gain from voltage gain:

12
Zi Southern Luzon State University
Ai = −A v College of Engineering
RC
Example: Select a minimum value for the emitter bypass capacitor, C2 in the figure if the
amplifier must operate over a frequency range from 200Hz to 10kHz. (From the
textbook Floyd)
Common-Emitter Emitter-Bias Configuration
13
Example: (From Textbook- Boylestad)
14
Emitter-Follower Configuration
• This is also known as the common-collector configuration.
• The input is applied to the base and the output is taken from the emitter.
• There is no phase shift between input and output.
15
H – Parameter model
• The equivalent circuit of a transistor can be dram using simple approximation by
retaining its essential features.
• These equivalent circuits will aid in analyzing transistor circuits easily and rapidly.
Two port devices & Network Parameters
A transistor can be treated as a two part network. The terminal behaviour of any
two part network can be specified by the terminal voltages V1 & V2 at parts 1 & 2
respectively and current i1 and i2, entering parts 1 & 2, respectively, as shown in figure.
Hybrid parameters (or) h – parameters

If the input current i1 and output Voltage V2 are takes as independent variables, the input
voltage V1 and output current i2 can be written as
V1 = h11 i1 + h12 V2 i2 = h21 i1 + h22 V2

16
The four hybrid parameters h11, h12, h21 and h22 are defined as follows.
The dimensions of h – parameters are as follows:

h11 - Ω
h22 – mhos
h12, h21 – dimension less.
as the dimensions are not alike, (ie) they are hybrid in nature, and these parameters are
called as hybrid parameters.
i= 11 = input ; o = 22 = output ;
f = 21 = forward transfer ; r = 12 = Reverse transfer.
Notations used in transistor circuits:-
hi = h11 = Short circuit input impedance

h0 = h22 = Open circuit output admittance
hr = h12 = Open circuit reverse voltage transfer ratio
hf = h21= Short circuit forward current Gain.
The Hybrid Model for Two-port
Network:-
V1 = h11 i1 + h12 V2
I2 = h1 i1 + h22 V2
V1 = h1 i1 + hr V2
I2 = hf i1 + h0 V2
Transistor Hybrid model
Essentially, the transistor model is a three terminal two – port system.

• The h – parameters, however, will change with each configuration.
• To distinguish which parameter has been used or which is available, a
second subscript has been added to the h – parameter notation.
• For the common – base configuration, the lowercase letter b is added, and
for common emitter and common collector configurations, the letters e
and c are used respectively.
• Normally ℎr is a relatively small quantity, its removal is approximated by ℎr
and ℎr Vo = 0, resulting in a short – circuit equivalent.
• The resistance determined by 1/ℎo is often large enough to be ignored in
comparison to a parallel load, permitting its replacement by an open –
circuit equivalent.
17
CE Transistor Circuit
To Derive the Hybrid model for transistor consider the CE circuit shown in
figure.The variables are iB, ic, vB(=vBE) and vc(=vCE). iB and vc are considered as
independent variables.
Then
Making a Taylor’s series expansion around the quiescent point IB, VC and
neglecting higher order terms, the following two equations are obtained.
The partial derivatives are taken keeping the collector voltage or base current
constant as indicated by the subscript attached to the derivative.
18
The above equations define the h-parameters of the transistor in CE configuration.
The same theory can be extended to transistors in other configurations.
Hybrid Model and Equations for the transistor in three different configurations are
given below.
Comparison of H parameters
19
Analysis of transistor amplifier using h parameters.
For analysis of transistor amplifier we have to determine the following terms:

• Current Gain
• Voltage gain
• Input impedance
• Output impedance
Current gain:
For the transistor amplifier stage, Ai is defined as the ratio of output to input currents.
Input Impedence:
The impedence looking into the amplifier input terminals ( 1,1' ) is the input impedence
Zi
20
Voltage gain:
The ratio of output voltage to input voltage gives the gain of the transistors.
Output Admittance: It is defined
Simplified Hybrid model is identical to the re model is as shown in fig. refer re model
analysis
Hybrid ᥰ model
• The hybrid-pi or Giacoletto model of common emitter transistor model is given
below. The resistance components in this circuit can be obtained from the low
frequency h-parameters.
• For high frequency analysis transistor is replaced by high frequency hybrid-pi
model and voltage gain, current gain and input impedance are determined.
21
This is more accurate model for high frequency effects. The capacitors that appear are
stray parasitic capacitors between the various junctions of the device. These capacitances
come into picture only at high frequencies.
The transconductance, gm, is related to the dynamic (differential) resistance, re, of the
forward-biased emitter-base junction:
The resistance rbb' is the base spreading resistance.

The resistance rb'c and the capacitance Cb'c (Cc ) represent the dynamic (differential)
resistance and the capacitance of the reverse-biased collector-base junction.
Using transconductance:
22
Summary of Transistor small signal analysis
23
➢ FETs provide:
Excellent voltage gain
High input impedance
Low-power consumption
Good frequency range
FET Small-Signal Model

Transconductance
The relationship of a change in ID to the corresponding change in VGS is called

transconductance
Transconductance is denoted gm and given by:
Graphical Determination of gm
Mathematical Definitions of gm
I D 2I DSS  VGS 
gm = gm = 1 − 
VGS VP  VP 
Where VGS =0V 2I DSS

g m0 =
VP
 V 
g m = g m0 1 − GS 
 VP 
Where
VGS ID  
1− = V ID
VP I DSS g m = g m0  1 − GS  = g m0
 VP  I DSS
FET Impedance
Input impedance
24
Output Impedance:
Where
yos= admittance parameter listed on FET specification sheets
FET AC Equivalent Circuit
• Common-Source (CS) Fixed-Bias Circuit

The input is on the gate and the output is on the drain
There is a 180 degree phase shift between input and output
Common-Source (CS) Self-Bias Circuit

This is a common-source amplifier configuration, so the input is on the gate and the
output is on the drain
There is a 180degree phase shift between input and output
25
Common-Source (CS) Self-Bias Circuit
Removing Cs affects the gain of the circuit.
Common-Source (CS) Voltage-Divider Bias

This is a common-source amplifier configuration, so the input is on the gate and the
output is on the drain.
26
Source Follower (Common-Drain) Circuit
In a common-drain amplifier configuration, the input is on the gate, but the output is
from the source.
There is no phase shift between input and output.
27
Common-Gate (CG) Circuit
The input is on the source and the output is on the drain.

There is no phase shift between input and output
Troubleshooting
Check the DC bias voltages:
If not correct check power supply, resistors, FET. Also check to ensure that the
coupling capacitor between amplifier stages is OK.
Check the AC voltages:
If not correct check FET, capacitors and the loading effect of the next stage
REFERENCE
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9th ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky
28
SELF-ASSESSMENT
29
TOPIC 2
FREQUENCY
RESPONSE
30
FREQUENCY RESPONSE
OBJECTIVE
• Bode and Nyquist plots for control analysis

• Review Logarithms and Decibels
• Determination of transfer function
• Gain and Phase margins
• Stability in frequency response
BASIC CONCEPTS
Frequency response of an amplifier is the change in gain or phase shift over a

specified range of input signal frequencies. In amplifiers, the coupling and bypass
capacitors appear to be shorts to ac at the midband frequencies. At low frequencies the
capacitive reactance, XC, of these capacitors affect the gain and phase shift of signals, so
they must be taken into account.
The frequency response of an amplifier refers to the frequency range in which the
amplifier will operate with negligible effects from capacitors and device internal
capacitance. This range of frequencies can be called the mid-range.
• At frequencies above and below the midrange, capacitance and any

inductance will affect the gain of the amplifier.
• At low frequencies the coupling and bypass capacitors lower the gain.
• At high frequencies stray capacitances associated with the active device
lower the gain.
• Also, cascading amplifiers limits the gain at high and low frequencies.
Bode Plot
A Bode plot indicates the frequency response of an amplifier. The horizontal scale
indicates the frequency (in Hz) and the vertical scale indicates the gain (in dB).
31
Cutoff Frequencies
• The mid-range frequency range of an amplifier is called the bandwidth of the
amplifier.
• The bandwidth is defined by the lower and upper cutoff frequencies.
• Cutoff – any frequency at which the gain has dropped by 3 dB.
General Frequency Considerations:
• The frequency of the applied signal can have a pronounced effect on the response
of a single-stage or multistage network. The analysis thus far has been for the
midfrequency spectrum.
• At low frequencies, we shall find that the coupling and bypass capacitors can no
longer be replaced by the short-circuit approximation because of the increase in
reactance of these elements.
• The frequency-dependent parameters of the small-signal equivalent circuits and
the stray capacitive elements associated with the active device and the network will
limit the high-frequency response of the system.
• An increase in the number of stages of a cascaded system will also limit both the
high- and low-frequency responses.
• For any system, there is a band of frequencies in which the magnitude of the gain
is either equal or relatively close to the mid band value.
• To fix the frequency boundaries of relatively high gain, 0.707Avmid was chosen to
be the gain at the cutoff levels. The corresponding frequencies f1 and f2 are
generally called the corner, cutoff, band, break, or half-power frequencies. The
multiplier 0.707 was chosen because at this level the output power is half the mid
band power output, that is, at mid frequencies.
• The bandwidth (or passband) of each system is determined by f1 and f2, that is,
32
• For applications of a communications nature (audio, video), a decibel plot of the
voltage gain versus frequency is more useful.
• Before obtaining the logarithmic plot, however, the curve is generally normalized
as shown in Fig. 9.6. In this figure, the gain at each frequency is divided by the
midband value. Obviously, the midband value is then 1 as indicated. At the half-
power frequencies, the resulting level is 0.707= 1/. 2
Logarithms and Decibels:
Logarithms taken to the base 10 are referred to as common logarithms, while

logarithms taken to the base e are referred to as natural logarithms. In summary:
Some relationships hold true for logarithms to any base
33
The background surrounding the term decibel (dB) has its origin in the established fact
that power and audio levels are related on a logarithmic basis.
That is, an increase in power level, say 4 to 16 W, does not result in an audio level increase
by a factor of 16/4 = 4. It will increase by a factor of 2 as derived from the power of 4 in
2
the following manner: (4) = 16.
The term bel was derived from the surname of Alexander Graham Bell. For
standardization, the bel (B) was defined by the following equation to relate power levels
P1 and P2:
It was found, however, that the bel was too large a unit of measurement for practical
purposes, so the decibel (dB) was defined such that 10 decibels=1 bel. Therefore,
Example 1: Using the calculator, determine the logarithm of the following numbers to
the indicated base:
a) Log10 106 b) logee3 c) log10 10-2 d) loge e-1 )
Example 2: Using the calculator, determine the logarithm of the following numbers:
a) Log10 64 b) loge 64 c) log10 1600 d) log10 8000
N.B. the logarithm of a number does not increase in the same linear fashion as the
number. The following table shows how the logarithm of a number increases only as the
exponent of the number. If the antilogarithm of a number is desired, the 10x or ex
calculator functions are employed.
34
Example 3: Using a calculator, determine the antilogarithm of the following expressions:
a) 1.6 = log10 a. b) 0.04 = loge a.
Example 4: Using calculator, determine the logarithm of the following numbers:
DECIBELS
The term "bel" (B) (derived from Alexander Graham Bell) was defined by the following
equation to relate power levels P1 and P2
Practically, so the decibel (dB) was defined such that:
For a specified terminal (output) power (P2) there must be a reference power level (P1).
The reference level is generally accepted to be 1mW, with an associated resistance of 600
(the characteristic impedance of audio transmission lines).
There exists a second equation for decibels. For the system shown, Vi
equal to some value V1, . If Vi is changed to some other level, V2, then
. To determine the resulting difference in decibels between the power levels,
35
One of the advantages of the logarithmic relationship is the manner in which it can be
applied to cascaded stages.
For example, the magnitude of the overall voltage gain of cascaded system is given by
Applying the proper logarithmic relationship results in
In words, the equation states that the decibel gain of cascaded system is simply the sum
of the decibel gain of each stage, i.e.
Example 5: Find the magnitude gain corresponding to a decibel gain of 100.
36
Low–Frequency Analysis-Bode Plot:
In the low-frequency region of the single-stage BJT or FET amplifier, it is the R-C
combination formed by the network capacitors Cc, CE and Cs and the network resistive
parameters that determine the cutoff frequencies. The series RC combination, as shown,
and the development of a procedure that will result in a plot of frequency response with
minimum of time and effort.
At high frequencies,
and the short-circuit equivalent can be substituted for the

capacitor. The result is that Vo ≅ Vi at high frequencies.
At f = 0 Hz,
and the open-circuit approximation can be applied, with the result that Vo = 0 V.
Between the two extremes, the ratio Av = Vo /Vi will vary as shown in the following Figure.
As the frequency increases, the capacitive reactance decreases and more of the input
voltage appears across the O/P terminals.
The O/P and I/P voltages are related by the voltage-divider rule as
37
With magnitude of Vo determined by
For the special case where XC = R,
And
The level of which is indicated in on Figure above. In other words, at the frequency of
which XC = R, the O/P will be 70.7% of the I/P for the RC network shown before.
The frequency at which this occurs is determined from
and in terms of logs,
While at Av = Vo/Vi = 1 or Vo = Vi (the maximum value)
For the magnitude when f = f1
38
In logarithmic form, the gain in dB is
For frequencies for where f << f1 or (f1/f)2 >>1, the equation above can be
approximated by
And finally,
Ignoring the previous condition for a moment, a plot on a frequency log scale will yield
a result of an especially useful nature for future decibel plots.
• A change in frequency by a factor of 2, equivalent to 1 octave, results in a 6-dB
change in the ratio as noted by the change in gain from f1/2 to f1.
• For a 10:1 change in frequency, equivalent to 1 decade, there is a 20-dB change
in the ratio as demonstrated between the frequencies
39
Ex. For the given network:
(a) Determine the break frequency.
(b) Sketch the asymptotes and locate the -3-
dB point.
(c) Sketch the frequency response curve.
Low Frequency Analysis-BJT Amplifiers:
The analysis of this section will employ the loaded

voltage-divider BJT bias configuration, but the
results can be applied to any BJT configuration.
It will simply be necessary to find the appropriate

equivalent resistance for the R-C combination (for
the capacitors Cs, CC, and CE, which will determine
the low-frequency response).
40
1) The effect of Cs:
• Since Cs is normally connected between the

applied source and the active device, the total
resistance is now Rs + Ri, and the cutoff
frequency will be modified to be as:
• At mid or high frequencies, the reactance of the

capacitor will be sufficiently small to permit a short-
circuit approximation for the element. The voltage
Vi will then be related to Vs by
• The voltage Vi applied to the input of the active device can be calculated using
the voltage-divider rule:
2) The effect of CC:

• Since Cc the coupling capacitor is normally connected
between the output of the active device and the applied
load, the total resistance is now Ro + RL, and the cutoff
frequency will be modified to be as:
41
3) The effect of C :
E
• To determine fLE, the network “seen” by CE must be

determined as shown in the figure. Once the level of Re is
established, the cutoff frequency due to CE can be
determined using the following equation:
where Re could be calculated as:
42
Low Frequency Analysis-FET Amplifiers:
The analysis of the analysis of the FET amplifier in the low-frequency region will be quite
like that of the BJT amplifier. There are again three capacitors of primary concern as
appearing in the given network: CG, CC, and CS.
43
1) The effect of CG:
The cutoff frequency determined by CG will
then be
2) The effect of CC:

The cutoff frequency determined by CC will then be
3) The effect of CS:

The cutoff frequency determined by CS will then be
44
45
Miller Effect capacitance:
In the high-frequency region, the capacitive elements of importance are the interelectrode
(between terminals) capacitances internal to the active device and the wiring capacitance
between leads of the network. The large capacitors of the network that controlled the
low-frequency response have all been replaced by their short-circuit equivalent due to
their exceptionally low reactance levels.
High Frequency Analysis-BJT Amplifiers:
In the high-frequency region, the RC network of concern has the configuration

appearing in given Fig. At increasing frequencies, the reactance XC will decrease in
magnitude, resulting in a shorting effect across the output and a decrease in gain.
The derivation leading to the corner frequency for this RC configuration follows
along similar lines to that encountered for the low-frequency region. The most significant
difference is in the general form of Av appearing below:
46
• In the above figure, the various parasitic capacitances (Cbe, Cbc, Cce) of the
transistor have been included with the wiring capacitances (CWi, CWo) introduced
during construction.
• In the high-frequency equivalent model for the network, note the absence of the
capacitors Cs, CC, and CE, which are all assumed to be in the short-circuit state at
these frequencies.
• The capacitance Ci includes the input wiring capacitance CWi, the transition
capacitance Cbe, and the Miller capacitance CMi.
• The capacitance Co includes the output wiring capacitance CWo, the parasitic
capacitance Cce, and the output Miller capacitance CMo.
• In general, the capacitance Cbe is the largest of the parasitic capacitances, with Cce
the smallest. In fact, most specification sheets simply provide the levels of Cbe and
Cbc and do not include Cce unless it will affect the response of a transistor in a
specific area of application.
47
48
49
High Frequency Analysis-FET Amplifiers:
The analysis of the high-frequency response of the FET amplifier will proceed in a
similar manner to that encountered for the BJT amplifier. There are interelectrode and
wiring capacitances that will determine the high-frequency characteristics of the amplifier.
The capacitors Cgs and Cgd typically vary from 1 to 10 pF, while the capacitance
Cds is usually quite a bit smaller, ranging from 0.1 to1 pF.
At high frequencies, Ci will approach a short-circuit equivalent and Vgs will drop in
value and reduce the overall gain. At frequencies where Co approaches its short circuit
equivalent, the parallel output voltage Vo will drop in magnitude.
50
51
Multistage Frequency Effect:
REFERENCE:
52
53
TOPIC 3
COMPOUND
CONFIGURATION
54
COMPOUND CONFIGURATION
OBJECTIVE
• To explore the basic application of different compound configuration of an

amplifier.
• Investigate other types of the multistage amplifiers designed using simple BJT
amplifier circuit, which are current mirror connection and Darlington connection
practically and simulation.
COMPOUND CONFIGURATION
The output from a single stage amplifier is usually insufficient to drive an output
device. In this section it will introduce some of the most popular networks using multiple
transistors. It will demonstrate the methods applied in the previous discussion to the
network with any number.
A transistor circuit containing more than one stage of amplification is known
Cascade Connection
A popular connection of amplifier stages is the cascade connection. Basically, a
cascade connection is a series connection with the output of one stage then applied
as input of the second stage. The cascade connection provides a multiplication of the
gain of each stage for a layer overall gain. The DC bias circuits are isolated from each
other by the coupling capacitors. The DC calculations are independent of the
cascading. The AC calculations for gain and impedance are interdependent
R-C Coupled BJT Amplifiers
The name is derived from the capacitances coupling capacitor Cc and the fact that
the load on the first stage is an RC combination. The coupling capacitor isolates the two
stage from a DC viewpoint but acts as a short-circuit equivalent for the AC response. The
input impedance of the second stage acts as a load on the first stage, permitting same
approach to the analysis as described in the last two sections.
55
Advantages:
1. It has excellent frequency response. The gain is constant over the audio
frequency range which is the region of the most importance for speech,
music, etc.
2. It has lower cost since it employs resistors and capacitors which are cheap.
3. The circuit is very compact as the modern resistors and capacitors are small
and extremely light.
Disadvantages
1. The RC coupled amplifiers have low voltage and power gain.

2. They have tendency to become noisy with age, particularly in moist climates.
3. Impedance matching is poor.
Input impedance, first stage:
Output impedance, second stage:
Voltage gain:
56
Example 1: From the figure a 2 stage RC coupled amplifier. What is the biasing potential
for the second stage? If the coupling capacitor Cc is replaced by a wire, what would
happen to the circuit?
57
Example 2. (a) Calculate the no-load voltage gain and output voltage of the RC -
coupled transistor amplifiers of the figure. (b) Calculate the overall gain and output
voltage if a 4.7 kΩ load is applied to the second stage and compare to the results of part
(a). (c) Calculate the input impedance of the first stage and the output impedance of the
second stage.
58
Transformer-Coupled Amplifier
Transformer coupling is generally employed when the load is small. It is mostly
used for power amplification. The figure below shows two stages of transformer coupled
amplifier. A coupling transformer is used to feed the output of one stage to the input of
the next stage. The primary P of this transformer is made the collector load and its
secondary S gives input to the next stage.
Advantages:
1. No signal power is loss in the collector or base resistors.

2. An excellence impedance matching can be achieved in a transformer
coupled amplifier.
59
3. Due to the excellent impedance matching, transformer coupling provides
higher gain.
Disadvantages
1. It has a poor frequency response.

2. The coupling transformers are bulky and fairly expensive at audio
frequencies.
3. Frequency distortion is higher.
4. Transformer coupling tends to introduce hum in the output.
Example1: A transistor uses transformer coupling for amplification. The output impedance
of the transistor is 10kΩ while the input impedance of the next stage is 2.5 kΩ. determine
the inductance of primary and secondary of the transformer for perfect impedance
matching at a frequency of 200 Hz.
60
Example2: in the above example, find the number of primary and secondary turns. Given
the core section of the transformer is such that 1 turn gives an inductance of 10µH.
Direct-Coupled Amplifier
If one stage is directly connected to the next stage without any intervening
coupling device. The figure below shows the circuit of a three-stage direct-coupled
amplifier. It uses complementary transistors.
Advantages:
1. The circuit arrangement is simple because of minimum use of resistors.

2. The circuit has a low cost because of the absence of expensive coupling devices.
Disadvantages
1. It cannot be used for amplifying high frequencies.

2. The operating point is shifted due to temperature variations.
61
Example: from the figure determine (i) DC voltages for both stages (ii) voltage gain of one stage and overall
voltage gain.
62
Comparison of Different types of Coupling
Two-port System
The two-port system approach is particularly useful for cascaded systems such as
that appearing in the figure where Av1, Av2, Av3, and so on are the voltage gains of each
stage under load conditions. The total gain of the system is then determined by the
product of the individual gains as follows.
63
EXAMPLE: The two-stage system of the figure employs a transistor emitter-follower
configuration prior to a common-base configuration to ensure that the maximum
percentage of the applied signal appears at the input terminals of the common-base
amplifier. In the figure, the no-load values are provided for each system, except for Z i
and Z o for the emitter-follower, which are the loaded values. For the configuration of
figure, determine:
a. The loaded gain for each stage.
b. The total gain for the system, A v and Avs.
c. The total current gain for the system.
d. The total gain for the system if the emitter-follower configuration were removed.
64
FET Cascaded
The gain of overall cascade amplifier is the product of the stage gains
Av=Av1. Av2=(-gmRD1)(-gmRD2)
Zi=RG1
Zo= RD2
Cascode Connection
The cascade configuration has one of the two configuration in each case the
collector of the leading transistor is connected to the emitter of the following transistor.
65
Example1: Calculate the no-load voltage-gain for the cascade configuration of the figure.
Darlington connection
66
The Darlington amplifier is a useful circuit and has the advantage of providing an
extremely high current gain, high input impedance and higher output power. (It is not
necessary to use matched transistors here) and often you see a smaller signal transistor
driving a larger power transistor. The current gain is approximately the product of both
Q1 and Q2 forward current gains. One point to note is that as Q1 emitter is connected to
Q2 base the bias voltage required is Vbe1 + Vbe2. This must be considered when designing
bias circuits for the Darlington amplifier.
DC Analysis
67
Ac Analysis
68
Advantages of Darlington Pair
Darlington pair has several advantages as compared with standard single transistor.
Some of them are
• It produces an extremely high current gain than standard single transistor

• It offers an extremely high input impedance or good impedance transformation
that it can alter a high impedance input or source to low impedance load.
• These can be made by two separate transistors or comes with a single package.
• Easy and convenient circuit configuration as few components are used.
• In case of photo-Darlington pair, noise introduced is very less compared with
phototransistor with an external amplifier.
Disadvantages of Darlington Transistor
• Switching speed is low

• Bandwidth is limited
• At certain frequencies in negative feedback circuit, this configuration introduces a
phase shift.
• The base-emitter voltage required is high and is two times the single standard
transistor.
• High power dissipation due to high saturation voltage.
• The overall leakage current is high because the leakage current of the first
transistor is amplified by the next transistor. That is why the three or more stages
of Darlington is impossible.
69
Example: for the Darlington amplifier determine
a. The level of βD
b. The base current of each transistor
c. The collector current of each transistor
d. The voltages Vc1, Vc2, VE1 and VE2.
Sziklai Pair
The Sziklai pair (also known as a "compound transistor") is a configuration of two

bipolar transistors, like a Darlington pair. In contrast to the Darlington arrangement, the
Sziklai pair has one NPN and one PNP transistor, and so it is sometimes called the
"complementary Darlington". Current gain is like that of a Darlington pair, which is the
product of the gains of the two transistors. The configuration is named for its inventor
George C. Sziklai.
One advantage over the Darlington pair is that the base turn-on voltage is only
about 0.6V or half of the Darlington's 1.2V nominal turn-on voltage. Like the Darlington,
it can saturate only to 0.6V, which is a drawback for high-power stages.
70
A low value resistor (e.g. 100Ω − 1k) is usually connected between Q2 emitter and
base to improve its turn-off time and better high frequency performance.
Feedback Pair
This is a two-transistor circuit that operates like a Darlington pair, but it is not a
Darlington pair. The difference is that a Darlington uses a pair of like transistors, whereas
the feedback-pair configuration uses complementary transistors.
It has similar characteristics:

-High current gain
-Voltage gain near unity
-Low output impedance
- High input impedance
DC Bias
𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 − 𝑉𝐸𝐵1 − 𝐼𝐵1 𝑅𝐵 = 0
𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝛽1 𝛽2 𝐼𝐵1 𝑅𝐶 − 𝑉𝐸𝐵1 − 𝐼𝐵1 𝑅𝐵 = 0
𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝐸𝐵1
𝐼𝐵1 =
𝑅𝐵 + 𝛽1 𝛽2 𝑅𝐶
𝑄1 : 𝐼𝐶1 = 𝛽1 𝐼𝐵1 = 𝐼𝐵2 𝑄2 : 𝐼𝐶2 = 𝛽2 𝐼𝐵2 = 𝐼𝐸2
𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝐸1 + 𝐼𝐶2 ≈ 𝐼𝐶1 + 𝐼𝐶2 ≈ 𝐼𝐶2
Example1: Calculate the DC bias currents and voltages for the circuit of the figure provide
Vo at one-half the supply Voltage 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 = 9𝑉
71
AC Analysis
𝑍𝑖 = 𝑅𝐵 //(𝑟𝑖1 + 𝛽1 𝛽2 𝑅𝐶 )
𝐼𝑂 𝑅𝐵
𝐴𝑖 = = 𝛽1 𝛽2
𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑍𝑖
𝑟𝑖1 𝑟𝑖1 𝑟𝑖1
𝑍𝑜 = 𝑅𝐶 //𝑟𝑖1 // // ≅
𝛽1 𝛽1 𝛽2 𝛽1 𝛽2
𝑉𝑂 1 𝛽1 𝛽2 𝑅𝐶
𝐴𝑉 = = =
𝑉𝑖 1 + 𝑟𝑖1 //(𝛽1 𝛽2 )𝑅𝐶 𝛽1 𝛽2 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑟𝑖1
72
Current Mirror
Sometimes also known as a programmable current

mirror this unusual configuration uses two closely matched
transistors with their bases in parallel. The base current is
supplied via R1 and both transistors will have identical base
currents. Because the transistors are matched, and have the
same forward current gain, then collector current I2 will be the
same as I1.
73
Example: Calculate the current I through each of the transistor Q2 and Q3 in the figure.
REFERENCE:
74
TOPIC 4
POWER
AMPLIFIER
75
POWER AMPLIFIER
OBJECTIVE
• To identify different types of Power amplifier

• Explain and analyze the operation of class A amplifier
• Explain and analyze the operation of class B amplifier
• Explain and analyze the operation of class C amplifier
Power Amplifier
After the audio signal is converted into electrical signal, it has several voltage
amplifications done, after which the power amplification of the amplified signal is done
just before the loud speaker stage. This is clearly shown in the below figure.
While the voltage amplifier raises the voltage level of the signal, the power amplifier
raises the power level of the signal. Besides raising the power level, it can also be said
that a power amplifier is a device which converts DC power to AC power and whose
action is controlled by the input signal.
The DC power is distributed according to the relation,
DC power input = AC power output + losses
Power Transistors
There is not a clear cut difference between ‘ordinary’ transistors

used in voltage amplifiers and power transistors, but generally
Power transistors can be categorized as those than can handle
more than 1 Ampere of collector (or Drain in the case of FETs) current.
For such Power amplification, a normal transistor would not do. A
transistor that is manufactured to suit the purpose of power amplification is called as
a Power transistor.
76
A Power transistor differs from the other transistors, in the following factors.
• It is larger in size, in order to handle large powers.
• The collector region of the transistor is made large and a heat sink is placed at the
collector-base junction in order to minimize heat generated.
• The emitter and base regions of a power transistor are heavily doped.
• Due to the low input resistance, it requires low input power.
Hence there is a lot of difference in voltage amplification and power amplification. So,
let us now try to get into the details to understand the differences between a voltage
amplifier and a power amplifier.
Difference between Voltage and Power Amplifiers
Classification Based on Frequencies

Power amplifiers are divided into two categories, based on the frequencies they handle.
They are as follows.
• Audio Power Amplifiers − The audio power amplifiers raise the power level of
signals that have audio frequency range (20 Hz to 20 KHz). They are also known
as Small signal power amplifiers.
• Radio Power Amplifiers − Radio Power Amplifiers or tuned power amplifiers raise
the power level of signals that have radio frequency range (3 KHz to 300 GHz).
They are also known as large signal power amplifiers.
77
Classification Based on Mode of Operation
Based on the mode of operation, i.e., the portion of the input cycle during which collector
current flows, the power amplifiers may be classified as follows.
• Class A Power amplifier − When the collector current flows always during the full
cycle of signal, the power amplifier is known as class A power amplifier.
• Class B Power amplifier − When the collector current flows only during the
positive half cycle of the input signal, the power amplifier is known as class B
power amplifier.
• Class C Power amplifier − When the collector current flows for less than half cycle
of the input signal, the power amplifier is known as class C power amplifier.
There forms another amplifier called Class AB amplifier, if we combine the class A and
class B amplifiers to utilize the advantages of both.
Before going into the details of these amplifiers, let us have a look at the important terms
that must be considered to determine the efficiency of an amplifier.
Terms Considering Performance
The primary objective of a power amplifier is to obtain maximum output power. In
order to achieve this, the important factors to be considered are collector efficiency,
power dissipation capability and distortion. Let us go through them in detail.
Collector Efficiency
This explains how well an amplifier converts DC power to AC power. When the DC supply
is given by the battery but no AC signal input is given, the collector output at such a
condition is observed as collector efficiency.
The collector efficiency is defined as
For example, if the battery supplies 15W and AC output power is 3W. Then the transistor
efficiency will be 20%.
The main aim of a power amplifier is to obtain maximum collector efficiency. Hence the
higher the value of collector efficiency, the efficient the amplifier will be.
Power Dissipation Capacity
Every transistor gets heated up during its operation. As a power transistor handles large
currents, it gets more heated up. This heat increases the temperature of the transistor,
which alters the operating point of the transistor.
So, to maintain the operating point stability, the temperature of the transistor has to be
kept in permissible limits. For this, the heat produced must be dissipated. Such a capacity
is called as Power dissipation capability.
78
Power dissipation capability can be defined as the ability of a power transistor to
dissipate the heat developed in it. Metal cases called heat sinks are used to dissipate the
heat produced in power transistors.
Distortion
A transistor is a non-linear device. When compared with the input, there occur few
variations in the output. In voltage amplifiers, this problem is not pre-dominant as small
currents are used. But in power amplifiers, as large currents are in use, the problem of
distortion certainly arises.
Distortion is defined as the change of output wave shape from the input wave shape of
the amplifier. An amplifier that has lesser distortion, produces a better output and hence
considered efficient.
Class A Amplifier
The purpose of class A bias is to make the amplifier relatively free from distortion
by keeping the signal waveform out of the region between 0V and about 0.6V where the
transistor’s input characteristic is nonlinear. Class A design produces good linear
amplifiers but are wasteful of power. The output power they produce is theoretically 50%,
but practically only about 25 to 30%, compared with the DC power they consume from
the power supply.
Class A power amplifiers use the biasing method. This method causes a standing
bias current to be flowing during the whole waveform cycle, and even when no signal is
being amplified. The standing bias current (the Quiescent Current) is sufficient to make
the collector voltage fall to half the supply voltage, and therefore power (P = IC x VCC/2)
is being dissipated by the transistor whether any signal is being amplified or not. This was
not a great problem in class A voltage amplifiers, where the collector current was very
small, but in power amplifiers output currents are thousands of times larger, so efficient
use of power is crucial.
79
◆ A class A power amplifier operates entirely in the linear region of the
transistor’s characteristic curves. The transistor conducts during the full 360° of the
input cycle.
◆ The Q-point must be centered on the load line for maximum class A output
signal swing.
◆ The maximum efficiency of a class A power amplifier is 25 percent.
Power Gain
The ratio of output power to input power of an amplifier.
Example 1: If the peak-to-peak output voltage is 18 V and the input impedance of the
base is 100 Ω, what is the power gain of the figure?
80
Solution: as shown in the figure
Efficiency
The ratio of the signal power delivered to a load to the power from the power supply of
an amplifier.
Class B Power Amplifiers
In amplifiers using class B bias, illustrated in the figure, there is no standing bias
current (the quiescent current is zero) and therefore the transistor conducts for only half
of each cycle of the signal waveform. This dramatically increases efficiency, compared
with class A. be achieved with this bias and in practical circuits, efficiencies of 50% to 60%
are possible.
81
The downside for this increased efficiency is that
the transistor only amplifies half the waveform, therefore
producing severe distortion. However, if the other half of
the waveform can be obtained in some other way without
too much distortion, then class B amplifiers can be used
to drive most types of output device. The aim is to obtain
a good power gain with as much of the energy consumed
from the power supply going into the load as possible.
This should be as consistent with reasonable linearity (lack
of distortion), as possible. Power output stages do
however produce more distortion than do voltage or
current amplifiers.
Class B Push Pull Outputs
At lower (e.g. audio) frequencies, a common way to reduce the distortion due to
the ‘missing half cycle’ in class B outputs, is to use a push-pull output stage. The
principles of this circuit are shown in the figure below. Two identical but anti phase signals
from a phase splitter are fed to the bases of a pair of power transistors so that each
transistor (conducting only when the half cycle during which its input wave goes positive),
feeds current to the load for that half cycle. The two half cycles are recombined in this
circuit via a center tapped transformer, which reverses the action of the phase splitter
transformer, to produce a complete sine wave in the secondary.
82
Crossover Distortion
CLASS AB AMPLIFIER
The class AB push-pull output circuit is

slightly less efficient than class B because it uses a
small quiescent current flowing, to bias the
transistors just above cut off as shown in the figure
but the crossover distortion created by the
nonlinear section of the transistor’s input
characteristic curve, near to cut off in class B is
overcome. In class AB each of the push-pull
transistors is conducting for slightly more than the
half cycle of conduction in class B, but much less
than the full cycle of conduction of class A.
As each cycle of the waveform crosses zero volts, both transistors are conducting
momentarily and the bend in the characteristic of each one cancels out.
Another advantage of class AB is that, using a complementary matched pair

of transistors in emitter follower mode, also gives cheaper construction. No phase splitter
circuit is needed as the opposite polarity of the NPN and PNP pair means that each
transistor will conduct on opposite half cycles of the waveform. The low output impedance
provided by the emitter follower connection also eliminates the need for an impedance
matching output transformer.
83
CLASS C AMPLIFIER
In Class C, the bias point is placed

well below cutoff as shown in the figure
below and so the transistor is cut-off for
most of the cycle of the wave. This gives
much improved efficiency to the
amplifier, but very heavy distortion of the
output signal. Class C is therefore not
suitable for audio amplifiers. It is however
commonly used in high frequency sine
wave oscillators and certain types of RF
amplifiers, where the pulses of current
produced at the amplifier output can be
converted to complete sine waves of a
particular frequency by the use of LCR
resonant circuits.
REFERENCE:
Floyd, Thomas L. (2012). Electronic Devices. New Jersey, USA: Prentice –Hall, Inc.
84
85
TOPIC 5
OPERATIONAL
AMPLIFIER
86
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
OBJECTIVE
• Describe how an ideal operational amplifier (op amp) behaves.

• Define voltage gain, current gain
• Explain the operation of an ideal op amp in a voltage comparator and
inverting amplifier circuit.
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
Background:
• Originally invented in early 1940s using vacuum tube technology

• Initial purpose was to execute math operations in analog electronic calculating
machines
• Shrunk in size with invention of transistor
• Most now made on integrated circuit (IC)
• Only most demanding applications use discrete components
• Huge variety of applications, low cost, and ease of mass production make them
extremely popular
Operational amplifiers are convenient building blocks that used to build amplifiers,
filters, and even an analog computer. Op-amps are integrated circuits composed of many
transistors and resistors such that the resulting circuit follows a certain set of rules. An op-
amp is an extremely high gain differential amplifier with high input impedance and low
output impedance. Typical uses of the operational amplifier are to provide voltage
amplitude changes, oscillators, filters, and many types of instrumentation circuits. An op-
amp contains several differential amplifier stages to achieve a very high voltage gain.
SINGLE- ENDED INPUT
Single-ended input operation results when the input signal connected to the one
input with the other input connected to the ground.
87
DOUBLE-ENDED (DIFFERENTIAL) INPUT
In addition to using only one-input, it is possible to apply signals at each input;

this is being a double-ended operation.
DOUBLE-ENDED OUTPUT
An input applied to either input will result in output from both output terminals,
these output always being opposite in polarity.
COMMON-MODE OPERATION
When the same input signals applied to both inputs, common-mode operation
results. Ideally, the two inputs equally amplified, and since they result in opposite
polarity signals at the output, these signals cancel resulting in 0V.
88
COMMON-MODE REJECTION
Significant feature of a differential connection is that the signals that are

opposite at the inputs are highly amplified, whereas those that are common to the
inputs are only slightly amplified, the overall operation being to amplify the
difference signal while rejecting the common signal at the two inputs. Since noise
is generally common to both inputs, the differential connection tends to provide
attenuation of this unwanted input while providing an amplified ouput of the
difference signal applied to the inputs.
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT
The differential amplifier circuit is an extremely popular connection used in IC

units. The circuit has two separate inputs two separate outputs, and that the
emitters are connected together. While most differential circuit use two separate
voltage supplies, the series circuit can also operate using a single supply.
Several input signal combinations are possible:
If an input signal is applied to either input with the other input connected to ground,
the operation is referred to as “single-ended.”
If two opposite-polarity input signals are applied, the operation is referred to as
“double-ended.”
If the same input is applied to both inputs, the operation is called “common-mode.”
89
DC Bias
Example 1: Calculate the dc voltages currents in the circuits
90
AC Operation Circuit
Double- Ended AC Voltage gain

Common-mode
Operation Circuit
Example 2: Calculate the single-ended output voltage
91
OP-AMPS BASIC
Operational amplifier or op-amp, is a very high gain differential amplifier with a

high input impedance (typically a few meg-Ohms) and low output impedance (less than
100 W).
Note the op-amp has two inputs and one output.
Ideal Operational Amplifier
Equivalent circuit of the ideal op-amp modeled by:
• Voltage controlled source with very large gain AOL Known as open loop gain
• Feedback reduces the gain of op-amp
• Ideal op-amp has no nonlinear distortions
vd = v2 – v1
A is the open-loop voltage

gain
92
Op-Amp Gain
Op-Amps have a very high gain. They can be connected open-loop or closed-loop.
• Open-loop refers to a configuration where there is no feedback from output

back to the input. In the open-loop configuration the gain can exceed
10,000.
• Closed-loop configuration reduces the gain. In order to control the gain of

an op-amp it must have feedback. This feedback is a negative feedback. A
negative feedback reduces the gain and improves many characteristics of
the op-amp.
• The signal input is applied to the inverting (–) input
• The non-inverting input (+) is grounded
• The resistor Rf is the feedback resistor. It is connected from the output to the
negative (inverting) input. This is negative feedback.
93
PRACTICAL OP-AMP CIRCUITS
INVERTING AMPLIFIER
The most widely used constant-gain amplifier circuit is the inverting amplifier. The
output obtained by multiplying the input by a fixed or constant gain, set by the input
resistor and the feedback resistor, this output also inverted from the input.
94
NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER
UNITY FOLLOWER
The unity follower circuit provide a gain of unity with no polarity or phase reversal.
The output is the same polarity and magnitude as the input.
SUMMING AMPLIFIER
The most used of the op-amp circuits is the summing amplifier circuit. The circuit
shows a three-input summing amplifier circuit, which provides a means of algebraically
summing three voltages, each multiplied by a constant gain factor.
95
INTEGRATOR
The circuit used a capacitor as a feedback component. The virtual-ground
equivalent circuit shows than the expression for the voltage between input and output
can be derived in terms of the current I from input to output.
REFERENCE:
96
TOPIC 6
OP-AMPS
APPLICATION
97
OP-AMPS APPLICATION
OBJECTIVE
• Learn about constant gain, summing and buffering amplifiers
Op-Amp Applications
• Operational amplifier is abbreviated as Op – Amp. It is a circuitry with high gain

and negative feedback. It is a type of amplifier. Op – amp performs mathematical
operations such as addition, subtraction, integration and differentiation. The main
application of op – amp is in analog computers. Apart from this it is used in
instruments, voltage regulators, pulse generators, comparator etc.
• It belongs to analog electronics. It has a very important role in field of electronics

although the world is moving towards digitization.
• Op – amp can be used to amplify signals. It can amplify both AC signals and DC
signals.
• Op – amp has two input terminals one has “-” (negative) sign named inverting
input terminal and other one has “+” (positive) sign named non – inverting
input terminal
Op-Amp parameters
1. Gain: unit of gain is decibel. And it is denoted by dB.

2. Input resistance: It is very high for Op – amp.
3. Output resistance: op – amp have the output resistance of the order of 100 ohm.
4. CMRR (common mode rejection ratio): a signal applied to the input terminals is
known as common mode signal. The ability to suppress these signals is known as
CMRR.
5. Slew Rate: It is the maximum rate at which its output can changed.
6. Bandwidth: bandwidth is defined by the frequency range.
7. Input offset voltage: to make output voltage zero, when there is equal voltage
applied to both the terminals. A voltage applied to balance output is called input
offset voltage
8. Input bias current: it is average currents by each input of the Op – amp.
9. Input offset current: it is the difference between the bias currents.
98
An op – amp can be used as-
• Constant gain multiplier

• Voltage summing amplifier
• Voltage buffer amplifier
• Controller Sources
• Instrumentation Circuits
• Active Filters
CONSTANT-GAIN MULTIPLIER
One of the most common op-amp circuits is the inverting constant-gain multiplier,
which provides a precise gain or amplification.
Example: Determine the output voltage with a sinusoidal input of 2.5mV.
𝑅𝑓 200𝑘W
A= − 𝑅1 = − 2kW
= −100
The output voltage is then
Vo=AV1= -100(2.5mV) = -250mV = -0.25V
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A non-inverting constant-gain multiplier is provided by the circuit of the figure with gain
value of:
Example: Calculate the output voltage from the circuit of the figure for an input of
120mV.
Solution
The gain of the op-amp circuit is calculated to be

𝑅𝑓 240𝑘W
A= 1 + 𝑅1 = − 2.4kW = 1 + 100 = 101
The output voltage is then
Vo=AV1= 101(120mV) = 12.12 mV
MULTI-STAGE GAINS
When a number of stages are connected in series, the overall gain is the product
of the individual stage gains. In the figure shows a connection of three stages. The first
stage is connected to provide noninverting gain, the next two stages provide an inverting
gain. The overall circuit gain is the noninverting and is calculated by
100
Example: Calculate the output voltage using the circuit of the figure for resistor
components value of Rf= 470kΩ, R1=4.3kΩ, R2= 33 kΩ, and R3= 33 kΩ for an input of
80mV.
Solution
The amplifier gain is calculate to be

𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
A=A1A2A3 =(1 + 𝑅1)(− 𝑅2 )(− 𝑅3)
470𝑘 470𝑘 470𝑘
= (1 + )(− ) (− )W
4.3𝑘 33𝑘 33𝑘
= (110.3)(-14.2)(-14.2) = 22200
So that
Vo=AV1 = 22200 (80mV) = 1.78 V
VOLTAGE SUMMING
Another popular use of an op-amp is a summing amplifier. This figure shows the
connection with the output being the sum of the three inputs, each multiplied by a
different gain. The output voltage is
101
Example: Calculate the output voltage of the circuit of the figure. The inputs are
V1= 50mV sin (1000t) and V2= 10mV sin(3000t).
The output voltage

330𝑘 330𝑘
Vo = - ( 33𝑘
V1 + 10𝑘
V2 ) = -(10V1 + 33V2)
= -[10(50 mV) sin(1000t) + 33(10 mV) sin(3000t)]
= - [0.5 sin(1000t) + 0.33 sin(3000t)]
VOLTAGE SUBTRACTION
Two signals can be subtracted, one from the other, in a number of ways. This figure
shows two op-amp stages used to provide subtraction of input signals. The resulting
output is given by
102
Another connection to provide subtraction of two signals, this connection uses
only one op-amp stage to provide subtracting
two input signals. Using superposition, we can
show the output to be.
Example : Determine the output voltage of the circuit.
Solution
The resulting output voltage can be expressed as

20𝑘 100𝑘+100𝑘 100𝑘
Vo = -( 20𝑘+20𝑘)( 100𝑘
)V1 - 100𝑘
V2
= V1 – V2
VOLTAGE BUFFER
A voltage buffer circuit provides a means of isolating an input signal from a load
using a stage having unity voltage gain, with no phase or polarity inversion and acting as
an ideal circuit with very high-input impedance and low-output impedance.
103
CONTROLLED SOURCES
Operational amplifiers can be used to form various types of controlled sources.

An input voltage can be used to control an output voltage or current. These types of
connections are suitable for use in various instrumentation circuits.
VOLTAGE –CONTROLLED CURRENT SOURCE
104
CURRENT- CONTROLLED VOLTAGE SOURCE
CURRENT-CONTROLLED CURRENT SOURCE
APPLIED OP-AMP CIRCUITS
AUDIO AMPLIFIER
The audio amplifier in the figure is composed of a transistor sector and an op-amp
sector. Consider first the transistor whose collector voltage feeds the inverting input of
the op-amp. The advantage of using an audio amplifier that contains an op-amp is the
expected high input impedance and low output impedance.
105
INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER
Instrumentation amplifier are a combination of three op-amps that are typically

grouped into two stages. The first two op-amps comprise the fist stage and each I a non-
inverting amplifier. The second stage is a differential amplifier that may or may not have
unity gain. An instrumentation amplifier is beneficial for several reasons:
1. High input impedance, unlike the lower input impedance of a differential

amplifier by itself.
2. High CMRR; the source internal resistances of v1 and v2 do not affect the
total resistance on each input arm.
3. Good for smaller, insignificant input signals
4. Gain of the non-inverting amplifiers(first stage) can be varied by the
rheostat Rc.
106
107
TOPIC 7
FEEDBACK
108
FEEDBACK
FEEDBACK
The process of injecting a fraction of output energy of some device back to the
input.
TYPES
(a) POSITIVE FEEDBACK
When the feedback energy (voltage or current) is in phase with the input
signal and thus aids it.
ADVANTAGES
• increases the gain of the amplifier
DISADVANTAGES
• increased distortion and instability
In the illustration both amplifier and feedback network introduce a phase shift of
180°. The result is a 360° phase shift around the loop, causing the feedback voltage Vf to
be in phase with the input signal Vin.
NOTE: if positive feedback is sufficiently large, it leads to oscillations
OSCILLATORS is a device that converts d.c. power into a.c. power of any desired
frequency.
(b) NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

When the feedback energy (voltage or current) is out of phase with the
input signal and thus opposes it
ADVANTAGES
• reduction in distortion,
A large signal stage has non-linear distortion because its
voltage gain changes at various points in the cycle. The negative
109
voltage feedback reduces the nonlinear distortion in large signal
amplifiers.
• stability in gain,
An important advantage of negative voltage feedback is that
the resultant gain of the amplifier can be made independent of
transistor parameters or the supply voltage variations. As feedback
circuit is usually a voltage divider (a resistive network), therefore, it is
unaffected by changes in temperature, variations in transistor
parameters and frequency. Hence, the gain of the amplifier is
extremely stable.
• Improves frequency response.
As feedback is usually obtained through a resistive network,
therefore, voltage gain of the amplifier is *independent of signal
frequency. The result is that voltage gain of the amplifier will be
substantially constant over a wide range of signal frequency. The
negative voltage feedback, therefore, improves the frequency
response of the amplifier.
• Increases circuit stability.
The output of an ordinary amplifier is easily changed due to
variations in ambient temperature, frequency and signal amplitude.
This changes the gain of the amplifier, resulting in distortion.
However, by applying negative voltage feedback, voltage gain of the
amplifier is stabilised or accurately fixed in value. This can be easily
explained. Suppose the output of a negative voltage feedback
amplifier has increased because of temperature change or due to
some other reason. This means more negative feedback since
feedback is being given from the output. This tends to oppose the
increase in amplification and maintains it stable. The same is true
should the output voltage decrease. Consequently, the circuit
stability is considerably increased.
• Increases input impedance and decreases output impedance.
The negative voltage feedback increases the input impedance
and decreases the output impedance of amplifier. Such a change is
profitable in practice as the amplifier can then serve the purpose of
impedance matching.
DISADVANTAGES
• reduces the gain of the amplifier
110
As you can see on the illustration, the amplifier introduces a phase shift of 180°
into the circuit while the feedback network is so designed that it introduces no phase shift
(i.e., 0° phase shift). The result is that the feedback voltage Vf is 180° out of phase with
the input signal Vin.
NOTE: It is due to these advantages that negative feedback is frequently employed in

amplifiers.
Principles of Negative Voltage Feedback In Amplifiers
A feedback amplifier has two parts viz an amplifier and a feedback circuit. The
feedback circuit usually consists of resistors and returns a fraction of output energy back
to the input. Figure shows the principles of negative voltage feedback in an amplifier.
Typical values have been assumed to make the treatment more illustrative. The output of
the amplifier is 10 V. The fraction mv of this output i.e. 100 mV is fedback to the input
where it is applied in series with the input signal of 101 mV. As the feedback is negative,
therefore, only 1 mV appears at the input terminals of the amplifier.
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(i) When negative voltage feedback is applied, the gain of the amplifier is
reduced. Thus, the gain of above amplifier without feedback is 10,000
whereas with negative feedback, it is only 100.
(ii) When negative voltage feedback is employed, the voltage actually
applied to the amplifier is extremely small. In this case, the signal voltage
is 101 mV and the negative feedback is 100 mV so that voltage applied
at the input of the amplifier is only 1 mV.
(iii) In a negative voltage feedback circuit, the feedback fraction mv is always
between 0 and 1.
(iv) The gain with feedback is sometimes called closed-loop gain while the
gain without feedback is called open-loop gain. These terms come from
the fact that amplifier and feedback circuits form a “loop”. When the
loop is “opened” by disconnecting the feedback circuit from the input,
the amplifier's gain is Av, the “open-loop” gain. When the loop is
“closed” by connecting the feedback circuit, the gain decreases to Avf
, the “closed-loop” gain.
Note :
that amplifier and feedback circuits are connected in series-parallel. The

inputs of amplifier and feedback circuits are in series but the outputs are in parallel.
In practice, this circuit is widely used.
Since with negative voltage feedback the voltage gain is decreased and
current gain remains unaffected, the power gain Ap (= Av × Ai ) will decrease.
However, the drawback of reduced power gain is offset by the advantage of
increased bandwidth.
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE FEEDBACK IN AN OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
FEEDBACK – Feedback can be determined if there is a connection from the output

voltage back to the input [either inverting (-) or noninverting (+)] in an operational
amplifier.
Importance:
• The feedback brings the excess voltage back to the input/s. When the op-
amp is supplied by 10V but the output only requires 8V, the feedback will
bring the excess 2V back to its input;
• It balances the input and output voltages or in other words, it stabilizes
the flow of voltage in an op-amp;
• The output of the op-amp (at to some extents the input also) is
constrained by the power supply, we can't get out more than the supply
puts in or we cannot control the output needed by the load that’s why it
is necessary to have feedback;
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• Circuit characteristics, such as gain, can be precisely controlled, and made
relatively independent of wide variations in active device parameters;
• Circuit characteristics can be made relatively independent of operating
conditions such as supply voltages or temperature;
• Signal distortion, which is a result of the nonlinear nature of active devices,
can be significantly reduced;
• Frequency response and the gain/bandwidth trade-off can be controlled.
Ex:
TYPES OF FEEDBACK
➢ NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
The basic principle of negative feedback is that the output tends to

drive in a direction that creates a condition of equilibrium (balance). In an
op-amp circuit with no feedback, there is no corrective mechanism, and the
output voltage will saturate with the tiniest amount of differential voltage
applied between the inputs. The result is a comparator:
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Whether the output is directly fed back to the inverting (-) input or
coupled through a set of components, the effect is the same: the
extremely high differential voltage gain of the op-amp will be “tamed”
and the circuit will respond according to the dictates of the feedback
“loop” connecting output to inverting input. It is
an electronic amplifier that subtracts a fraction of its output from its input,
so that negative feedback opposes the original signal. The applied
negative feedback improves performance (gain stability, linearity,
frequency response, step response) and reduces sensitivity to parameter
variations due to manufacturing or environment. Because of these
advantages, many amplifiers and control systems use negative feedback.
➢ POSITIVE FEEDBACK
With the inverting input grounded (maintained at zero volts), the

output voltage will be dictated by the magnitude and polarity of the voltage
at the noninverting input. If that voltage happens to be positive, the op-
amp will drive its output positive as well, feeding that positive voltage back
to the noninverting input, which will result in full positive output saturation.
On the other hand, if the voltage on the noninverting input happens to start
out negative, the op-amp’s output will drive in the negative direction,
feeding back to the noninverting input and resulting in full negative
saturation.
So, an op-amp with positive feedback tends to stay in whatever

output state its already in. It “latches” between one of two states,
saturated positive or saturated negative. Technically, this is known
as hysteresis.
114
TOPIC 8
OSCILLATORS
115
OSCILLATOR
OSCILLATOR
> are the sources of sinusoidal electrical waves for electronic communication
systems.
> an amplifier provided with a positive feedback becomes an oscillator.
> are supplied from a dc source and they generate alternating voltages of high or
low frequencies.
BASIC OPERATION OF AN OSCILLATOR
• An amplifier with positive feedback results in oscillations if the following conditions are
satisfied:
>The loop gain ( product of the gain of the amplifier and the gain of the Feedback
network) is unity.
>The total phase shift in the loop is 0.
• If the output signal is sinusoidal, such a circuit is referred to as sinusoidal oscillator.
When the switch at the amplifier input is open, there are no oscillations. Imagine
that a voltage Vi is fed to the circuit and the switch is closed. This results in Vo = AVVi and
βVo = Vf is fed back to the circuit. If we make Vf = Vi, then even if we remove the input
voltage to the circuit, the output continues to exist.
116
Vo = AV Vi
βVo = Vf
β AV Vi = Vf
If Vf has to be same as Vi, then from the above equation, it is clear that, β AV=1.
Thus in the above block diagram, by closing the switch and removing the input, we
are able to get the oscillations at the output if β AV=1, where β AV is called the Loop gain.
feedback refers to the fact that the fed back signal is in phase with the input signal. This
means that the signal experiences 0 degrees phase shift while traveling in the loop.
The above condition along with the unity loop gain needs to be satisfied to get the
sustained oscillations. These conditions are referred to as ‘Barkhausen criterion’.
Another way of seeing how the feedback circuit provides operation as an oscillator
is obtained by noting the denominator in the basic equation
Af = A / (1+ βA).
When βA = -1 or magnitude 1 at a phase angle of 180degrees, the denominator

becomes 0 and the gain with feedback Af becomes infinite. Thus, an infinitesimal signal (
noise voltage) can provide a measurable output voltage, and the circuit acts as an
oscillator even without an input signal.
TYPES OF (FEEDBACK) OSCILLATORS

> RC phase shift oscillator
> Wien bridge Oscillator
> Colpitt’s Oscillator, Hartley Oscillator
> Crystal Oscillator
Phase shift oscillator
• The phase shift oscillator utilizes three RC circuits to provide 180º phase shift that
when coupled with the 180º of the op-amp itself provides the necessary feedback to
sustain oscillations.
• The gain must be at least 29 to maintain the oscillations. The frequency of

resonance for the this type is similar to any RC circuit oscillator:
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FET phase shift oscillator
The amplifier stage is self biased with a capacitor bypassed source resistor Rs
and a drain bias resistor RD. The FET device parameters of interest are gm and rd.
|A| = gmRL, where RL = (RDrd / RD+ rd)
At the operating frequency, we can assume that the input impedance of the amplifier is
infinite. This is a valid approximation provided, the oscillator operating frequency is low
enough so that FET capacitive impedances can be neglected. The output impedance of
the amplifier stage given by RL should also be small compared to the impedance seen
looking into the feedback network so that no attenuation due to loading occurs.
RC Phase shift Oscillator - BJT version
If a transistor is used as the active element of the amplifier stage, the output of
the feedback network is loaded appreciably by the relatively low input resistance (hie) of
the transistor.
118
An emitter – follower input stage followed by a common emitter amplifier stage
could be used.If a single transistor stage is desired, the use of voltage – shunt feedback is
more suitable. Here, the feedback signal is coupled through the feedback resistor R’ in
series with the amplifier stage input resistance ( Ri).
Wien Bridge
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Tuned Oscillator Circuit (Tuned I/P, Tuned O/P circuits)
A variety of circuits can be built using that shown in Figure by providing tuning in
both the I/P and O/P sections of the circuit. Analysis of the circuit in Figure reveals the
following types of oscillators are obtained when the reactance elements are as
designated:
A variety of circuits can be built using the above diagram, by providing tuning in
both the input and output sections of the circuit. Analysis of the above diagram shows
that the following types of Oscillators are obtained when the reactance elements are as
designated:
120
Colpitts Oscillator
FET COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
A practical version of an FET Colpitts oscillator is shown in Figure. The circuit is

basically the same form as shown in the basic configuration with the addition of the
components needed for dc bias of the FET amplifier. The oscillator frequency can be found
to be:
IC Colpitts Oscillator
Again the op-amp provides the basic

amplification needed while the oscillator frequency is
set by an LC feedback network of a Colpitts
configuration. The oscillator frequency is given by the
same equation as before.
121
Hartley Oscillator
The elements in the basic resonant circuit X1

and X2 are (inductors) and X3 (capacitor).
An FET Hartley oscillator circuit is shown in Figure.
Note: that inductors L1 and L2 have mutual coupling,

M, which must be taken into account in determining
the equivalent inductance for the resonant tank circuit.
The frequency of oscillation is given approximately by
122
TOPIC 9
FILTERS
123
FILTERS
INTRODUCTION TO FILTERS
FILTERS
 A filter seperates different components that are mixed together. For instance, a
mechanical filter can separate particles from liquid or small particles from large
particles. An electrical filter can separate different frequency components.
 Generally, inductors and capacitors are used for filtering because of their
opposite frequency characteristics. Inducrive reactance XL increase but capacitive
reactance Xc deacrases with higher frequencies. In addition , their filtering action
depends on whether L and C are in series or in parallel with the load.
EXAMPLES OF FILTERING
Electronic circuits often have currents of different frequencies corresponding to

voltages of different frequencies because a source produces current with the same
frequency as the supply voltage. As examples, the ac signal applied to an audio circuit can
have high and low audio frequencies; an rf circuit can have a wide range of radio
frequencies at its input; the audio ditector in the radio has both radio frequencies and
audio frequencies in the output.
DIRECT CURRENT COMBINED with ALTERNATING CURRENT
Current that varies in ampltitude but does not reverse in polarity is considered
pulsating or fluctuating direct current. It is not a steady direct current because its value
fluctuates. However , it is not AC because the polarity remains the same, either positive or
negative. The same idea apply to voltages.
DC and AC Componets
There are two different ways that electricity is produced, and they are used in most
cases for very different purposes. They can also be converted from one form to another, as
discussed in this section.
124
 Direct current (DC), is the first and simpler type of electricity and its called direct
current, abbreviated "DC". This is the type of electricity that is produced by
batteries, static, and lightning. A voltage is created, and possibly stored, until a
circuit is completed. When it is, the current flows directly, in one direction. In the
circuit, the current flows at a specific, constant voltage (this is oversimplified
somewhat but good enough for our needs.)
 Alternating current (AC), is an electric current in which the flow of electric
chargeperiodically reverses direction, whereas in direct current (DC, also dc), the
flow of electric charge is only in one direction.
*Typical Examples of DC Level with AC Components

 As a common application, transistors and ICs always have fluctuating dc voltage or
current when used for amplifying an ac signal. The transistor or IC amplifier needs
steady dc voltages to operate. Trhe signal input is an ac variations, usually with a
dc axis to establish the desired operating level. The amplified output is also an ac
variation superimposed on a dc supply voltage that supplies the required power
output. Therefore, the input and output circuits have fluctuating dc voltage.
*Separating the AC Component

In many applications, the circuit has pulsating dc voltages, but only the ac
component is desired. Then the ac component can be passed to the load, while the steady
dc component is blocked, either by transformer coupling or by capacitive coupling. A
transformer with a separate secondary winding isolates or blocks steady direct current in
the primary. A capacitor isolates or blocks a steady dc voltage.
*Transformers Coupling
 Remember that a transformer produces induced secondary voltage just for
variations in primary current. With pulsating direct current in the primary, the
secondary has output voltage, therefore, only on the ac variations. The steady dc
component in the primary has no effect in the secondary.
*Capacitive Coupling
• Capacitive coupling is the transfer of energy within an electrical network or
between distant networks by means of displacement currents induced by existing
electric fields between circuit(s) nodes. This coupling can have an intentional or
accidental effect. In its simplest implementation, capacitive coupling is achieved by
placing a capacitor in series between two nodes.[1] In its general form the coupling
is described by a capacitance matrix Cij. Where Cii are self-capacitance coefficients
and Cij i≠j are mutual capacitance coefficients.
*Bypass Capacitor
 A bypass is a path around a component. In circuits, the bypass is a parallel or
shunt path. Capacitors are often used in parallel with resistance to bypass the ac
component of a pulsating dc voltage. The result, then, is steady dc voltage across
the RC parallel combination, if the bypass capacitance is large enough to have little
reactance at the lowest frequency of the ac variations.
125
*The DC Component Across C
 The voltages across CC is the steady dc component of the input voltage

because of the variations of the ac component are symmetrical above and below
the average level. Furthermore, the series resustance is the same for change and
discharge. As a result, any increase in charging voltage above the average level is
counteracted by an equal discharge below the average.
*The AC Component Across R
• Although CC is charge to the average dc level, when the pulsating input voltage
varies above and below this level, the charge and discharge current produces IR
voltage corresponding to the fluctuation of the input. When Vi n increase above the
average level Cc takes on charge, producing charging current through R. Even
though the charging current may be too small to affect the voltage across C c
appreciably, the IR drop across a large value of resistance can be practically equal
to the ac component of the input voltage. In summary, a long RC time constant is
needed for good coupling.
Filter Circuits
 In terms of their function, filters can be classified as either low-pass or high-pass.
A low-pass filter allows the lower frequency components of the applied voltage to
develop output voltage acroos the load resistance, whereas the higher filter does
the opposite , allowing the higher frequencies components are attenuated, or
reduced, in the output. A high-pass filter does the opposite, allowing the higher
frequency components of the applied voltage to develop voltage across the output
load resistance.
 An RC coupling circuit is an example of a high-pass filter because the ac
component of the input voltage is develop across R while the dc voltage is blocked
by the series capacitor.
HIGH-PASS FILTER
A high-pass filter is an electronic filter that passes signals with

a frequency higher than a certain cutoff frequency andattenuates signals with frequencies
lower than the cutoff frequency. The amount of attenuation for each frequency depends
on the filter design. A high-pass filter is usually modeled as a linear time-invariant system.
It is sometimes called a low-cut filter or bass-cut filter.[1] High-pass filters have many uses,
such as blocking DC from circuitry sensitive to non-zero average voltages or radio
frequency devices. They can also be used in conjunction with a low-pass filter to produce
abandpass filter.
126
where fc is in hertz, τ is in seconds, R is in ohms, and C is in farads.
 Figure shows an active electronic implementation of a first-order high-pass filter

using an operational amplifier. In this case, the filter has a passband gain of -
R2/R1 and has a cutoff frequency of
Passband and Stopband

 Passband - A passband is the range of frequencies or wavelengths that can pass
through a filter. For example, a radio receivercontains a bandpass filter to select
the frequency of the desired radio signal out of all the radio waves picked up by
its antenna. The passband of a receiver is the range of frequencies it can receive.
• Stopband - A passband is the range of frequencies or wavelengths that can pass
through a filter. For example, a radio receivercontains a bandpass filter to select the
frequency of the desired radio signal out of all the radio waves picked up by its
antenna. The passband of a receiver is the range of frequencies it can receive.
*Frequency Response
 Frequency response is the quantitative measure of the output spectrum of a
system or device in response to a stimulus, and is used to characterize the dynamics
of the system. It is a measure of magnitude and phase of the output as a function
of frequency, in comparison to the input. In simplest terms, if a sine wave is
injected into a system at a given frequency, alinear system will respond at that
same frequency with a certain magnitude and a certain phase angle relative to the
input.
*RC Low-pass filter

• One simple low-pass filter circuit consists of a resistor in series with a load, and a
capacitor in parallel with the load. The capacitor exhibits reactance, and blocks low-
frequency signals, forcing them through the load instead. At higher frequencies the
reactance drops, and the capacitor effectively functions as a short circuit.
• The break frequency, also called the turnover frequency or cutoff frequency (in
hertz), is determined by the time constant:
127
Important Terms:
 Attenuation – a reduction in signal amplitude.
 Band-Pass Filter – a filter designed to pass only a specific band of frequencies from
its input to its output.
 Band-Stop Filter – a filter designed to block or severely attenuate only a specific
band of frequencies.
 Bypass Capacitor – a capacitor that bypasses or shunts the ac component of a
pulsating the dc voltage around a component such as a resistor.
 Crystal Filter – a filter made of a crystalline material such as quartz.
 Cutoff Frequencies – the frequency at which the attenuation of a filter reduces the
output amplitude to 70.7% of its value in the basspand.
 Decade – a 10 to 1 range in frequencies.
 Fluctuating DC – a dc voltage or current that varies in magnitude but does not
reverse in polarity or direction.
 Pulsating DC – a dc voltage or current that varies in magnitude but does not reverse
in polarity or direction.
 RC Band-Stop Filter – a high-pass filter can also be combined with a low-pass
filter when it is desired to block or severely attenuate a certain band of frequencies.
 RC Band-Pass Filter - a high-pass filter can also be combined with a low-pass filter
when it desire to pass only a certain band of frequencies.
In general, there are two classifications of filters:
1. Passive filters are those filters composed of series or parallel combinations of R, L, and
C elements.
2. Active filters are filters that employ active devices such as transistors and operational
amplifiers in combination with R, L, and C elements.
In general, however, all filters below are the four broad categories of Passive Filter:
1. Low-pass filter a low-pass filter is a circuit offering easy passage to low-frequency

signals and difficult passage to high-frequency signals. There are two basic kinds of circuits
capable of accomplishing this objective, and many variations of each one.
This can be obtained as

1 𝑅
Fc= 2𝜋𝑅𝐶 Fc= 2𝜋𝐿
The inductive low-pass filter:

The inductor’s impedance increases with
increasing frequency. This high impedance in
series tends to block high-frequency signals
from getting to the load. Therefore, The
response of an inductive low-pass filter falls off
with increasing frequency.
128
Capacitive low-pass filter.
The capacitor’s impedance decreases with
increasing frequency. This low impedance in
parallel with the load resistance tends to short out
high-frequency signals, dropping most of the
voltage across series resistor R1. Therefore, the
response of a capacitive low-pass filter falls off with increasing
frequency.
All low-pass filters are rated at a certain cutoff frequency. In a simple

capacitive/resistive low-pass filter, it is the frequency at which capacitive reactance in
ohms equals resistance in ohms. The cutoff frequency is given as:
1 𝑅
Fc= 2𝜋𝑅𝐶 Fc= 2𝜋𝐿
The voltage gain below the cutoff frequency is constant at

𝑅F
Av = 1 +
𝑅G
That is, the frequency above which the output voltage falls below 70.7% of the input
voltage. This cutoff percentage of 70.7 is not really arbitrary, all though it may seem so at
first glance.
High Pass Filter passes high frequencies and rejects low frequencies
This can be obtained as:
1
Fc= 2𝜋𝑅𝐶
Capacitive high-pass filter.

The capacitor’s impedance increases with
decreasing frequency. This high impedance in
series tends to block low-frequency signals from
getting to load. Therefore, The response of the
capacitive high-pass filter increases with
frequency.
The capacitor’s impedance increases with decreasing frequency. This high

impedance in series tends to block low-frequency signals from getting to load.
Therefore, The response of the capacitive high-pass filter increases with frequency.
129
Inductive high-pass filter.
The inductor’s impedance decreases
with decreasing frequency. This low
impedance in parallel tends to short out
low-frequency signals from getting to the
load resistor. As a consequence, most of
the voltage gets dropped across series
resistor R1. therefore, The response of the inductive high-pass filter
increases with frequency.
The cutoff frequency for a high-pass filter is that frequency at which the output (load)
voltage equals 70.7% of the input (source) voltage. Above the cutoff frequency, the output
voltage is greater than 70.7% of the input, and vice versa.
3. Band – Pass Filters
Filter circuits can be designed to accomplish this task by combining the properties
of low-pass and high-pass into a single filter. The result is called a band-pass filter.
A band-pass filter works to screen out frequencies that are too low or too high, giving
easy passage only to frequencies within a certain range. Band-pass filters can be made by
stacking a low-pass filter on the end of a high-pass filter, or vice versa. Bandpass filters
are designed to pass all frequencies within a band of frequencies, 1<<2
130
Capacitive band-pass filter.
The response of a capacitive bandpass filter peaks within a narrow frequency range.
Example of Band-pass Filter

Calculate the cutoff frequencies of the bandpass filter circuit with R1 = R2 = 10 k, C1 =
0.1 mF, and C2 = 0.002 mF.
131
4. Band-stop Filters
Also called band-elimination, band-reject, or notch filters, this kind of filter passes
all frequencies above and below a particular range set by the component values. Not
surprisingly, it can be made out of a low-pass and a high-pass filter, just like the band-
pass design, except that this time we connect the two filter sections in parallel with each
other instead of in series.
Band-Stop Filter
However, a frequency such as for in

the reject-band is higher than the
low-pass critical frequency and
lower than the high-pass critical
frequency, and is therefore
prevented from contributing to the
levels of Vo above 0.707Vmax.
132
The following are the Active Filters:
First Order Low Pass Filter
Example of a Low-pass Filter

Calculate the cutoff frequency of a first-order low-pass filter for R1 = 1.2 k and C1 = 0.02
mF.
Second Order Low Pass Filter
First Order High Pass Filter

The figure shows a typical high pass filter
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑍𝑓
H() = = − 𝑍𝑖
𝑉𝑖𝑛
1
The corner frequency is c =𝑅𝑖𝐶𝑖 or FoH = 1/2RC
Except that at very high frequencies Where →∞, the gain
𝑅𝑓
tends to - 𝑅𝑖
133
2. High-pass Filter
A high-pass filter’s task is to offer easy passage of a high-frequency signal and

difficult passage to a low-frequency signal. First- and second-order high-pass active filters
can be built. The amplifier gain is calculated
with a second-order filter R1 = R2, and C1= C2 results in the same cutoff frequency.
Example for a First Order High Pass Filter

Calculate the corner frequency of the given circuit, where Ci=47nF, Ri = 4k , Rf= 10k,
Vi= 5v, Vo= 11v.
1 1
c = =
𝑅𝑖𝐶𝑖 (4000)(47𝑛𝐹)
c= 5.3191KHz
Example for High Pass Filter

Calculate the cutoff frequency of a second-order high-pass filter as for R1 = R2 = 2.1 k,
C1 = C2 = 0.05 mF, and RG = 10 k, RF = 50 k.
134
Active Bandpass Filter
By cascading a unity gain lowpass filter, a unity gain high pass filter, and an inverter with
gain –Rf/Ri, we can construct a bandpass filter whose frequency response is shown in the
bode plot. The actual construction of bandpass filter is shown below.
Active Bandpass Filter

The low pass section sets the upper corner frequency as
1 1
2= or fOL = (Hz)
𝑅𝐶1 2𝑅𝐶2
The high pass section sets the lower corner frequency as
1 1
 1= 𝑅𝐶2 or fOH = 2𝑅𝐶2(Hz)
Thus, the band pass gain , k
𝑅𝑓 F𝑜𝑙
K= 𝑅𝑖 𝐹𝑜𝑙+𝐹𝑜ℎ
 = 2f = (Hz)
135
Example of Active Bandpass Filter
Design a bandpass filter to pass frequencies

Between 250Hz and 3000Hz and with K=10, R=20k, Ri= 10k , Vo= 10.829v , Vi=
1.414245
Solution:
1
1= 𝑅𝐶2
1 1 1
C2= 𝑅1 = 2𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑅 = 2 (250)(20𝑥103 )= 31.83 nF
1 1 1
C1 = 𝑅2 = 2𝑓𝑜𝐻𝑅=2 (3000)(20𝑥103 ) = 2.65 nF
𝑅𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑙+𝑓𝑜𝐻 10 (3250)
=𝐾 = = 10.83
𝑅𝑖 𝑓𝑜𝐻 3000
Rf=10.83(Ri) = 10.83(10 000) = Rf=108.3k
Bandreject (or Notch) Filter bandreject filter may be constructed by parallel

combination of a lowpass filter and a highpass filter and a summing amplifier
𝑅𝑓
This indicates that two passbands (→0 𝑎𝑛𝑑→𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦), the gain K, is K= 𝑅𝑖
The low pass section sets the upper corner frequency as

1 1
1= 𝑅𝐶1 (rad/s) or fOL = 2𝑅𝐶1(Hz)
The high pass section sets the lower corner frequency as

1 1
2= 𝑅𝐶2 (rad/s) or FoH =2𝑅𝐶2 (Hz)
And for finding the gain at the center frequency , where K(o)
𝑅𝑓 21 𝑅𝑓 2f𝑂𝐿
(o)= 𝑅𝑖 1+2 (rad/s) or Fo= (Hz)
𝑅𝑖 f𝑂𝐿+f𝑂𝐻
136
Example of Bandreject (or Notch) Filter
Design a notch filter for fOH = 1.43kHz, K= 5, R=Ri= 10k. fOL= 1.75kHz
𝑅𝑓
K=𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑓 = 𝐾𝑅𝑖 = (5)(20 20krad/s,) = 50k
1 1
C1=2𝑝(𝑓𝑂𝐿)𝑅 = 2𝑝(1.75𝑘𝐻𝑧)(10000) = 9.09nF
1 1
C2= 2𝑝(𝑓𝑂𝐻)𝑅 = 2𝑝(1.43𝑘ℎ𝑧)(10000) = 11.13nF
Rf= K (Ri) = 5(10 000) = 50k
Types of Filters:
Filter Capacitor
A filter capacitor is a capacitor which filters out a certain frequency or range of frequencies
from a circuit.
Usually capacitors filter out very low frequency signals. These are signals that are very
close to 0Hz in frequency value. These are also referred to as DC signals.
How Filter Capacitors Work
How filter capacitors work is based on the principle of capacitive reactance.
Capacitive reactance is how the impedance (or resistance) of a capacitor changes
in regard to the frequency of the signal passing through it. Resistors are
nonreactive devices. This means that resistors offer the same resistance to a signal,
regardless of the signal's frequency. This means, for example, that a signal of 1Hz
and a signal of 100KHZ, will pass through a resistor with the same resistance.
Frequency isn't a factor. However, a capacitor is not like this. A capacitor is a
reactive device. Its resistance, or impedance, will vary according to the frequency
of the signal passing through. Capacitors are reactive devices which offer higher
resistance to lower frequency signals and, conversely, lower resistance to higher
frequency signals, according to the formula XC= 1/2πfc.
Being that a capacitor offers different impedance values to different frequency signals, it
can act effectively as a resistor in a circuit.
Filter Capacitor Circuit To Block DC and Pass AC
Being that capacitors have offer very high resistance to low frequency signals and
low resistance to high frequency signals, it acts as a high pass filter, which is a filter
which passes high frequency signals and blocks low frequency signals.
Many times in a circuit, both DC and AC signals need to be both be used in a circuit,
at least at a certain stage of the circuit. However, at another stage, in the circuit,
we may only want AC signals and the DC taken out. An example of such a circuit is
a microphone circuit. We need DC as input to the microphone for it to be able to
be powered on and we need AC as input, which represents the voice signal or
music, etc. which we want the microphone to record.
How do we filter out the DC component of the signal?
We use a capacitor to filter out the DC signal.
137
We do this by placing the capacitor in series. In this configuration, which is the circuit you
see below, this is a capacitive high-pass filter. Low frequency, or DC, signals will be
blocked.
Usually, a 0.1µF ceramic capacitor, or value around that range, is placed after the signal
that contains both DC and AC signals. And this capacitor filters out the DC component so
that only AC goes through
Being that a capacitor offers different impedance values to different frequency signals, it
can act effectively as a resistor in a circuit. We will explain below how using actual circuits.
We do this by placing the capacitor in series. In this configuration, which is the circuit you
see below, this is a capacitive high-pass filter. Low frequency, or DC, signals will be
blocked.
Filter Capacitor Circuit To Filter Out AC Signals

In the same way that capacitors can act as high-pass
filters, to pass high frequencies and block DC, they can
act as low-pass filters, to pass DC signals and block AC.
Instead of placing the capacitor in series with the
component, the capacitor will be placed in parallel.
The above is a high-frequency capacitive filter. Remember that current takes the path
of least resistance. Since a capacitor offers very low resistance to high frequency signals,
high frequency signals will go through the capacitor. In this way, with the circuit in this
configuration, the circuit is a high frequency filter. Low frequency current signals will not
go through the capacitor, because it offers too much resistance to low frequency signals.
Only high frequency signals go through.
Series Inductor Filter

Filter Circuit – Most of the electronic circuits require a dc voltage that is constant, similar
to the voltage from a battery but the rectifiers cannot provide ripple free dc voltage. They
provide a pulsating dc. The circuit used for filtering or smoothing out the ac variations
from the rectified voltage is called as `Filter circuit.
Series Inductor Filter:
The circuit diagram and waveforms of series inductor filter is shown below:
138
Series Inductor Filter
Series Inductor Filter – An inductor opposes any change in the current flowing through it.
Whenever the current through an inductor tends to change, a back emf is induced in it.
This prevents the change in current.
Inductive reactance XL = 2π* f*L. For dc, f = 0, therefore direct current easily passes
through inductor to the load. Only opposition to dc is due to internal resistance of choke.
The reactance increases with frequency. Therefore ac component is opposed. The output
waveform shows a large dc component and a small ac component.
The operation of a series inductor filter depends upon the current through it. The
higher the current flowing through it, the better is its filtering action. An increase in load
current reduces the ripples.
L-C Filters
In the simple shunt capacitor filter circuit explained above, we have concluded that
the capacitor will reduce the ripple voltage, but causes the diode current to increase .This
large current may damage the diode and will further cause heating problem and decrease
the efficiency of the filter. On the other hand, a simple series inductor reduces both the
peak and effective values of the output current and output voltage. Then if we combine
both the filter (L and C), a new filter called the L-C filter can be designed which will have
a good efficiency, with restricted diode current and enough ripple removal factor .The
voltage stabilizing action of shunt capacitor and the current smoothing action of series
inductor filter can be combined to form a perfect practical filter circuit.
L-C filters can be of two types: Choke Input L-section Filter and L-C Capacitor input filter
a. Choke Input L-Section Filter (inductance input filter)

An inductor filter increases the ripple factor with the increase in load current Rload. A
capacitor filter has an inversely proportional ripple factor with respect to load resistance.
Economically, both inductor filter and capacitor filter are not suitable for high end purpose
L-C inductor input or L-section filter consists of an inductor ‘ L’ connected in series
with a half or full wave rectifier and a capacitor ’C’ across the load. This arrangement
is also called a choke input filter or L-section filter because it’s shape resembles and
inverted L-shape. To increase the smoothing action using the filter circuit, just one L-C
circuit will not be enough. Several L-section filters will be arranged to obtain a smooth
filtered output. The circuit diagram and smoothened waveform of a Full wave rectifier
output is shown below.
139
L-C Filter Inductor input L-Section Filter
As shown in the circuit diagram above, the inductor L allows the dc to pass but
restricts the flow of ac components as its dc resistance is very small and ac impedance is
large. After a signal passes through the choke, if there is any fluctuation remaining the
current, it will be fully bypassed before it reaches the load by the shunt capacitor because
the value of Xc is much smaller than Rload. The number of ripples can be reduced to a
great amount by making the value of XL greater than Xc at ripple frequency.
Ripple Factor
Ripple Factor = Vac rms/Vdc = (√2/3)(Xc/XL) = (√2/3)(1/[2wc])(1/[2wL]) = 1/(6√2w2LC)
Though the L-C filter has all these advantages, it has now become quite obsolete
due the huge size of inductors and its cost of manufacturing. Nowadays, IC voltage
regulators are more commonly used along with active filters, that reduce the ripples and
keeps the output dc voltage constant.
The diagram of L-C Capacitor input filter and waveform is shown below.
b. Π – Filter (capacitance input filter )
The name pi – Filter implies to the resemblance of the circuit to a Π shape with two
shunt capacitances (C1 and C2) and an inductance filter ‘L’. As the rectifier output is
provided directly into the capacitor it also called a capacitor input filter.
The output from the rectifier is first given to the shunt capacitor C. The rectifier used
can be half or full wave and the capacitors are usually electrolytic even though they large
in size. In practical applications, the two capacitances are enclosed in a metal container
which acts as a common ground for the two capacitors. Circuit diagram and the waveform
are given below.
L-C Filter-Capaitor input Filter

When compared to other type of filters, the Π – Filter has some advantages like
higher dc voltage and smaller ripple factor. But it also has some disadvantages like poor
voltage regulation, high peak diode current, and high peak inverse voltage.
This filter is divided into two – a capacitor filter and a L-section filter. The capacitor
C1 does most of the filtering in the circuit and the remaining ripple os removed by the L-
section filter (L-C2). C1 is selected to provide very low reactance to the ripple frequency.
140
The voltage regulation is poor for this circuit as the output voltage falls off rapidly with
the increase in load current.
Ripple Factor
Ripple Factor = √2/(8w3C1C2LRload)
R-C Filter
If we use a resistance in series, instead of the inductor as the filter, these drawbacks
can be overcome. Thus the circuit is named as R-C filter. In this circuit, the ripples have to
be made to drop across the resistance R instead of the load resistance RL. For this, the
value of RL is kept much larger than the value of reactance of capacitor C2 (XC2). This
means that each section reduces the ripple by a factor of at least 10.
R-C Filter
Though the circuit nullifies certain drawbacks of the pi-filter, the circuit on its own
has some problems as well. The filter has very poor voltage regulation. There is a large
voltage drop in the resistance R. The circuit also develops a lot of heat and this has to be
dissipated through enough and adequate ventilation. Thus, the filter is only suitable for
small load current or large load resistance circuits.
141
TOPIC 10
INTEGRATED
CIRCUITS
142
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
An integrated circuit (also referred

to as an IC, a chip, or a microchip) is a set
of electronic circuits on one small plate ("chip") of
semiconductor materials, normally silicon. This can
be made much smaller than a discrete circuit made
from independent electronic components.
IC’s can be made very compact,

having up to several billion transistors and other
electronic components in an area the size of a human fingernail. The width of each
conducting line in a circuit can be made smaller and smaller as the technology advances;
in 2008 it dropped below 100 nanometers, and has now been reduced to tens of
nanometers.
Integrated circuits are used in virtually all electronic equipment today and
have revolutionized the world of electronics. Computers, mobile phones, and other digital
home appliances are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies, made
possible by the low cost of ICs.
The MC68030 is a microprocessor un it that is the heart of microcomputer

manufactured by companied such as Apple, Hewlett Packard, Motorola. Its size is 9/32 in.
by ¼ in.
Types of Intergrated Circuits (IC)

 Monolithic Intergrated Circuits
 Thin (or Thick) Film Intergrated Circuits
 Hybrid Intergrated Circuits
Integrated Circuit(IC) , also known as chip is like a city. A city with no people but
busting with activity. A chip is packed with industrial building. Control centers in a form
of component such as transistor and resistor, which together form one huge network.
Film Integrated Circuit are broken down into two categories:
1. Thin Film
2. Thick Film
Film components are made of either conductive or nonconductive material that is

deposited in desired patterns on a ceramic or glass substrate. Film can only be used as
passive circuit components, such as resistors and capacitors. Transistors and/or diodes are
added to the substrate to complete the circuit.
143
These devices are larger than monolithic ICs but smaller than discrete circuits. These
ICs can be used when power requirement is comparatively higher.
With a thin-or thick film IC, the passive components like resistors and capacitors are
integrated, but the transistors and diodes are connected as discrete components to form
a complete circuit.
Though both the IC’s have similar appearance, properties, and general
characteristics, the main difference between the two of them is the manner in which the
film is deposited on to the IC.
Thin Film Integrated Circuit
This IC is fabricated by depositing films of conducting material on the surface of a

glass or ceramic base.
TWO METHODS:
1. Vacuum Evaporation
Vaporized material is deposited on a substrate contained in a vacuum.
2. Cathode-Sputtering Technique
Cathode made of the desired film material are deposited on a substrate located
between a cathode and an anode.
VACUUM EVAPORATION
Vacuum evaporation is also a form of physical vapor deposition used in

the semiconductor, microelectronics, and optical industries and in this context is a
process of depositing thin films of material onto surfaces. Such a technique consists of
pumping a vacuum chamber to pressures of less than 10−5 torr and heating a material to
produce a flux of vapor in order to deposit the material onto a surface. The material to be
vaporized is typically heated until its vapor pressure is high enough to produce a flux of
several Angstroms per second by using an electrically resistive heater or bombardment
by a high voltage beam.
144
CATHODE- SPUTTERING TECHNIQUE
Sputtering is a technique used to deposit

thin films of a material onto a surface (a.k.a.
"substrate"). By first creating a gaseous
plasma and then accelerating the ions
from this plasma into some source
material (a.k.a. "target"), the source
material is eroded by the arriving ions via
energy transfer and is ejected in the form
of neutral particles - either individual
atoms, clusters of atoms or molecules. As
these neutral particles are ejected they will
travel in a straight line unless they come
into contact with something - other
particles or a nearby surface. If a
"substrate" such as a Si wafer is placed in
the path of these ejected particles it will be
coated by a thin film of the source
material.
Thick Film Integrated Circuit
They are also commonly called as printed thin film circuits. The desired circuit
pattern is obtained on a ceramic substance by using a manufacturing process called silk-
screen printing technique.
The inks used for printing are usually materials that have resistive, conductive, or
dielectric properties. They are selected accordingly by the manufacturer. The screens are
actually made of fine stainless steel wire mesh. The films are fused to the substrate after
printing by placing them in hot high temperature furnaces.
145
APPLICATION OF FILM IC:
Digital IC
Advantages of Thin and Thick Film IC
1. Better tolerance
2. Better isolation between components
3. Greater flexibility in circuit design
4. Help in providing high frequency performance
Disadvantages of Thin and Thick Film IC
1. Costly in making
2. Higher dimensions than monolithic ICs
3. Cannot be used to fabricate active components which further increase the size
Hybrid Integraded Circuits
Introduction
• A hybrid integrated circuit, HIC, hybrid microcircuit, or simply hybrid is a

miniaturized electronic circuit constructed of individual devices, such as
semiconductor devices (e.g. transistors and diodes) and passive components (e.g.
resistors, inductors, transformers, and capacitors), bonded to a substrate or printed
circuit board (PCB).
• Hybrid circuits are often encapsulated in epoxy, as shown in the photo.
146
• A hybrid circuit serves as a component on a PCB in the same way as a monolithic
integrated circuit; the difference between the two types of devices is in how they
are constructed and manufactured.
• HYBRID INTEGRATED CIRCUITS combine two or more integrated circuit types or

combine one or more integrated circuit types and DISCRETE (separate)
components.
• a hybrid microcircuit, an integrated circuit that has microminiature components

(transistors, semiconductor diodes, inductors, and so on) mounted on it, in addition
to the usual elements that are permanently connected on the surface or contained
within the material of the substrate. Depending on the method of fabricating the
permanently connected elements, they may be classified as hybrid-film or
semiconductor integrated circuits.
• The resistors, capacitors, contact areas, and electrical conductors in hybrid

integrated circuits are fabricated either by the successive deposition of various
materials on the substrate in a vacuum (the mask deposition method and the
photolithographic method) or by applying materials in the form of films (by such
processes as the chemical method or the silk-screen method).
• the mounted components are attached to a substrate having film elements, and
their leads are connected to the corresponding contact areas by soldering or
welding. As a rule, hybrid integrated circuits are placed in a housing and are
hermetically sealed. Their use in an electronic apparatus increases its reliability and
reduces both its size and weight.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MONOLITHIC AND HYBRID IC
• A monlithic integrated circuit has the full circuit constructed on a single piece of
silicon or other semiconductor, then (usually) enclosed in a package with
connecting leads.
• A Hybrid circuit consists of a (often ceramic) substrate carrying one or more silicon
chips (which may themselves be monolithic integrated circuits, individual diodes,
or transistors). Resistors and conductive tracks may be deposited on the substrate,
and other parts may be soldered to the tracks to form a complete circuit.
ADVANTAGES OF HYBRID IC
• *Reduced Size
147
• Hybrids usually contain un-packaged semiconductors which are typically <10% of
the volume of the packaged devices used on PCB assemblies. Resistors are laser-
trimmed printed ink squares on the tracklayer instead of discrete components used
on PCB assemblies.
• High temperature
• Hybrids utilize components which are increasingly capable of long term operation
at up to 200ºC. The component industry is now moving toward 250ºC operation.
Ultra Electronics, CEMS is building on early EXperience of hybrid design designing
and fabricating high temperature hybrids. By using these emerging parts, that
capability is further extended.
• Single tested component
• A hybrid may contain a thousand devices but when it is received by the customer
it is one device which has been tested thoroughly to the agreed specification.
• Simplified PCBs
• As most interconnections are contained within the hybrid, the number of external
connections is substantially reduced, resulting in less complex and lower cost host
PCBs.
EXAMPLES OF HYBRID INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
• Hybrid circuits are electronic modules printed on ceramic

substrates. A technology in between semiconductor
integration and discrete realization on PCB technology.
Possibility of high thermal loading, high reliability and life
time, good long term performance and excellent tracking of
resistors and good electromagnetic compatibility are just a
few of many special features of thick film hybrid technology.
• Hybrid circuits are commonly used, when electronic modules have to meet high
technical requirements. Among others, this is proved by the internationally
successful German Automotive industry. The applications range from motor and
gear control units to security and comfort electronics
References
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit
Robert L. Boylestad
148

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Prepared by: Engr. Maurine C. Panergo

Course Code : ECE02

Pre-requisite : The basic prerequisites for this module is Electronics 1 Electronic

Course Description: High frequency transistor models; analysis of transistor circuits;

Credit : 3 units, 3 hours per week

Suggested Readings and References:

a. Electronic Devices by Floyd (10th edition), 2012

Are you ready to learn ECE02?

SELF- EVALUTION QUESTIONS:

To visualize the operation of a transistor in an amplifier circuit, it is often useful to

• Become familiar with re and hybrid model

BJT Transistor Modeling

The re Transistor Model

We know that from diode equation re is defined as follows

Applying KVL to input and out circuit of figure we will get

Example: (From Textbook- Boylestad)

Current gain from voltage gain:

Common-Emitter Emitter-Bias Configuration

Two port devices & Network Parameters

Hybrid parameters (or) h – parameters

V1 = h11 i1 + h12 V2 i2 = h21 i1 + h22 V2

The dimensions of h – parameters are as follows:

hi = h11 = Short circuit input impedance

Transistor Hybrid model

Essentially, the transistor model is a three terminal two – port system.

For analysis of transistor amplifier we have to determine the following terms:

Output Admittance: It is defined

The resistance rbb' is the base spreading resistance.

FET Small-Signal Model

The relationship of a change in ID to the corresponding change in VGS is called

Transconductance is denoted gm and given by:

Where VGS =0V 2I DSS

yos= admittance parameter listed on FET specification sheets

FET AC Equivalent Circuit

• Common-Source (CS) Fixed-Bias Circuit

Common-Source (CS) Self-Bias Circuit

Common-Source (CS) Voltage-Divider Bias

The input is on the source and the output is on the drain.

Check the AC voltages:

• Bode and Nyquist plots for control analysis

Frequency response of an amplifier is the change in gain or phase shift over a

• At frequencies above and below the midrange, capacitance and any

General Frequency Considerations:

Logarithms and Decibels:

Logarithms taken to the base 10 are referred to as common logarithms, while

Some relationships hold true for logarithms to any base

Practically, so the decibel (dB) was defined such that:

. To determine the resulting difference in decibels between the power levels,

Applying the proper logarithmic relationship results in

Example 5: Find the magnitude gain corresponding to a decibel gain of 100.

and the short-circuit equivalent can be substituted for the

For the special case where XC = R,

The frequency at which this occurs is determined from

and in terms of logs,

While at Av = Vo/Vi = 1 or Vo = Vi (the maximum value)

For the magnitude when f = f1

Low Frequency Analysis-BJT Amplifiers:

The analysis of this section will employ the loaded