Effect of Internal Transistor Capacitances:

At high frequencies, the coupling and bypass

capacitors act as short circuit due to their reactance,
and do not affect the amplifier response.

But the internal junction capacitances will come into

play.

They reduce the amplifier gain as the signal frequency is

increased, introduce unwanted phase shift. Fig shows
the internal p-n junction capacitances for a BIT and
FET.
 Interelectrode capacitance Interelectrode capacitance
betweem B and C betweem G and D

Interelectrode capacitance Interelectrode capacitance

betweem B and E betweem G and S

Fig. Internal transistor capacitances

For a BJT, Cbe is the base-emitter junction

capacitance and Cbc is the collector to base junction
capacitance. For a JFET, Cgs is the gate to source
capacitance and Cgd is the capacitance between
gate and drain.
Effect of Cgs or Cbe :

When the reactance of Cbe or Cgs becomes very small (at

high frequencies), a large portion of input signal is lost
due to a low voltage developed across these
capacitances as shown in Fig. (a). This will ultimately
reduce the amplifier output and gain.
90mV

100mV 90mV 100mV

10 mV

10 mV
Effect of Cbc : • When the reactance of Cbc or Cgd
becomes very small, a large portion of output
voltage is fed back to the base.

• This feedback voltage is out of phase with the

input signal Vi, so the effective input to amplifier is
reduced which ultimately reduces the output voltage
and gain.

The effect of Cbc illustrated in Fig.(b).

• Thus the internal capacitances reduce the

amplifier gain at high frequencies.
Note :
The effects of coupling, bypass and internal
capacitors discussed so far are applicable. it is
applicable to the JFET amplifiers.
Impact of various capacitors depend on the
frequency of interest
 The Decibel

The decibel is a common unit of measurement of voltage

gain and frequency response. It is a logarithmic
measurement of the ratio of one power to another or one
voltage to another.

The formulas below are used for calculation of decibels for

power gain and voltage gain.
Ap(db) = 10 log Ap, where Ap = output power/input power
Av(db) = 20 log Av, where Ap = output voltage/input voltage

If Av is > 1, dB gain is +ve. If Av is < 1, dB gain is –ve and

usually called attenuation.
 The Decibel
-0 dB reference-
• 0 dB (actual voltage gain =1)  used as a
reference gain with which to compare other values of
gains.
• Maximum gain occurs in range of frequencies between
upper and lower critical frequencies; is called
midrange gain and assigned as 0 dB value.
• Any value of gain below midrange is expressed as a –
ve dB value.
• If midrange Av is 100, gain at a certain frequency below
midrange is 50, this reduced Av is expressed as
20log(50/100)= -6 dB. This indicates 6 dB below
0 dB reference.
• Halving o/p voltage for a steady i/p voltage is
always 6 dB reduction in gain.
• Doubling o/p voltage is always 6 dB increase in
gain.
Figure shows a normalized gain vs frequency curve for
several dB points. Normalized means midrange voltage
gain is assigned a value of 1 or 0 dB.

When the gain is halved,

The gain decreases by -6 dB
The critical frequency, also known as the cutoff frequency or
corner frequency, is the frequency at which the output power
drops by 3 dB, which represents one-half of its midrange value.

Ap(dB) = 10 log(0.5) = -3dB

An output voltage drop of 3 dB represents about a 70.7% drop

from the midrange value.

Av(dB) = 20 log(0.707) = -3dB

 Miller’s Theorem

This theorem simplifies the analysis of feedback

amplifiers.

The theorem states that if an impedance is

connected between the input side and the output
side of a voltage amplifier, this impedance can be
replaced by two equivalent impedances, i.e. one
connected across the input and the other connected
across the output terminals.
 Miller equivalent circuit
IMPEDANCE
V2  V1
I2 
V1  V2 Z Z
I1 
Z
I1 I2 V2   A V1
V2   A V1 -A
 1
V2 1  
V1 (1  A) V1 V1 V2  A 
I1   I2 
Z  Z  Z
 
1  A 
V2
I2 
 
 Z 
 
INPUT OUTPUT 1  1 
 A 
 
 V2
I2 
 
 Z 
V1  
I1  1  1 
 Z  -A
 A 
1  A   
V ZM1 ZM2 V
 Z   
V1 1 2
V2  Z 
   
I1 1  A   1
I2 1  
 A
 Z 
ZM1     
1  A   Z 
ZM 2   
1  1 
 A 
 
 Miller Capacitance Effect
C
Z
ZM 2 
I1 I2 1
1
Z -A A
ZM1 
1 A XC
V1 V2 X CM 2 
1
XC 1
X CM 1  A
1 A
1 1

1 1  CM 2 1
  C (1  )
 CM 1  C (1  A ) A

1
CM 1  C (1  A) -A CM 2  C (1  )
A

V1 CM1 CM2 V2
 FREQUENCY RESPONSE:
BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR
When a bipolar transistor is used in a linear amplifier
circuit, the transistor is biased in the forward-active
region, and small sinusoidal voltages and currents are
superimposed on the dc voltages and currents
Expanded Hybrid- Equivalent
Circuit

Figure (a) shows an NPN

bipolar transistor in a
common-emitter configuration,
along with the small-signal
voltages and currents.
 cross section of the NPN transistor in a classic
integrated
circuit configuration.
The C, B, and E The C’, B’, and E’
terminals are the terminals are the
external connections idealized internal
to the transistor, collector, base and
 Equivalent Circuit of the Transistor
Various Pairs of Terminals
 VT 1000 
r 
100  I CQr Figure (a) shows the equivalent
circuit for the connection between
the external base input terminal
and the external emitter terminal.
100 pF
The B’–E’ junction is forward biased;
therefore, Cп is the forward biased
junction capacitance and rп is the
forward-biased junction diffusion
Resistance rb is the
resistance. Both parameters are
base series functions of the junction current.
resistance between
the external base Finally, rex is the emitter series
terminal B and the resistance between the external
internal base region 1 to 2 Ω. emitter terminal and the internal
B’. emitter region. This resistance is
(a) base to emitter usually very small, on the order of 1 to
2 Ω.
 VA Figure (b) shows the
ro 
I CQr equivalent circuit looking into
50 mA / V the collector terminal.

Resistance rc is the collector

series resistance between the
external and internal
collector connections, and
80 K capacitance Cs is the junction
capacitance of the reverse
biased collector – substrate
(b) Collector to emitter junction.
Resistance ro is the inverse
The dependent current
source, gmVп is the transistor of the output conductance
go and is due primarily to the
collector current controlled
Early effect (VA).
by the internal base–
emitter voltage.
 4 M Finally, Figure (c) shows the
equivalent circuit of the
reverse-biased B–C Junction

Capacitance Cμ is the
reverse-biased junction
capacitance, and rμ is the
reverse-biased diffusion
resistance. Normally, rμ is on
the order of megohms and
3 pF can be neglected. The value
of Cμ is usually much smaller
than Cп.
(c) base to collector
however, because of a
phenomenon known as the
Miller effect, Cμ usually
cannot be neglected.
 The complete hybrid-п equivalent circuit for the bipolar
transistor is shown in Figure
4M 
Base Spreading
reverse-biased diffusion resistance
Resisrance
VT/IBQ
VA/ICQ

(100 )

output conductance
Forward-biased diffusion
resistance mutual conductance
of the transistor 80 K

1000  50 mA / V
Reverse-biased Junction Capacitance
forward biased Emitter Series (1  2 )
junction capacitance 3 pF Resistance
100 pF
•rb - called the base spreading resistance and represents the
resistance of the base-emitter junction.
•rπ represents the dynamic resistance for small signal
analysis and depends on the Q-point of the design -
rπ=VT/IBQ .
•rμ represents the feedback from the collector to the base
and is related to the hybrid parameter .
hre= rπ /(rπ+ rμ)
•ro represents the resistance from the collector to the
emitter and is related to the hybrid parameter hoe ≈ 1/ ro
and is also related to the EARLY Voltage by VA/ICQ .
•Cμ is the depletion capacitance of the collector-base
junction.
•Cπ is the capacitance of the base-emitter junction and
depends on the Q-point.
•gmvπ is the amplification factor and is equal to β ib.
•Transition frequency, ft = β /[2πrπ(Cμ+Cπ)], when |
 Hybrid-Parameter Model for
the Common Emitter BJT Reverse voltage ratio
Input resistance

I C  mA
gm 
26
Output admittance

Forward current gain

The parameters defined by this equivalent

circuit as usually provided by transistor
manufacturers to describe the performance of
the BJT. For example, β and hfe are typically given
in BJT data sheets.
 Hybrid-π conductances

Let us see how we can obtain all the resistive components

in the hybrid-π model from the h-parameters in the CE
configuration.

Transistor Transconductance(gm)

The transconductance is nothing but the ratio of change in

the collector current due to small changes in the
voltage VB’E across the emitter junction
I C  mA
gm 
26
The Input Conductance gb’e:

r 
h feVT

1

 IC 
 IC  r h feVT

The Feedback Conductance (gb’c):

h feVT 1  I C  hre
r   
 I C  hre r h feVT
The Base Spreading Resistance (rb)
h feVT
rb  hie 
IC

The Output Conductance (gce):

h oe  g ce  g b 'c h fe
Table summarizes the relation between
h  parameters and hynrid  pi
 I CQ  10 mA
Example
I CQ
gm   0.385 S
VCEQ 10 V VT

VT  26 mV  225
r    585 
g m 0.385S
  225
4 r 585
hre  4 10  r   4
 1.5 M
hre 4  10
hoe  25 mS to 200 mS
1 1
C  8 pF ro    5  40 K  22.5 K
hoe 25 ms  200 ms
f1 (Transitor Frequency )  300 MHZ
rx C (Collector Base C 
 C

 225 8 pF   196 pF
12
2 r f 1 2  585  300 M 
Time Cons tan t )  150  10
150  10 12
rx   19
8 pF
 225
ft    300 MHz
2 r  C  C   2  585  196 pF  8 pF 
Frequency Response of BJT
The gain of an amplifier is
affected by the capacitance
associated with its circuit. This
capacitance reduces the gain
in both the low and high
frequency ranges of operation.

The Bode Plot may look

something like this where there
is a low frequency band, a
mid-frequency band and a
high frequency band.
The reduction of gain in the low
frequency band is due to the
coupling and bypass
capacitors selected. They are
essentially short circuits in the
mid and high bands.

The reduction of gain in the

high frequency band is due to
the internal capacitance of the
amplifying device, e.g., BJT, FET,
etc.

This capacitance is represented

by capacitors in the small
signal equivalent circuit for
these devices. They are essentially
open circuits in the low and
mid bands.
 Hybrid-Parameter Model for the
Common Emitter BJT

I C  mA
gm 
26

The parameters defined by this equivalent

circuit as usually provided by transistor
manufacturers to describe the performance of
the BJT. For example, β and hfe are typically given
in BJT data sheets.
 DC Analysis
DC voltage sources
Coupling capacitors

Bypass capacitors
 Common-Source Amplifiers
•C1 and C2 are coupling capacitors and Cs is the
bypass capacitor. The capacitors are intended to
have large impedances for the dc signal and very
small impedances for the ac signal.
1
Zc 
j 2fC
 Zc  , f  0

 Zc  0, f  0, or C is large
 Common-Source Amplifiers
•For DC analysis, the capacitors are replaced by
open circuits to determine the quiescent operation
point (Q point). The transconductance gm for the
small-signal equivalent circuit is also determined.

•For AC analysis, the capacitor are replaced by

short circuits to determine the ac voltage gain
Av=vo/vin.
 The Small-Signal Equivalent
Circuit
•In small-signal midband analysis of FET
amplifiers, the coupling capacitors, bypass
capacitors, and dc voltage sources are replaced by
short circuits.
•The FET is replaced with its small-signal
equivalent circuit. Then, we write circuit
equations and derive useful expressions for gains,
input impedance, and output impedance.
 AC Analysis
DC voltage sources
Coupling capacitors

Bypass capacitors
 DC voltage sources
Coupling capacitors

Bypass capacitors
 SMALL-SIGNAL
EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
(12.4)
id (t )  g m v gs (t )

A more complex equivalent circuit consider drain resistance rd

iD
1 rd 
v DS Q  point

id (t )  g m v gs (t )  vds / rd
Common Source Amplifiers: FET source 端接 ground
 Common Source Amplifiers:

Equivalent load resistance

1
RL 
1 rd  1 RD  1 RL
Input voltage & output voltage
vo   g m v gs RL

vin  v gs
Voltage Gain vo
Av    g m RL
vin
 Common Source Amplifiers:

Input Resistance

vin
Rin   RG  R1 R2
iin

Output resistance
•disconnect the load,
•replace the signal source by
the internal resistance,
• find the resistance by looking
into the output terminals.
1
Ro 
1 RD  1 rd
Example 12.4
Analyze the following circuit. KP=50uA/V2, Vto=2 V,
L=10um, W=400um (identical to example 12.2).
Assume
v(t )  100 sin(2000t )mV

rd  
Find
•midband voltage gain
•input resistance
•output resistance
•output voltage
Example 12.4
Analyze the following circuit. KP=50uA/V2, Vto=2 V,
L=10um, W=400um (identical to example 12.2).

DC Analysis

Fine Q point (see example 12.2)

I DQ  K (VGSQ  Vto )  0.784mA

2
Example 12.4
Analyze the following circuit. KP=50uA/V2, Vto=2 V,
L=10um, W=400um (identical to example 12.2).

AC Analysis

Fine gm(see Ch 12.4)

g m  2 K (VGSQ  Vto )  2 KP W / L I DQ  1.77mS

Equivalent load resistance
1
RL   3197 ( rd   )
1 rd  1 RD  1 RL

Voltage Gain vo
Av    g m RL  5.66
vin
Example 12.4
Analyze the following circuit. KP=50uA/V2, Vto=2 V,
L=10um, W=400um (identical to example 12.2).

Input Resistance
vin
Rin   RG  R1 R2  750k
iin
Output Resistance Ro  1
 RD  4.7 k
1 RD  1 rd
Rin
Input voltage vin (t )  v gs (t )  v(t )  88.23 sin( 2000t )mV
Rin  R

Output voltage vo (t )  Av vin (t )  500 sin( 2000t )mV