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Journal of Petroleum Geology,Vol. 44(3), July 2021, pp 385-412 385
STRATIGRAPHY, SEDIMENTOLOGY AND

GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE OLIGOCENE – LOWER
MIOCENE MAIKOP GROUP IN DAGESTAN,
NE CAUCASUS
Yu.Gavrilov*#, R. Nedumov*, E. Shchepetova*, E. Shcherbinina*,

E. Kozlova**, O. Golovanova* and B. Pokrovsky*
A relatively complete section of the Maikop Group (Oligocene – lower Miocene) is exposed
along the Sulak River valley in Dagestan (NE Caucasus) and contains a depositional record
for this part of the Eastern Paratethys. At the Sulak River outcrop, the Maikop Group is ca.
1200 m thick and can be divided into six lithologically-defined formations: these are from
the base up the Khadum Formation (Rupelian), the Miatly Formation, the Lower Clayey
Formation, the Mutsidakal Formation (Chattian), the Riki Formation and the Zuramakent
Formation (lower Miocene). The Khadum Formation rests on the upper Eocene Belaya Glina
Formation and the boundary is marked by a sharp lithological transition from pale-coloured,
bioturbated limestones below to black organic-rich shales above.
Biostratigraphic studies of calcareous nannoplankton in samples from the Sulak River
section allowed the position of the Eocene – Oligocene boundary at the base of the Maikop
Group to be defined. The boundary occurs within the CP16 Zone near the division between
the CP16a and CP16b subzones.This is consistent with the age of the boundary at a reference
outcrop along the Kheu River in Kabardino-Balkaria in the Central North Caucasus, some
200 km west of Dagestan. A positive oxygen stable isotope anomaly occurs at the top of
the Belaya Glina Formation.
Samples of the Maikop Group are characterized by variations in TOC content ranging
between 0.14 and 11.06 wt. %.The highest values were measured in both carbonate- and
clay-rich samples from the Khadum Formation, and the lowest (less than 0.5 wt.%) in
sandstones from the overlying Oligocene Miatly, Lower Clayey and Mutsidacal Formations.
Samples of the lower Miocene Riki and Zuramakent Formations have moderate TOC values
(on average more than 1.5 wt.%). Results of Rock-Eval pyrolysis show that Maikop samples
contain kerogen Types II and III which is distributed unevenly throughout the formations.
Clay-rich rocks in the upper part of the Khadum Formation (Solenovian Member) with
Type II kerogen have the greatest oil-generating potential, with initial hydrogen index values
estimated at 400-600 mg HC/g TOC. The Miatly Formation sandstones and siltstones
contain migrated bitumen which is recognized from increased values of Rock-Eval S1 and
the high Production Index (S1/(S1+S2). Overlying Oligocene – lower Miocene rocks contain
mainly Type III kerogen, although increased TOC values obtained from samples of the Riki
Formation indicate that it may have minor gas source potential.
* Geological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences,

Moscow, Russia.
** Center for Hydrocarbon Recovery, Skolkovo Institute Key words: Dagestan, Russia, Greater Caucasus,
of Science and Technology, Moscow, Russia. Maikop Group, Paratethys, Oligocene, Miocene, anoxia,
#
Corresponding author, email: [email protected] geochemical proxies, stagnation coefficient.
© 2021 The Authors. Journal of Petroleum Geology © 2021 Scientific Press Ltd
Gavrilov.indd 385 19/06/2021 13:55:02

386 The Oligocene – lower Miocene Maikop Group in Dagestan, NE Caucasus
N
Khasavyurt ak
S ul
u
Kyzylyurt Q u K ois
Kur
Ng 2
Caspian
Sea
1
Miatly Ng 1
Ng 1 en
Dubki Oz
ra 43° 00′
Pg 3 +N 1 hu
Makhachkala
S
2 Chirkey
Pg 2 resevoir
Chirkey
3
Kaspiysk
Pg 3 +N 1 Q
Cr 2
Buinaksk
ak
J2 J1
S ul
Pg 2 Ng 1
Gi
m
o isu ry
n K Karabudakhkent
d ea
rid
A v ar K
n ge Cr 2
Pg 3 +N 1 42°40′
A
o
J1
Cr 1
is u
J2 Pg 1
J2
47° 00′
km 10 5 0 10 20 30 km tectonic Khadum
faults anticline
1 Sulak 2 Chirkey 3 Buinaksk

section section Pass
Fig. 1. Location of the studied outcrop sections (labelled 1 and 2) of the Maikop Group in Dagestan, NE
Caucasus; geological map after Nalivkin (1978). 1: Outcrop along the Sulak River valley at which the entire
Maikop Group is exposed; the base-Maikop Khadum Formation crops out near Miatly village (the “Miatly
section” of this paper). 2: “Chirkey section” to the NE of the Chirkey reservoir. Also marked is the Buinaksk
Pass outcrop location (see text).
Samples of Maikop Group sediments from the Sulak sulphides as well as uranium and rare earth elements
section were analysed for their contents of Mo, S, Fe, (Formozova, 1959; Kalinenko and Shvemberger, 1963;
Mn, V, Ni and other elements. A stagnation coefficient Kalinenko, 1990; Stolyarov and Kochenov, 1995). The
(Mo/Mn x 100) was calculated and was interpreted Maikop Group has also attracted particular attention
as a measure of the intensity of anoxia in the Maikop as an organic-rich source rock for oil and gas, and in
palaeobasin. Anoxic conditions are interpreted to have addition contains sandstone reservoir intervals which
reached a maximum in the Rupelian and Aquitanian host commercial accumulations of hydrocarbons
during deposition of the Khadum and Riki Formations (e.g. Prokopov, 1938; Vassoevich, 1955; Brod, 1958;
respectively. However, geochemical conditions were Aleksin et al., 1970; Ternovoi, 1976; Erofeev, 1978;
unstable and the oxygen concentration in the bottom Krylov, 1987; Orel, 2001; Sokolov and Khramova,
waters varied widely over time. Thus, the Zuramakent 1989; Sachsenhofer et al., 2017a and b; 2018).
Formation at the top of the Maikop Group was largely Despite almost a century of investigation into the
deposited in normally oxygenated conditions. Maikop Group, important questions relating to its
depositional history remain unresolved. In Dagestan
INTRODUCTION (Fig. 1), the Maikop Group has a number of distinct
sedimentological and palaeontological characteristics
Oligocene – early Miocene sedimentation in the Central which correlate poorly if at all with outcrop sections
and Eastern Paratethys resulted in the widespread elsewhere in the North Caucasus, where Maikopian
deposition of a thick, predominantly claystone-rich deposits are better dated in terms of their faunal
unit known as the Maikop Group (e.g. Zhizhchenko, content. The detailed lithological and geochemical
1958; Grossgeim, 1960; Akhmetiev and Benyamovsky, studies reported in this paper therefore attempt to
2003). High concentrations of metallic elements occur investigate the Maikopian depositional environment
at particular stratigraphic levels in this unit including in Dagestan and in addition to elucidate its evolution
sedimentary manganese ores, oolitic iron ores and iron through time.
Gavrilov.indd 386 19/06/2021 13:55:02

Yu. Gavrilov et al. 387
Formation
Series
Stage
Lithology
Miocene
middle
Tarkhan-
Chokrak
ТОС CaCO3
1200m Samples % %
Zuramakent 474
Aquitanian, Burdigalian
470
lower Miocene
465
460
1000 455
450
445
Riki
440
800
435
430
425
420
600
Mutsidakal
upper Oligocene
Chattian
415
400 410
Lower Clayey
405
400
395
390
200
385
Miatly
380
375
370
365 1- 5 / 2019
Priabonian Rup.
upper lower
11.06
Eocene Olig.
59,68
Khadum 48 - 58
360
1- 9
0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 0 10 20 30 40 50
Belaya
Glina
limestone marl claystone calcareous claystone
sandstone concretions olistolith 390 sample position
Fig. 2. Lithostratigraphy of the Maikop Group in the Sulak River valley succession with sample numbers (see
text for details) and variations in TOC and CaCO3 contents. Most TOC values were obtained by wet chemical
oxidation; however those for the Khadum Formation (TOC up to 11 wt%) were obtained by Rock-Eval pyrolysis.
A continuous Maikop Group succession is exposed on lithological features which are recognizable in
at outcrop along the Sulak River in Dagestan near the the field; biostratigraphic ages were not determined
village of Miatly (Fig. 1). Here the Maikop Group in early studies due to a general paucity of fauna in
has a total thickness of ca. 1200 m and can be divided most intervals.
into six formations following the lithostratigraphic Beluzhenko et al. (2018) proposed a subdivision of
scheme of Shatskiy (1929) and Shatskiy and Menner the Riki Formation at the Sulak River succession into
(1926). The formations are from bottom to top (Fig. the Alckun, Assa and Sulak Formations on the basis
2): the Khadum Formation (Rupelian), which is of lithostratigraphic correlations with outcrop sections
subdivided into the Pshekha and Solenovian Members; to the west where the formations were originally
the Miatly Formation; the Lower Clayey Formation; distinguished and dated by microfossils. The age of
the Mutsidakal Formation; the Riki Formation; the formations in Dagestan has not been corroborated
and the Zuramakent Formation (Chattian – lower by palaeontological means (e.g. nannoplankton
Miocene). Identification of the formations is based data); thus an accurate dating of the Riki Formation
Gavrilov.indd 387 19/06/2021 13:55:03

and its detailed subdivision is still under discussion and the upper part of the Khadum Formation (samples
although an early Miocene age for part of it seems 1 - 5/19) were collected in 2018 and 2019, respectively.
probable (Fig. 2). Other stratigraphic divisions of the A lithological description of the entire Maikop
Maikop Group were proposed during later studies Group in the Sulak River section was made by
of the Paleogene succession in the North Caucasus. R. Nedumov (2005-2006; Fig. 2). Samples 360-
However, these schemes were based on the study of 475 were taken by Nedumov from all six Maikop
Maikopian successions located at some distance to the formations, which were distinguished on the basis of
west or north of Dagestan (Zhizhchenkо, 1953,1958; the lithostratigraphic schemes of Shatskiy (1929) and
Grossgeim, 1960; Popov et al., 2019; Zastrozhnov Shatskiy and Menner (1926). Within each formation,
et al., 2019). These stratigraphic schemes are not samples were collected at stratigraphically regular
reviewed here because their correlation with the fossil- intervals and included all rock types, with more
poor succession in Dagestan is still somewhat tenuous. detailed sampling taking place at the boundary intervals
Over several years of fieldwork, the present between the formations.
authors have studied the Maikop Group succession In the Chirkey section, field studies of the Khadum
in the Sulak River valley. The outcrops are in general Formation were carried out in 2010 to 2015 (samples
stratigraphically complete and contain a record of 212-553; see Fig. 10 below); results were published
Maikopian deposition in this part of the Eastern by Gavrilov et al. (2017) and are included here for
Paratethys. This study had the following general comparison purposes.
objectives: (i) to date the base of the Maikop Group Archived samples of the Maikop Group in the
by analysing calcareous nannofossils across the Sulak River valley from the Gavrilov and Nedumov
Eocene–Oligocene boundary (in the absence of other collections were available for this study. Also
stratigraphically important fauna); (ii) to investigate available were samples from a Paleogene reference
the lithology, sedimentology and geochemistry of section exposed along the Kheu River, located in
Maikopian deposits in the study area; and (iii) to Kabardino-Balkaria in the Central North Caucasus
reconstruct the depositional environment including (Gavrilov et al., 2000). Samples from the Eocene–
the redox conditions in the Maikopian palaeobasin. Oligocene transitional interval here were taken from
the collection of N. Muzylöv stored in the Laboratory
MATERIALS AND METHODS of Micropaleontology of the Geological Institute of
the Russian Academy of Sciences.
Sample derivation
Two surface sections of the Maikop Group in the Research methods
Sulak River valley, some 40 km west of Makhachkala Detailed mineralogical and geochemical studies were
(Fig. 1), were studied. The complete Maikop Group carried out on ca. 200 rock samples collected from the
succession is exposed along the west bank of the Sulak Sulak River valley (including the Khadum Formation
River beginning near the village of Miatly (43°04’54”; at the Miatly section), whose lithological features
46°49’44”) and extending north for about 4 km (Fig. were examined in petrographic thin sections using an
1). A stratigraphic column for this succession (“Sulak optical microscope (Carl Zeiss Axioscope 40). Mineral
section”) is shown in Fig. 2. The bottom part of this compositions were determined by X-ray diffractometry
succession is referred to here as the “Miatly section” (XRD) in powdered rock samples using a D8 Advance
and comprises the base-Maikop Khadum Formation diffractometer (Bruker), utilizing Cu-Kα radiation.
which is 55 m thick at this location. More than 170 analyses of chemical composition were
The Khadum Formation is also exposed in a surface carried out.
section to the NE of the Chirkey reservoir, ca. 14 km Carbonate contents and total organic carbon (TOC)
SE of Miatly (Fig. 1) (the “Chirkey section”). Here contents were determined following Strakhov (1958).
the Khadum Formation is about 200-220 m thick. For the measurement of carbonate contents, carbonate
The Sulak and Chirkey sections are separated by the minerals were decomposed using hydrochloric acid
Khadum anticline. and the resulting CO2 was quantified using a Knopp-
Field studies of the Maikop Group in the Sulak Fresenius apparatus. For TOC measurements, organic
River valley have been carried out by the present carbon was converted into CO2 using wet chemical
authors between 1985 and 2019. Detailed studies of the oxidation. Sulphuric acid in a concentration of 3:2
Khadum Formation in the Miatly section by Gavrilov was used as an oxidant. TOC measured in this way is
(1985) were based on the analysis of a total of 69 referred to in this paper as TOCchem. Other elements
samples (samples 48–58: see the sampling scheme in were analysed by X-ray fluorescence using a Bruker
Fig. 2). Sampling distance was about 1 m. Additional S4 Pioneer spectrometer and Spectra-Plus software.
samples from the boundary zone between the Belaya For the Miatly section, samples 1-9 (Fig. 2)
Glina and the Khadum Formations (samples 1 to 9) collected by Yu. Gavrilov in 2018 were selected for
Gavrilov.indd 388 19/06/2021 13:55:03

nannofossil study of the Eocene-Oligocene boundary Glina Formation by a sharp lithological and colour
interval. Samples of this interval from the Kheu River boundary (Fig. 3B) although a disconformity was not
section were likewise analysed. Smear slides for observed. The Belaya Glina Formation comprises
nannofossils study were prepared from unprocessed alternating light grey to pale yellow limestones and
rock samples according to standard procedures (Bown marls with a wide variation of CaCO3 contents ranging
and Young, 1998) using Norland Optical Adhesive from 20 to 80%. Abundant bioturbation is present. At
61 as the optical medium. Nannofossils were studied the top of the formation, an 0.5 m thick interval of
under an Olympus BX41 polarization microscope. brownish-grey shaly marl is overlain by dark brown to
To investigate δ13С and δ18О variations across the black, organic-rich shales of the Khadum Formation.
Eocene-Oligocene transition (EOT) interval, bulk Depth profiles showing variations in TOCchem
carbonate in 75 samples from the Miatly and Chirkey content, carbonate content and the abundance of
sections was analyzed, together with 10 samples selected elements including Fe, Mo and Mn in the
from the Kheu River section. The carbon and oxygen Khadum Formation are shown in Fig. 4. In the Miatly
isotope compositions were determined using a Delta section, the lower part of the Khadum Formation
V Advantage mass spectrometer and a Gas-Bench-II consists mostly of dark brown to black, organic-rich
system (Thermo Electron Corp.). Digestion of the shales and marls (3.0-22.5 m; Pshekha Member; Fig.
samples and reference specimens KH‑2, IAEA C-O‑1 4). The 5 m thick “Ostracoda horizon” (22.5-28.0
and NBS‑19 was carried out with 100% H3PO4 at 50° m) forms the base of the upper part of the Khadum
C. The δ13C and δ18O values obtained are reported in per Formation, which is dominated by claystones (22.5-
mil (‰) relative to the V-PDB standard. The accuracy 67.0 m; Solenovian Member; Fig. 4).
(reproducibility) of δ18О and δ13C values was better Three limestone beds (samples 49-5, 50-4 and 51;
than ± 0.2 ‰ and ± 0.1 ‰, respectively. Fig. 4), several tens of cm thick, occur in the Pshekha
The analytical work was carried out at the Member. A fourth limestone (52-5) forms the base
Geological Institute of the Russian Academy of of the Ostracoda horizon (Fig. 4). These limestone
Sciences (Moscow) in the laboratories of Chemical beds together with the marls of the Ostracoda horizon
and Analytical Research, Isotope Geochemistry and (between samples 52-5 and 52-11) are classified as
Geochronology, and Physical Methods of Rock- planktonic foraminiferal mudstones to wackestones
Forming Minerals Studies. (Fig 5A). Ostracod fragments were not observed in
Fifty rock samples from the R. Nedumov and Yu. sample 52-7 (Fig. 5C) in spite of the name “Ostracoda
Gavrilov collections were analysed for their organic bed” given to this interval by Shatskiy (1929) and
matter content. The samples represented all six Shatskiy and Menner (1926).
Maikop Group formations equally. Analyses used a Another prominent limestone bed (0.6-0.7 m
HAWK Resource Workstation (Wildcat Technology) thick) is observed in the upper part of the Solenovian
according to established procedures for Rock-Eval Member, about 30 m above the top of the Ostracoda
pyrolysis (Espitalié, 1993; Tissot and Welte, 1984). horizon (Fig. 3C, Fig. 4). This bed consists of two
The following parameters were measured: S1, S2, S3 cycles in each of which massive limestones are overlain
and Tmax (°C). Values of TOC (total organic carbon, by dark, laminated organic-rich marls (several cm
wt. %), hydrogen index (HI, mg HC/g TOC), oxygen thick). In contrast to underlying limestones of the
index (OI, mg CO2/g TOC), and production index (PI Pshekha Member, the limestones are composed of
= S1/ (S1+S2) were calculated. (S1+S2) represents bioclastic wackestones dominated by ostracod debris
the hydrocarbon generation potential and for immature (Fig. 5D).
organic matter is equal to the initial generation potential The presence of ostracod-rich limestones at two
of the rock. The parameter S2 characterizes the residual different levels in the Khadum Formation was reported
hydrocarbon generation potential. by Zhizhchenko (1953) but was questioned in later
publications (Vyalov, 1964; Semenov and Stolyarov,
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 1970). Observations by the present authors suggest
that the upper limestones may not be present in outcrop
LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY AND sections in the west and central North Caucasus
SEDIMENTOLOGY OF THE (Vyalov, 1964; Semenov and Stolyarov, 1970).
MAIKOP GROUP The uppermost limestone in the upper Solenovian
Member is overlain by carbonate-free claystones with
Khadum Formation a variable silt component (Fig. 4). This interval (7 m
The Khadum Formation at the base of the Maikop thick, between samples 56 and 57) consists of dark silty
Group is 55 m thick at the Miatly section in the Sulak clay- or mudstones and shales, and is characterized
River valley (Fig. 2, Fig. 3A). The Khadum Formation is by a distinct cyclicity which can be recognized at
separated from the underlying carbonates of the Belaya outcrop due to the characteristic weathering relief
Gavrilov.indd 389 19/06/2021 13:55:03

Fig. 3. Outcrop photographs of the Khadum Formation at the Miatly section (location 1, Fig. 1).
A. General view of the Miatly section; the Priabonian Belaya Glina Formation is overlain by the Rupelian
Khadum Formation at the base of the Maikop Group, above which is the Chattian Miatly Formation.
B. Contact between the Belaya Glina Formation and the Khadum Formation marked by an abrupt lithological
and colour change.
C. Limestone bed in the upper Solenovian Member of the Khadum Formation (hammer for scale).
D, E. Carbonate-free shale- and claystone-dominated interval in the Khadum Formation (Solenovian Member)
showing distinct cyclicity; in D, Roman numerals (I-V) mark intervals with a gradually increasing cycle thickness.
F. Soft sediment deformation (slumps and slides) in the lower part of the Solenovian Member of the Khadum
Formation.
Gavrilov.indd 390 19/06/2021 13:55:05

Formation
Member
upper Oligocene Series
Stage
ТОС СaCO3 Fe Mn Ti Mo V Cu Ga KS
% % % % % ppm ppm ppm ppm
58
57-8
57-7
m
57-6
Chattian
65
57-5
Miatly
? 57-4
57-3
57-2
60 57-1
? ? ? 57
56-5
56-4
56-3 5 / 2019
55 56-2 4
56-1
56
3
55 1b
54-14
54-13
50 54-12
54-11
54-10
54-9
54-8
45 54-7
54-6
54-5
Solenovian
54-4
54-3
40
54-2
54-1
54
53-6
53-5
lower Oligocene
35 53-4
53-3
Rupelian
Khadum
53-2
53-1
53
30
52-13
52-12
52-11
Ostracoda
52-10
horizon
52-9
25 52-8
52-7
52-6
52-5
52-4
52-3
20 52-2
52-1
52
Pshekha
51
50-8
50-7
15 50-6
50-5
50-4
50-3
50-2
10 50-1
49-6
49-5
49-4
49-3
5 49-2 9
8
49-1 76
5
Priabon.
48
Eocene
Belaya
4
Glina
upper
3
2 0 2 4 6 0 20 40 60 80 0 2 4 6 0 0.2 0.4 0 0.2 0.4 0 40 80 0 100 200 300 0 100 200 0 20 40 0 10 20 30 40 50
0 1
Fig. 4. Lithotratigraphic column for the Khadum Formation in the Miatly section with depth profiles and sample
numbers, showing variations in TOCchem, CaCO3 and selected chemical elements.The column at the far right
shows variations in KS, the stagnation coefficient (see text for details). Key to lithologies in Fig. 2. TOCchem: TOC
measured by wet chemical oxidation.
(Fig. 3D, E). In general, the lower parts of cycles The Solenovian Member at the Miatly section
consist of dark brown, massive mudstones, while shows soft sediment deformation structures such as
the upper parts are formed of laminated black shales. slumps and slides and bedding-parallel translations
Cycles range in thickness from 5-7 cm to 20-30 cm (Fig. 3F). The deformation is probably related to the
or more. Petrographic studies (Fig. 5E, F) show that presence of high concentrations of organic material
the microstructure of the black shales is dominated in the sediment which resulted in the retention of
by the occurrence of OM-rich laminae containing high pore water saturations during burial. The water-
clusters of framboidal pyrite. Within silty claystones, saturated non-lithified sediments were then more easily
by contrast, planar laminae are less well developed deformed during palaeoseismic activity, resulting in
and OM is represented by poorly-defined lenticular the soft-sediment deformation structures observed
aggregates. Pyrite framboids are dispersed within the (Gavrilov, 2017).
OM aggregates, and the total pyrite content is reduced The upper boundary of the Khadum Formation is
compared to that of the black shales. less easily defined than its base but is marked by the
The Khadum Formation is interpreted to have appearance of cross-bedded sandstones and siltstones
been deposited in a basinal setting with a relatively with ripple marks (Fig. 4, 5G), indicating a transition
low input of siliciclastic material, and the small-scale to a depositional environment with a more active
cyclicity within it is interpreted to have been caused hydrodynamic regime and greater input of siliciclastic
mainly by variations (or “pulses”) in the intensity of material. The upper boundary of the Khadum
OM accumulation. In the studied region, the overlying Formation in the Miatly section is placed at the base
Maikopian succession has a greater siliciclastic content of the first relatively thick (2 m) sandstone bed above
and in general lacks evidence of cyclicity. sample 58 (Fig. 4) overlying the transitional interval.
Gavrilov.indd 391 19/06/2021 13:55:05

Fig. 5.Thin sections (PPL) of samples

from the Khadum Formation and
lowermost Miatly Formation in the
Miatly section; sample numbers
correspond to those in Fig. 4.
A. Sample 49-1: calcareous wackestone
with planktonic foraminifera tests filled
with sparite and occasionally pyrite;
0.2 mm 0.1 mm
rare glauconite grains are present.The
sample is from ca. 2 m above the base
of the Khadum Formation.
B. Sample 52-3: black shale enriched in
amorphous OM with an admixture of
fine-grained siliciclastic material and
glauconitic grains; Pshekha Member,
below the Ostracoda horizon.
C. Sample 52-7: organic-rich bioturb-
1 mm 0.2 mm ated planktonic foraminiferal wacke-
stone; marl overlying the limestone
bed within the Ostracoda horizon.
D. Sample 55: bioclastic wackestone
with thin shell fragments; Solenovian
Member, upper ostracod bed.
E. Sample 56-1a (Solenovian Member,
(lower part of cycle): massive organic-
rich claystone, moderately bioturbated,
with poorly-defined lenticular OM
0.1 mm
0.1 mm aggregates and diffused framboidal
pyrite.
F. Sample 56-1b (upper part of cycle):
black shale with parallel OM-rich
laminae defined by framboidal pyrite.
G. Sample 57-3: coarse-grained
siltstone with flasers of clay; ca. 5.5 m
below the base of the Miatly Formation.
H. Sample 57-8: fine-grained sandstone
typical of multiple sandstone beds in
1 mm 0.2 mm
the lower part of the Miatly Formation.
Miatly Formation interpreted to have become detached and slid down

The Miatly Formation (Fig. 6) is composed of grey and the steepening depositional slope on the northern limb
dark grey claystones intercalated with coarse-grained of the structure.
siltstones and fine-grained sandstones (Fig. 5H).
Multiple sandstone beds were observed in the lower Lower Clayey Formation
half of the formation, while the upper part is dominated The Miatly Formation is overlain by the Lower Clayey
by clays with subordinate thin sandstones. At the Sulak Formation which is 180–200 m thick in the Sulak River
River valley outcrop, the Miatly Formation is up to valley succession (Fig. 2). The boundary between
ca. 120 m thick; it is significantly thinner or thicker the two units is defined at a level where sandstones
in other locations. The “Miatly sandstone” occurs in are replaced by claystones (Fig. 7A). The Lower
the middle of the formation and ranges in thickness Clayey Formation in general comprises brownish-grey
from a few metres up to 10-15 m. The sandstone claystones with a variable silt content which are non-
is extensively faulted with low-angle thrust planes to indistinctly-bedded, sometimes thinly laminated
doubling its thickness, and exhibits widespread soft and enriched in organic matter (Fig. 7B-E) with
sediment deformation structures such as slumps and occasional fish scales. The upper part of the formation
slides (Fig. 6B, C). is dominated by brown, massive claystones without fish
A characteristic feature of the formation is the debris. Some intervals contain lenses of fine-grained
presence of olistoliths which vary in size from a few sandstones up to 0.4 m thick and 10-12 m long.
metres up to several tens of metres (Fig. 6A). The
olistoliths are composed of pre-Oligocene (Paleocene Mutsidakal Formation
– Eocene and Upper Cretaceous) sedimentary rocks The boundary between the Lower Clayey Formation
(Shatsky et al., 1929; Sharafutdinov, 2001). During and the overlying Mutsidakal Formation (280-300 m
growth of the Khadum anticline, the olistoliths are thick) in the Sulak River valley succession is marked by
Gavrilov.indd 392 19/06/2021 13:55:07

0.2 mm 0.05 mm
0.1 mm 0.2 mm
Fig. 6. Field photographs and thin-section photomicrographs of the Miatly Formation, Sulak River succession.
A. Outcrop view of the Miatly Formation; the white area at the left is an olistolith of pre-Maikopian limestone.
B, C. Field photographs of sandstone beds deformed by a subaqueous slide indicating instability of the
depositional slope.
D-G.Thin sections (PPL) of samples from different parts of the Miatly Formation (sample numbers correspond
to those in Fig. 2):
D, E, Sample 385: laminated claystone to mudstone with organic material derived from terrestrial higher
plants; (E) close-up view showing the structure of the organic material.
F. Sample 383a: organic-rich claystone with poorly-defined lenticular OM aggregates and diffuse framboidal
pyrite, moderately bioturbated.
G. Sample 372: Fine-grained sandstone with carbonaceous plant debris deformed due to compaction of sandy
sediment.
a 2 m thick sandstone bed with a sharp base. Above it thick intervals (up to 40-50 m) of regular claystone-
in the section are two equally-thick sandstone intervals. sandstone alternations divided by a thick sandstone
In general the Mutsidakal Formation is composed bed (at about 590 m in Fig. 2). The claystones in the
of dark-coloured claystones with thin (0.2-0.5 m) lower Mutsidakal Formation consist of fissile to thinly
interbeds of fine-grained sandstones (Fig. 8A, B) which laminated shales with little or no fish remains, and
locally show wavy to lenticular bedding and sometimes more compact and massive claystones or mudstones
contain bitumen. containing fish scales and bones. The upper parts
Above the three sandstone beds occurring near the of the formation are dominated by brown, massive
base, the majority of the formation consists of two very sandy claystones. The occurrence of numerous clastic
Gavrilov.indd 393 19/06/2021 13:55:09

1 mm 0.2 mm
0.1 mm 0.05 mm
Fig. 7. Outcrop photographs and photomicrographs of the Lower Clayey Formation in the Sulak River valley.
A. General view showing the upper Miatly Formation in the foreground (with whitish olistoliths) and the
claystones of the Lower Clayey Formation in the background.
B–E. Thin section photomicrographs (PPL) of samples from the Lower Clayey Formation; sample numbers
correspond to those in Fig. 2 . B is from the lower part of the formation, C-E from the upper part.
B. Sample 404a: claystone slightly enriched in terrigenous OM with lamination disrupted by bioturbation
(mottling);
C. Sample 396a: mudstone moderately enriched in terrestrial OM; thin lamination is preserved with slight
bioturbation. D, Sample 396b: Claystone with alternating clay- and OM-rich laminae.
E, Sample 396c: close-up view of clay- and OM-rich laminae; the OM lacks any primarily structure.
dikes is interpreted to indicate palaeoseismicity in the nodules were observed in the uppermost parts of the
depositional environment. formation.
Beluzhenko et al. (2018) divided the Riki Formation
Riki Formation into three formations – Alckun, Assa and Sulak –
Overlying the Mutsidakal Formation is a thick (300– assuming that the major part of the Riki Formation is
350 m) clay-rich unit referred to as the Riki Formation early Miocene in age.
which is composed mainly of chocolate-brown to dark
grey claystones (Fig. 8C, D) containing abundant fish Zuramakent Formation
remains. Some thin (a few cm) beds and lenses of fine- At the top of the Maikop Group, the Zuramakent
grained sandstone are present (Fig. 8E, F). The lower Formation (150 m thick) is composed of dark brown
part of the formation contains several levels of large and greenish-brown claystones which are moderately
(2-4 x 0.5-0.8 m) dolomitic concretions with septarian bioturbated with indistinct, thin bedding. Several
fissures filled with yellowish calcite. Numerous siderite levels with large concretions of dark grey mangano-
Gavrilov.indd 394 19/06/2021 13:55:10

0.1 mm 0.1 mm
1 mm 0.1 mm
1 mm 0.1 mm
Fig. 8.Thin section photomicrographs (PPL) of samples from the lower part of the Mutsidakal Formation
(A and B) and the upper part of the Riki Formation (C - F) from the Sulak River valley succession; sample
numbers correspond to those in Fig. 2. A. Sample 415: claystone with scattered marine and terrigenous
palynomorphs and very fine carbonaceous debris. B. Sample 412: fine-grained sandstone with authigenic
calcite cement. C. Sample 443a: typical claystone enriched in terrigenous OM with lamination disrupted by
bioturbation (mottling). D. Sample 443b: alternation of clay- and OM-rich laminae; the OM shows no primary
structure. E. Sample 450a: thin-bedded heterolithic claystone-siltstone slightly disrupted by bioturbation
(mottling). F. Sample 450b: fine-grained fragments of terrigenous OM in clay-rich siltstone of sample 450a.
siderite (Gavrilov, 1982) (Fig. 9A) are present. In the THE EOCENE – OLIGOCENE
uppermost part of the formation, the clays become BOUNDARY INTERVAL
dominantly dark grey, finely bedded with scarce
burrows and are slightly enriched in terrigenous OМ Biostratigraphy
(Fig. 9C-D) with some diagenetic siderite (Fig. 9E-F). Calcareous nannofossils from the transitional zone
Some relatively thin (0.1-0.2 m) beds of sandstone between the uppermost Belaya Glina Formation and the
are present. lower part of the Maikop Group (Fig. 2) were studied
In the Sulak River valley succession, the contact in detail. Fig. 10 shows nannofossil stratigraphy for
between the Zuramakent Formation and the overlying the Eocene–Oligocene transition at the Chirkey section
Middle Miocene Tarkhan and Chokrak Formations (up previously studied by Gavrilov et al. (2017) and the
to 500 m thick) is covered with talus, but the contact Miatly section (locations in Fig. 1). Also shown is a
can be observed at outcrop in the Buinaksk Pass stratigraphic column for this interval at a reference
some 30 km to the SE (Fig. 9B; see location in Fig exposure of the Maikop Group along the Kheu River
1). Although the uppermost ca. 10 m of sediment is in Kabardino-Balkaria in the Central North Caucasus.
severely dislocated, there is a sharp boundary between In the Belaya Glina Formation, nannofossil
the Maikop Group and the Middle Miocene succession. assemblages are abundant and diverse (ca. 35 species)
Gavrilov.indd 395 19/06/2021 13:55:12

0.1 mm 0.1 mm
0.1 mm 0.1 mm
Fig. 9. Outcrop photographs and photomicrographs of the Zuramakent Formation.

A. Field photograph of dark-coloured claystones with lenticular nodules of mangano-siderite.
B. Contact between the Zuramakent Formation and the overlying Middle Miocene succession at the Buinaksk
Pass outcrop (see location in Fig. 1).
C-F. Thin section (PPL) photomicrographs; sample numbers correspond to those in Fig. 2.
C. Sample 457: claystone with dispersed, laminar organic material and framboidal pyrite; lower part of the
Zuramakent Formation.
D. Sample 460: close-up view of laminar oganic material (which has no internal structure) and occasional
clusters of framboidal pyrite; middle part of the Zuramakent Formation.
E. Sample 455: scattered clusters of siderite in claystone; lower part of the Zuramakent Formation.
F. Sample 464: close-up of authigenic siderite in claystone; middle part of the Zuramakent Formation.
Gavrilov.indd 396 19/06/2021 13:55:14

Fig. 10. Nannofossil stratigraphy for the Eocene – Oligocene transition at the Chirkey section (Gavrilov et al.,
2017) and at the Miatly and Kheu River sections, together with average nannofossil abundance per field of view
(f.v.). The Kheu River section is a reference section for the North Caucasus at which a continuous succession
through the Eocene – Oligocene transition is exposed with a well-defined nannofossil distribution across the
boundary. Note the similar stratigraphic position of the boundary between the Belaya Glina and Khadum
Formations in all three outcrops; the boundary is located in the interval with the Clausicoccus subdistichus acme.
Key to lithologies in Fig. 2.
but are poorly preserved due to the presence of calcite Chiasmolithus oamaruensis, Isthmolithus recurvus
overgrowths. Nannofossils in the Maikop Group and Reticulofenestra isabellae in the lower part of
are of lower total abundance and species diversity the succession indicates the upper Eocene NP19-20
(ca. 20 species) but display better preservation. (Martini, 1971) and CNE19 (Agnini et al., 2014)
The nannofossil assemblages of the entire interval Zones and CP15b subzone (Okada and Bukry, 1980).
are dominated by eurytopic Reticulofenestra and The highest occurrence (HO) of Reticulofenestra
Coccolithus, while both cool-water Chiasmolithus reticulata a few metres above the base of the studied
and warm-water Discoaster are scarce, especially in section defines the base of the CNE20 Zone (Fig. 10)
Maikopian deposits. (Agnini et al., 2014). The sporadic occurrence of the
stratigraphic marker Discoaster saipanensis does not
Chirkey section allow the base of the NP21, CP16 and CNE21 Zones
At the Chirkey section (Gavrilov et al., 2017), a to be located precisely. However, the last occurrence of
stratigraphic interval from the middle part of the this species, ca. 17.5 m above the base of the section,
Belaya Glina Formation to the uppermost Khadum gives an approximate indication for these boundaries.
Formation was studied (Fig. 10). The occurrence of A significant increase in the abundance of Clausicoccus
Gavrilov.indd 397 19/06/2021 13:55:14

subdistichus (acme) occurs at the transition between Kheu River section

the Belaya Glina Formation and the Pshekha Member Similar trends in nannofossil distribution are observed
at the base of the Maikop Group. The base of this in the Kheu River reference section (Fig. 10), which is
bioevent marks the lower boundary of the CNO1 exposed a few kilometres south of the town of Nalchik
Zone of Agnini et al. (2014). The base of the Rupelian and ca. 300 km to the west of the Sulak River area in
stage (Oligocene) corresponds to the extinction of Dagestan. These trends include a C. subdisticus acme
Hantkeninidae planktonic foraminifera (Speijer et al., at the EOT and decreases in both nannofossil total
2020). This GSSP level was identified ca. 1 m below abundance and species diversity toward the top of
the base of the C. subdistichus acme in the Massignano the NP21 Zone. The gradual nature of the transition
section (Premoli Silva and Jenkins, 1993). Thus, in between the formations in the Kheu River section may
the Chirkey section, the base of the Oligocene occurs be a result of the greater depth of the basin in this area
in the uppermost part of the Belaya Glina Formation. and of the very minor siliciclastic input, with a less
At the base of the Pshekha Member, many dramatic decrease in nannofossil abundance at the
nannofossil species disappear from the assemblage or base of the Maikop Group. This in turn resulted in the
their abundance decreases dramatically. This interval, greater thickness (and probably the larger stratigraphic
whose facies characteristics at outcrop indicate a range) of the C. subdistichus acme which extended into
likely drop in relative sea-level, contains common the lowermost part of the Maikop Group. The reduced
redeposited Cretaceous species. The end of the C. thickness of the C. subdistichus acme in the Chirkey
subdistichus acme defines the base of the CP16b section may indicate the effects of more prominent
subzone ca. 1.0 m above the base of the Pshekha environmental changes at the base of the Maikop
Member (Fig. 10). Group at this location and/or a short-term hiatus.
Nannofossils occur at particular levels in the Comparison of the nannofossil distribution in
Pshekha Member. A relatively higher CaCO3 content the three sections (Miatly, Chirkey and Kheu River)
in some intervals is in general caused by the presence indicates synchroneity of the facies changes related
of abundant micrite. The redeposited Cretaceous to a large-scale sea-level fall at the transition between
nannofossil taxa are commonly present in these the Belaya Glina Formation and the base of the
intervals, likely indicating episodes of sea-level Maikop Group. Environmental variations were most
fall. The in situ nannofossil assemblages are widely pronounced in shallower parts of the basin.
dominated by reticulofenestrids with closed central
areas (Dictyococcites), indicating a response to specific Stable carbon and oxygen isotope variations
environmental conditions (possibly lower salinity). The C and O stable isotope records of the Maikop
The HO of Coccolithus formosus ca. 22 m above Group at the Chirkey and Miatly sections reflect both
the base of the Pshekha Member marks the bases of global signals and more regional effects specific to
the NP22 and CNO2 Zones and CP16c subzone (Fig. the Eastern Paratethys. To investigate δ13С and δ18О
10). No more than ten nannofossil species remain variations over the Eocene – Oligocene transition
above this level, and only Cyclicargolithus floridanus, (EOT), bulk carbonate in 75 samples from the above
Reticulofenestra bisecta and Coccolithus pelagicus two sections were analyzed, together with 10 samples
are common. This trend towards lower diversity and from the Kheu River section. A series of large-scale
dominance by a few taxa indicates an environment excursions of oxygen and carbon stable isotope ratios
unhabitable for nannoplankton, probably related to of different duration were recorded.
the lower salinity of the water column. The HO of
Reticulofenestra umbilicus defines the bases of the δ13C variations
NP23, CP17 and CNO3 Zones. In samples from the Chirkey section, δ13C ranges
between 1.5 and 2.0 ‰ in the Belaya Glina Formation,
Miatly section showing a trend to more negative values at the top of
In the Miatly section, nannofossil studies were the formation (Fig. 11). The negative δ13C values in the
restricted to the transitional interval between the terminal Eocene (between 11.5 and 18 m) correspond to
Belaya Glina Formation and the Pshekha Member. a similar negative excursion which has been recorded
Sediments in this interval lack D. saipanensis, and the in many other areas worldwide (Barrera et al., 1993;
C. subdistichus acme is the only bioevent observed (Fig. Salamy and Zachos, 1999; Zachos et al., 2001; Pälike
10). The acme interval at the Miatly exposure is twice as et al., 2006; Coxall and Pearson, 2007; Armstrong et
thick as that at the Chirkey section, possibly suggesting al., 2016; Messaoud et al., 2020) and therefore likely
a higher sedimentation rate. The nannofossil abundance represents a global-scale signal. The Eocene-Oligocene
begins to decrease a few metres above the acme transition, covering the uppermost Belaya Glina
interval, suggesting a rapid environmental change (and Formation and the basal part of the Maikop Group, is
probable shallowing) in this part of the basin. characterized by a short-term positive shift in δ13C by
Gavrilov.indd 398 19/06/2021 13:55:14

Fig. 11. Stratigraphic columns showing the transition from the Eocene Belaya Glina Formation to the Oligocene
Pshekha Member of the Khadum Formation (base-Maikop) in the Chirkey section (after Gavrilov et al., 2017)
and in the Miatly and Kheu River outcrop successions, and depth profiles showing the variations of TOCchem,
CaCO3, d13Cand d8O across the boundary interval at these locations. Key to lithologies in Fig. 2.
EOT = Eocene – Oligocene transition.
about 0.8 ‰. This excursion is then rapidly followed indicates an overprint by regional environmental
by a recovery to pre-shift values. factors.
A similar pattern of δ13C variations in the EOT Smoothed variations in δ13C documented in the
interval is documented in samples from the Miatly and upper part of the Pshekha Member (NP22 Zone) are
Kheu River sections (Fig. 11). In all three sections, the of similar magnitude to those measured in open-ocean
most positive δ13C values in the interval correspond to settings (Salamy and Zachos, 1999; Zachos et al.,
the Clausicoccus subdistichus acme. These variations 2001; Pälike et al., 2006; Coxall and Pearson, 2007;
align with global trends in δ13C values (Salamy and Armstrong et al., 2016).The very negative δ13C values
Zachos, 1999; Zachos et al., 2001; Pälike et al., 2006; found at the base of the Solenov Member (between
Coxall and Pearson, 2007; Armstrong et al., 2016). 56.0 and 58.5 m in Fig. 11) are interpreted to reflect
Above this interval, the δ13C record for the Pacific, isolation of the Paratethys (Rögl, 1998) with a related
Atlantic and Southern oceans (Salamy and Zachos, decrease in primary productivity and/or a change in the
1999; Zachos et al., 2001; Pälike et al., 2006; Coxall rate of organic carbon burial in organic-rich sediments.
and Pearson, 2007; Armstrong et al., 2016) and
the southern NeoTethys (Tunisia: Messaoud et al., δ18О variations
2020) tend towards positive values during the early The δ18О record in the Belaya Glina Formation at
Oligocene. In the Chirkey section, this interval is the Chirkey section varies between -4.7 and -5.5 ‰
marked by abrupt fluctuations in δ13C of about 1.2 ‰, (Fig. 11). A prominent positive excursion of about
indicating environmental instability. The long-term 3.5 ‰ in the late Priabonian indicates significant
prominent negative δ13C excursion (ca. 1.3 ‰) in the climatic cooling. The base of this shift corresponds to
upper part of the lower half of the Pshekha Member an abrupt decrease in nannofossil diversity and total
(CNO1 Zone, see Fig. 11) is larger than the coeval abundance, both of which recover in the later phases
negative shift detected worldwide, and probably of the excursion.
Gavrilov.indd 399 19/06/2021 13:55:15

The subsequent negative δ18О excursion in the EOT The lowermost Solenovian Member is characterized
recorded at the Chirkey section is hard to interpret. by very negative δ18О values ranging from -4.6 to -6.5
The oceanic δ18О record shows a positive oxygen ‰ and scarce nannofossils, suggesting low salinity.
isotope excursion during this period corresponding to
significant climatic cooling. In the Chirkey section, GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE
the negative δ18О values correspond to a significant MAIKOP GROUP
decrease in nannofossil total abundance and an increase
in micrite content that could be due to a fall in salinity The Khadum Formation
resulting from enhanced weathering and river discharge The Khadum Formation differs markedly from
during sea-level fall. This may suggest an initial sediments in the overlying Maikop succession in terms
environmental perturbation prior to the apparent facies of its lithological characteristics. Its geochemical
change at the base of the Maikop Group. Restoration characteristics were therefore studied in detail, and
of the nannofossil assemblage occurs during a period biogenic carbonate content and organic matter (OM)
when δ18О values were still negative, suggesting cool characteristics were investigated as indicators of the
climatic conditions during the late EOT, i.e. in the depositional and geochemical conditions.
topmost Belaya Glina Formation. The short-term
positive δ18О shift above the EOT is accompanied by Variations in carbonate content
a significantly reduced nannofossil abundance and in the Khadum Formation
then their disappearance from the Maikop succession Variations in carbonate content in the Khadum
a little above, and a related decrease in CaCO3 content. Formation at the Miatly section are shown in Fig. 4. Thin
In the shallower Miatly section, the gradual negative sections observations and XRD results demonstrate
trend in δ18О values in the EOT (more than 4 ‰ from that carbonate is mainly represented by calcite although
base to top) is accompanied by a gradual decrease in some samples contain subordinate dolomite (Gavrilov
nannofossil total abundance and a significant input et al., 2017). Carbonate in the Pshekha Member is
of redeposited Cretaceous taxa which likely indicate mostly derived from foraminifera and calcareous
sea-level fall and/or other hydrological changes. The nannoplankton (Fig. 5A). Some biogenic carbonate
Kheu River section, the deepest of those studied, was reworked from pre-Oligocene strata (lower to
demonstrates a very gradual negative trend in δ18О middle Paleogene and Upper Cretaceous). The Belaya
composition of ca. 1.5‰ in magnitude. Nannofossil Glina Formation contains elevated amounts of Mn
abundance varies little at the beginning of this shift (0.2–0.4%: authors’ unpublished data) which may
but is reduced greatly by the later stage of the EOT. be incorporated into the calcite structure. A similar
Thus, observed variations in δ 18О and in the increase in Mn content is found in carbonates in the
abundance of calcareous biota at the Eocene – Pshekha Member, possibly caused by reworking and
Oligocene transition showed that a significant biotic redeposition of Belaya Glina sediments.
response in the Chirkey section is related to an abrupt The lower part of the Pshekha Member in the Miatly
change in δ18О composition, whatever its causes. section has a high content of biogenic carbonate (Fig. 4)
However, the rapid restoration of the nannofossil which progressively decreases (to 0%) at the top of the
assemblage in this section during a negative δ18О unit. A carbonate-free shale member rich in TOC (up to
excursion and the gradual decrease in nannofossil 4%) occurs in the top-most Pshekha Member (i.e. the
abundance suggests that there is a poor correlation interval with samples 52 to 52-4 on Fig. 4). A similar
between variations in oxygen isotope composition and carbonate-free interval was found in this member in
calcareous biota abundance. the Chirkey section by Gavrilov et al. (2017), and has
The very negative δ 18О values in the middle also been recognised (Grossgeim, 1960; Somov, 1965)
Pshekha Member corresponds to the negative δ13C in different parts of the North Caucasus. Moreover a
shift observed in an interval with low carbonate similar carbonate-free horizon at this stratigraphical
content, where nannofossils are absent and the level has been traced in central Europe. Thus Schulz
carbonate component of the sediment is represented et al. (2002) described a carbonate-free black shale
by micrite. The disappearance of nannoflora from the unit below the Dynow Marlstone in the Molasse
basin may have been caused by reduced salinity which Basin (Austria) which is a time-equivalent of the
negatively affected the calcareous biota. Higher in the Ostracoda horizon. The shale horizon was discussed
section, the more positive δ18О values correspond to a by Sachsenhofer and Schulz (2006) and Sachsenhofer
relatively abundant but taxonomically poor nannofossil et al. (2017). Sachsenhofer et al. (2018) and Pupp et
assemblage which may also indicate relatively low al. (2018) demonstrated that this carbonate-free shale
salinity conditions. The barren interval in the stable interval also occurs in the western Carpathians, in the
isotope analyses in the upper Pshekha Member is western Black Sea and in the Rioni Basin of western
related to CaCO3 depletion in sediments in this interval. Georgia. Thus, this carbonate-free horizon can be
Gavrilov.indd 400 19/06/2021 13:55:15

Fm. Lithology
Tarkhan-
Chokrak
m
TOC Mo S Fe Mn P Ni V As U Zn Nb Al2O3
1200 % ppm ppm % % % ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm %
474
Zuramakent
470
465
460
1000 455
450
445
Riki
440
800
435
430
425
420
600
Mutsidakal
415
400 410
Lower Clayey
405
400
395
390
200
385
Miatly
380
375
370
11.06
365
Khadum
360
Belaya 0
120
0,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
2,5
3,0
Glina
Fig. 12. Profiles versus depth of variations in TOC content (wt.%) and of selected elements in Maikopian
sediments at the Sulak River section. TOC values obtained by wet chemical oxidation are given by the solid
line, and those obtained by Rock-Eval pyrolysis by the dashed line.
traced over a very large area stretching from Dagestan Variations in molybdenum content
to Austria, a distance of almost 1500 km. in the Khadum Formation
The Ostracoda horizon consists mainly of marls The Mo concentration is widely used for the
with a high carbonate content and has relatively high reconstruction of the oxygen regime in marine settings.
TOC contents. Above this horizon, the carbonate In the samples analysed from the Miatly section (Fig.
content is <10% (or carbonate is absent) in the clay- 4), there is a positive correlation between variations in
rich Solenovian Member (Fig. 4). Mo and V concentrations and TOC content. A positive
correlation between Fe and S was also demonstrated.
Organic material Mo concentrations in the Khadum Formation
TOCchem variations in the Khadum Formation at the significantly exceed the Mo content of “average”
Miatly section are shown in Fig. 4. The lower part claystones, which is ca. 2.6 ppm (Turekian and
of the formation (Pshekha Member) has a TOCchem Wedepohl, 1961) or 3 ppm (Vinogradov, 1962). In the
of 1-5%, but values of ~2% occur in the Ostracoda Khadum Formation, the Mo content is variable with
horizon at the base of the Solenovian Member. The the highest values occurring in the Pshekha Member
middle part of this member (ca. 20 m) has lower and the lower part of the Solenovian Member (Fig.
TOCchem (<1%), but values increase to 8% above the 4). The Mo concentration decreases in the middle part
upper carbonate bed then gradually decreases to <1% of the latter unit but is still several times higher than
in the overlying 7-8 m. These variations coincide that of “average shale” (Vinogradov, 1962; Turekian
with a thickening of depositional cycles (Fig. 3D) and Wedepohl, 1961). Sharp increases of both TOC
which indicate a generally increased sedimentation and Mo concentrations by 1–1.5 orders of magnitude
rate. Organic material in claystones from the Khadum over “average shale” values occur in claystones in the
Formation is visible in thin section (Fig. 5). upper part of the Solenovian Member. A significant
At the Chirkey section (Gavrilov et al., 2017), decrease of TOC accompanied by a notable reduction
the Khadum Formation includes similar OM-rich of Mo concentration occurs at the transition to the
lithofacies but they are intercalated with thick intervals Miatly Formation (Fig. 4).
of mudstones with low organic content resulting in an
increase in the total thickness of the formation. In the Post-Khadum sediments in the Maikop Group
Miatly section by contrast, a more condensed section Variations in the geochemical characteristics of the
of the Khadum Formation is present with a generally various post-Khadum formations in the Maikop Group
higher content of organic carbon. allow changes in the depositional environment to be
Gavrilov.indd 401 19/06/2021 13:55:16

Gavrilov.indd 402
Table 1. Average values of elemental contents in clay-rich rocks from different formations of the Maikop Group (Sulak section). Elemental contents: upper line gives
402
range of values in individual samples; lower line gives average. TOCchem:TOC measured by wet chemical oxidation. KS : stagnation coefficient (Mo/Mn x 100)
(see text for details).
Forma�on name and TOCchem Mo S Fe Mn Ti P Cr Ni V Cu Co

in brackets below
the number of
samples analyzed
% ppm ppm % % % % ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm

1-27 141-2182 1.98-8.92 0.008- 0.47-0.63 0.02-0.07 93-153 31-124 168-236 35-97 6-31
Zuramakent Fm
0.74 5.5 705 5.20 0.294 0.52 0.04 129 85 203 73 16
(17)
0.10
1-124 345- 1.9-6.01 0.008- 0.49-0.64 0.01-0.08 92-132 22-141 171-272 34-159 6-51
Riki Fm.
1 25.4 15773 2.64 0.116 0.56 0.02 112 55 201 75 20
(17)
3418 0.026
1-66 154-2626 2.3-5.47 0.008- 0.53-0.62 0.01-0.13 94-118 21-89 136-207 11-51 9-22
Mutsidakal Fm.
0.34 13.0 775 3.65 0.139 0.58 0,04 105 41 158 30 14
(13)
0.038
1-65 124-6079 1.44-6.43 0.008- 0.39-0.64 0.01-0.08 62-120 23-177 104-248 3-87 6-28
Lower Clayey Fm.
0.52 10.7 1493 3.30 0.201 0.58 0.03 106 48 169 34 13
(17)
0.068
1-53 226-8465 1.55-8.41 0.008- 0.44-0.67 0.02-0.06 82-122 19-44 105-221 3-88 6-15
Miatly Fm.
0.9 9.9 1587 3.41 0.015 0.58 0.03 104 26 160 25 11
(10)
0.011
15-66 4848- 2.84-4.67 0.015- 0.26-0.58 0.02-0.11 58-109 41-89 181-228 9-86 10-26
Khadum Fm.
1.3 44.0 10038 3.64 0.07 0.34 0.08 76 72 194 38 20
(7)
8257 0.045
Element content: upper line is range in diﬀerent samples of clay-rich rocks; lower line is average.
Forma�on name and

in brackets below Pb As U Th Zn SiO2 Al2O3 CaO Sr KS*
the number of
samples analysed
ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm % % % ppm
Zuramakent Fm 12-22 3-17 2.6-8.6 6.1-9/3 53-189 53.88-64.92 18.38-24.34 0.06-0.52 56-158
0.7
(17) 18 8.3 4.6 7.4 1.6 57.67 21.49 0.29 78
Riki Fm. 7-27 6.5-59 4,2-26 7.5-10 74-185 58.04-66.57 17.27-21.23 0.07-0.72 71-138
11.4
The Oligocene – lower Miocene Maikop Group in Dagestan, NE Caucasus
(17) 13 24.1 9.9 9.1 123 63.73 19.63 0.21 85

Mutsidakal Fm. 6-25 2.5-16 2.6-14 8.5-11 67-144 59.72-64.73 17.22-20.49 0.07-0.75 78-168
7.8
(13) 17 8.9 4.4 9.5 116 62.64 19.25 0.31 98
Lower Clayey Fm. 8-35 3-22 1-11 8.1-12 56-160 29.95-65.25 11.73-21.87 0.07-2.08 80-278
5.2
(17) 18 9.2 4.6 9.8 104 60.96 19.44 0.28 127
Miatly Fm. 7-24 2.5-14 1-12 6.1-13 51-112 53.81-66.12 16.04-20.01 0.11-3.23 81-183
12.6
(10) 14 6.7 4.3 10.0 87 62.93 18.75 0.52 111
Khadum Fm. 19-25 2.5-9.6 1-14 11-15 50-93 25.53-62.35 9.8-19.08 0.43-38.8 139-1185
20.2
(7) 22 9.0 2.8 13.3 76 34.04 11.85 26.65 860
E
19/06/2021 13:55:17
Fig.13. Field photograph showing the position of sample 3/2019 which has a TOC content of up to 11.06 wt % as
determined by Rock-Eval pyrolysis. The sample was collected from above the upper ostracod bed within the
Solenovian Member of the Khadum Formation in the Miatly section; hammer lengh 85 cm. See sample position
in Fig. 4.
evaluated. Table 1 shows the average concentrations geochemical conditions varied significantly during
of a range of elements and oxides in Maikop Group deposition of this part of the Maikop Group.
claystones, and the data is presented in the depth
profiles in Fig. 12. ROCK-EVAL PARAMETERS
In the Sulak River valley succession, the upper OF THE MAIKOP ROCKS
Oligocene – lower Miocene sediments overlying the
Khadum Formation in general have low carbonate Rock-Eval parameters for 49 samples covering all
contents or are carbonate-free. Biogenic carbonate six formations of the Maikop Group and a single
occurs sporadically in the upper part of the Maikop sample from the Belaya Glina Formation in the Miatly
Group e.g. in the lower Chattian Virgulinella layers and section are given in Table 2. The studied samples are
the Alckun Formation. Carbonate may initially have characterized by significant variations in TOC values
been more widely present in the Alckun Formation ranging between 0.14 and 11.06 wt. %. In general, TOC
(Beluzhenko et al., 2018) but was removed during later contents determined by Rock-Eval pyrolysis agree with
diagenesis and reprecipated as carbonate-rich nodules. those determined by wet chemical oxidation (TOCchem).
In the post-Khadum Maikop succession, OM
concentrations vary significantly with the highest Khadum Formation
values occurring in the Riki Formation (Fig. 12, High TOC values were recorded in both carbonate-rich
Table 1). Underlying formations have a 2-3 times samples (limestones, marls and calcareous shales) and
lower average OM content, and TOC concentrations clay-rich shales and claystones-to-mudstones from
increase only at particular levels. Similar trends are the Khadum Formation. In this formation, with the
demonstrated by the Mo, S and Co concentrations. exception of one sample of fine-grained sandstone,
The Riki Formation claystones also have high TOC values are greater than 1 wt.% and up to 11.06
concentrations of As and U. wt % (sample 3/2019: see Fig. 13) with an average
The transitional interval from the Riki to the of 2.5-3 wt.%. There is no correlation between low
Zuramakent Formation demonstrates multidirectional organic carbon concentration and increased mineral
changes in the concentrations of trace elements. Thus, carbon that is commonly observed in sedimentary
the Fe, Mn, P, Cr, Ni, Cu, Pb, Zn and Sc contents carbonates (Ghassal et al., 2016). Rock-Eval Tmax
increase up-section, while TOCchem, S, Mo, As, U, (average: 440°C) and the production index (PI;
Th, Nb, Ti and Rb decrease (Fig 12, Table 1). These average: 0.18) correspond to the middle part of the
variations are prominent in the lower part of the oil window. High HI values (up to 531 mgHC/g
Zuramakent Formation and elemental concentrations TOC) and Type II kerogen (Fig. 14A) indicate the
then decrease up-section and approach “average presence of marine organic matter with good source
shale” values (Turekian and Wedepohl, 1961). These rock characteristics (c.f. Peters, 1986). The average
differences indicate that palaeoenvironmental and HI value is 300 mg HC/g TOC, which correlates with
Gavrilov.indd 403 19/06/2021 13:55:17

Table 2. Rock-Eval data for analysed samples of the Maikop Group from the Sulak River section. See sample
positions inTable 2.and
Figs 2 Rock-Eval
4. data for the analysed samples of the Maikop Group from the Sulak section.
№ Forma�on, S1 S2 S1+S2 PI Tmax TOC HI OI
(S0+S1) mg HC/g mg HC/g Produc�on °C wt% Hydrogen Oxygen
sample
mg HC/g rock rock Index, Index, Index,
number rock (S1/S1+S)2 S2/TOC*100 S3/TOC*100
Zuramakent
1 469 0.09 0.32 0.41 0.22 429 1.33 24 63
2 468 0.04 0.3 0.34 0.12 436 1.41 21 70
3 466 0.06 0.37 0.43 0.14 434 1.15 32 59
4 465 0.21 3.18 3.39 0.06 434 2.52 126 42
5 461 0.08 0.59 0.67 0.12 437 1.40 42 77
6 456 0.02 0.51 0.53 0.04 448 0.69 74 200
Riki
7 452 0.07 0.38 0.45 0.16 431 0.59 65 104
8 451 0.1 0.75 0.85 0.12 428 1.35 56 50
9 450 0 0.04 0.04 0.00 434 0.24 17 142
10 447 0.09 0.71 0.8 0.11 434 1.28 56 61
11 445 0.07 0.58 0.65 0.11 433 1.36 43 61
12 444 0.15 1.06 1.21 0.12 424 1.95 54 42
13 442 0.15 1.29 1.44 0.10 427 1.77 73 38
14 440 0.03 0.15 0.18 0.17 425 0.34 44 118
15 438 0.18 1.96 2.14 0.08 423 2.62 75 18
16 433 0.1 1.61 1.71 0.06 432 1.39 116 42
Mutsidakal
17 426 0.03 0.21 0.24 0.13 438 0.63 33 84
18 421 0.03 0.19 0.22 0.14 442 0.24 80 302
19 419 0.01 0.03 0.04 0.25 429 0.35 9 117
20 417 0.04 0.3 0.34 0.12 438 0.64 47 108
21 416 0.02 0.11 0.13 0.15 443 0.29 38 79
22 414 0.03 0.16 0.19 0.16 439 0.17 95 451
23 412 0.01 0.05 0.06 0.17 433 0.14 36 343
Lower Clayey
24 403 0 0.99 0.99 0.00 436 0.68 146 43
25 402 0.03 0.21 0.24 0.13 431 0.70 30 53
26 399 0.03 0.24 0.27 0.11 438 0.66 36 105
27 398 0.08 0.55 0.63 0.13 433 0.95 58 51
28 397 0.03 0.38 0.41 0.07 440 0.84 45 73
29 393 0.17 1.66 1.83 0.09 434 1.77 94 41
30 390 0.15 0.4 0.55 0.27 434 0.93 43 69
Miatly
31 387 0.03 0.11 0.14 0.21 443 0.49 23 94
32 385 0.24 1.97 2.21 0.11 435 1.66 119 42
33 383 0.02 0.1 0.12 0.17 444 0.56 18 98
34 379 0.14 0.21 0.35 0.40 429 0.69 31 103
35 377 2.09 1.87 3.96 0.53 nd 1.53 122 31
36 374 0.07 0.23 0.3 0.23 433 0.61 38 82
37 369 0.07 0.22 0.29 0.24 450 0.59 37 264
38 366 0.04 0.11 0.15 0.27 438 0.26 42 85
Khadum
5/19
46 (~56-3 in Fig.4) 0.54 7.01 7.55 0.07 441 3.36 208 10
4/19
47 (~56-2 in Fig.4) 0.17 1.34 1.51 0.11 437 1.78 75 17
3/19
48 (~56 in Fig.4) 1.4 58.73 60.13 0.02 445 11.06 531 5
3/19-bis
48 (~56 in Fig.4) 0.56 50.16 50.72 0.02 442 10.24 490 9
1b/19
49 (~55 in Fig.4) 0.67 8.54 9.21 0.07 440 3.00 285 15
39 364 0.77 8.48 9.25 0.08 439 2.73 311 13
40 362 0.12 0.11 0.23 0.52 nd 0.33 34 98
41 360 0.51 6.98 7.49 0.07 440 2.51 278 13
42 9a 0.09 0.69 0.78 0.12 444 1.29 53 64
43 9 0.59 3.93 4.52 0.13 443 2.71 145 14
44 8 0.25 1.44 1.69 0.15 444 1.54 94 34
45 7 0.76 3.89 4.65 0.16 442 2.99 130 16
Belaya Glina
50 4 0.09 0.17 0.26 0.35 nd 0.56 31 111
Gavrilov.indd 404 19/06/2021 13:55:18

Fig. 14A. Plot of hydrogen index (HI)

A
versus Rock-Eval Tmax showing the
kerogen type and maturity in the
studied samples;
(B) plot of the production yield
versus TOC showing the hydrocarbon
generation potential of the Maikop
Group samples (after Peters, 1986).
Note that sample 3/2019 from the
Solenovian Member of the Khadum
Formation (Fig. 13) with high HI
and Tmax was measured twice (see
samples 3/2019 and 3/2019-bis in
Table 2), giving two separate data-
points.
an assumed initial source-rock potential of 400–600 correspond to the beginning of oil generation (early oil
mg HC/g TOC (according to the transformation ratio window). For the samples of the Riki and Zuramakent
parameter of Jarvie, 2012). Relatively high production Formations, the Tmax (432°C) and PI = 0.1 suggest that
yields (Rock-Eval S1+S2) indicate that some samples the organic matter is marginally mature.
from the Khadum Formation contain a good or even Samples from the post-Khadum formations
excellent hydrocarbon potential (Fig. 14B). in general contain low amounts of pyrolyzable
hydrocarbons (Rock-Eval S1 and S2), and are
Post-Khadum sediments in the Maikop Group characterized by low HI values (typically less than
In non-carbonate rocks of the Miatly, Lower Clayey 100 mg HC/g TOC). They contain kerogen Type
and Mutsidakal Formations, average TOC values III which consists mainly of terrigenous organic
are low (about 1 wt.% on average). The lowest TOC matter (or oxidized aquatic organic matter). These
values (less than 0.5 wt.%) are characteristic of characteristics indicate that the samples have little oil
samples dominated by siliciclastic material (sandstones source potential. However, moderate gas generation
and siltstones), excluding one sandstone from the potential can be predicted for samples from the Riki
Miatly Formation (sample 377, Fig. 2) with a very Formation (Fig.14B).
high PI (0.53) indicating the presence of migrated Thus in summary, the results of Rock-Eval
hydrocarbons. In the Lower Miocene Riki and pyrolysis show that carbonate-free mudstones of the
Zuramakent Formations, TOC values increase by more Khadum Formation have the greatest oil-generating
than 1.5 wt.% on average and demonstrate a fairly potential, with Type II kerogen at oil window maturity;
uniform distribution across the section with only minor the initial HI is estimated at 400-600 mg HC/gTOC.
variations (from 0.6 to 2.6 wt.%). The Miatly sandstones and siltstones contain migrated
Average Tmax values for samples from the Lower bitumen, as indicated by the elevated S1 and PI; and
Clay and Mutsidakal Formations (436°C and PI = 0.13) overlying Oligocene – lower Miocene formations
Gavrilov.indd 405 19/06/2021 13:55:19

in general contain Type III kerogen with little oil of oxygen deficiency allow the oxygen regime in the
potential, although the relatively high TOC values in water column to be recognised reliably, nor can they be
samples of the Riki Formation indicate its minor gas used to determine the onset or end of anoxia. Variations
source potential. in the concentration of elements which are sensitive
In 30 samples of the Khadum Formation from the to redox fluctuations may, however, give a better
Chirkey section previously analyzed (Gavrilov et al., indication of the occurrence of anoxic conditions. Thus
2017), the relatively low hydrogen index values (HI Hallberg (1974) suggested that the (Mo+Cu)/Zn ratio
= 52–351 mg HC/g TOC) and Rock-Eval Tmax (433- may serve as a proxy for anoxia, while Emelyanov
452°C) corresponded to moderately mature OM. The (1977, 1981) used ratios of molybdenum, copper,
samples predominantly contained Type III kerogen selenium, zinc and manganese for this purpose.
which originated either from terrigenous higher plants A pronounced response to changes in the oxygen
or from marine OM which had been degraded by regime in the bottom waters is given by variations in
aerobic processes. Only the marls and calcareous shaly the concentrations of Mo and Mn, and a “stagnation
clays from the Ostracoda horizon (5 m thick) contained coefficient” (Mo/Mn x 100) was therefore proposed
marine Type II kerogen. Considering that the kerogen by Kholodov and Nedumov (1991) and Nedumov
in the samples of the Khadum Formation analysed is (1994, 1998). Molybdenum is precipitated under
mature, any generated hydrocarbons may have been anoxic conditions with high H2S concentrations and
lost as a result of catagenetic processes which could co-precipitates with authigenic sulphides (Korolev,
have decreased the HI values. Hence, initial HI values 1958). In a normally oxygenated environment,
in the Khadum sediments may have been higher. however, Mo remains in solution. Manganese, by
This is consistent with petrographic observations contrast, precipitates as an oxide in normal oxygen
which indicate an insignificant content of organic concentrations but enters into solution in anoxic
components of terrigenous origin in the formation but conditions. Analysis of a large data-set on Mo and
high proportions of amorphous OM and the presence Mn concentrations in recent and ancient sediments
of algal and spore material (Gavrilov et al., 2017). has shown that values of the stagnation coefficient <1
indicate oxidizing depositional conditions whereas
GEOCHEMICAL PROXIES FOR values >1 (or even ˃10) by contrast imply anoxia.
ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES
IN THE EASTERN PARATETHYS The Miatly section
The stagnation coefficient (Mo/Mn x 100) was
The Maikop Group sediments at outcrops in Dagestan determined for claystone samples from the Miatly
have poor faunal and trace fossil contents indicating section, and the results suggest that Maikopian
unfavourable palaeoecological conditions, and this sediments were deposited in oxygen deficient
tends to be corroborated by geochemical data. The conditions (Table 1). However depositional conditions
link between OM accumulation and anoxia began periodically fluctuated, facilitating or hindering
to be discussed following the discovery of anoxia development of an anoxic bottom water zone with high
and related high concentrations of free H2S in the free H2S concentrations.
Black Sea in 1890 by a Russian Geographical Society
expedition. Arkhangelsky (1927) investigated oil Khadum Formation
generation in the North Caucasus, and proposed that The lithological and geochemical characteristics of
liquid hydrocarbons had formed from organic matter the Khadum Formation are variable, showing that the
which had been deposited in anoxic environments depositional environment changed significantly over
with high levels of free H2S. The presence of anoxic, time. This is indicated by changes in the TOC, CaCO3
H2S -rich bottom waters during Maikopian deposition and Mo and Mn contents through the section (Figs 4, 12).
in the Eastern Paratethys was subsequently studied At the transition from the Belaya Glina Formation
by researchers including Zhizhchenko (1953, 1958), to the Khadum Formation at the base of the Maikop
Nedumov (1998), Popov and Stolyarov (1996) and Group, a significant increase in Mo and other element
Stolyarov (1996). However, anoxia in the area around concentrations (Fe, S, Mo, V, Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Ba,
the Sulak River was variable, and the upper surface of Th, U: Gavrilov et al., 2017) is observed, accompanied
the zone with free hydrogen sulphide was sometimes by a reduction or complete disappearance of benthic
close to the top of the water column but at other times fauna and trace fossils. This suggests that ecologically
was at considerable depth. unfavourable, dysoxic-anoxic conditions developed
To a s s e s s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a n o x i a , in the bottom waters during deposition of the base-
sedimentological observations (e.g. the preservation Pshekha Member. This is corroborated by values of the
of lamination or bioturbation) can be used. However, stagnation coefficient. However planktonic organisms
neither sedimentological nor palaeoecological signs such as foraminifera and nannofossils continued to
Gavrilov.indd 406 19/06/2021 13:55:19

thrive in well-oxygenated near-surface waters as slope instability as suggested by the gravity-controlled

indicated by the photomicrographs of the Khadum displacement of large-scale olistoliths.
Formation samples in Fig. 5. The low concentrations of redox-sensitive elements
During deposition of the Ostracoda horizon in samples from the Miatly, Lower Clayey and
limestones and the overlying marls and calcareous Mutsidakal Formations (Table 1, Fig. 12) suggest that
clays in the Solenovian Member, there was an apparent geochemical conditions during the late Oligocene were
retreat of the zone of anoxia to deeper parts of the basin. unstable and dysoxic conditions prevailed. Oxygen-
The widespread lateral extent of the limestones and free conditions occurred occasionally but for relatively
marls of the Ostracoda horizon, which is a prominent short time periods.
marker bed, suggests that oxic conditions in the water
column were dominant at this time. Riki Formation
Depositional conditions then changed significantly Deposition of the Riki Formation marked a new stage
during deposition of the Solenovian Member, with an in the depositional history of this sector of the Eastern
abrupt increase in the input of clay with an admixture Paratethys. The formation is composed of a single
of silt-grade siliciclastics to this part of the basin which almost uniform unit of chocolate-brown, laminated
had previously been dominated by the deposition of claystones intercalated with thin (several cm) beds
mixed planktonic carbonate- and clay-rich sediment. of fine-grained sandstone. The sedimentological
OM accumulation decreased, coinciding with reduced characteristics of the formation indicate that it was
precipitation of Mo indicating dysoxic-anoxic deposited in a stable, low-energy environment.
conditions. The end of the interval was also marked Claystones in the Riki Formation, in contrast to
by environmental changes which are recorded in the those in the underlying Miatly, Lower Clayey and
deposition of highly OM-rich shales and claystones Mutsidakal Formations, are characterized by increased
(ca. 7 m thick) above the upper ostracod bed in the amounts of organic matter (Table 1). Together with an
uppermost part of the Solenovian Member. The sharp enrichment in Mo, S, As, U and Co and a depletion in
increase of Mo concentrations and the high values of Mn, these geochemical characteristics indicate anoxic
the stagnation coefficient indicate the onset of anoxic depositional conditions.
conditions. In general, biogenic carbonate is not present in the
The following period of sediment deposition was Riki Formation. It may initially have been present in
characterized by low rates of OM accumulation. the lower part of the formation before being removed
Increased input of siliciclastics was accompanied by an and reprecipitated in the form of carbonate (dolomite)
increase in hydrodynamic activity and the restoration of concretions. The lower part of the Riki Formation could
normal aeration in the water column. The appearance of therefore corresponds to the Alckun Formation of the
thick intervals of alternating claystones and sandstones, western North Caucasus (Beluzhenko et al., 2018).
as well as changes in geochemical characteristics,
indicate the end of Khadum Formation deposition. Zuramakent Formation
Depositional conditions in the study area evolved
The Miatly, Lower Clayey and Mutsidakal again during deposition of the Zuramakent Formation.
Formations: upper Oligocene – lower Miocene The presence of abundant burrows which are
Contrasting with the depositional record of the lower absent from underlying Maikopian deposits indicate
Oligocene Khadum Formation, the upper Oligocene normal aeration in the bottom waters and abundant
Miatly, Lower Clayey and Mutsidakal Formations benthic fauna. An aerobic regime is also suggested
demonstrate an absence of prolonged episodes of by a depletion in Mo and an enrichment of Mn in
concentrated OM accumulation, although TOC values Zuramakent Formation samples (Fig. 12).
may be up to 1.5-2%. In general the three formations Early diagenetic processes in the formation were
are composed of claystones, although the Miatly and also modified. Thus claystones in underlying Maikopian
Mutsidakal Formations in the Miatly section contain deposits are commonly enriched in framboidal pyrite
numerous sandstone beds. whose concentration correlates with that of OM, and
Compared to the Khadum interval, sedimentation maximum framboidal pyrite concentrations occur in
rates during the late Oligocene progressively increased, the Khadum and Riki Formations. By contrast the
and the input of siliciclastic material is interpreted to Zuramakent Formation is characterized by diagenetic
have increased by almost an order of magnitude. The siderite containing Mn (Fig. 9E-F), resulting in the
high sedimentation rates resulted in the deposition typical occurrence of mangano-siderite concretions
of relatively low-OM deposits. The changes in (Gavrilov, 1982). Enhanced Mn accumulation resulted
depositional history may be explained by factors in the formation of the Labinsky manganese ore
including accelerated uplift and unroofing of the Greater deposits in the Central Caucasus (Kalinenko, 1990;
Caucasus and an increase in regional subsidence and Strakhov et al., 1968).
Gavrilov.indd 407 19/06/2021 13:55:19

High Mn concentrations may be related to a change (1996) and Popov et al. (2009, 2010). In this study,
in redox conditions between the underlying Riki and the Paratethys sea level is estimated to have fallen by
the Zuramakent Formations. While Mn accumulated 100-150 m at the Priabonian–Oligocene boundary; a
in the anoxic water column in the Riki palaeobasin sea-level fall of only 50 m is estimated for the global
(similar to the modern Black Sea: Dekov et al., 2020), ocean at this time (Haq et al., 1987). A sea level fall of
Mn was precipitated in the oxic to suboxic Zuramakent several tens of metres also occurred at the end of the
palaeobasin. early Oligocene. Other episodes of sea level fall and
Another cause of the enrichment of the Zuramakent rise during Maikopian time were probably of a smaller
Formation with elements such as Fe and Mn (Fig. amplitude but had a significant impact on patterns of
12) may be related to the erosion of Oligocene ore- sedimentation. A high-magnitude in sea level fall also
bearing sediments from the opposite (i.e. eastern) side occurred at the very end of Maikop deposition.
of the palaeobasin (Stolyarov and Kochenov, 1995, In terms of Maikop Group thickness, the succession
Formozova, 1959). This may have been a result of a at the Sulak River is almost twice as thick as that at the
fall in relative sea level and the east-to-west transport Belaya River in the NW Caucasus (Popov et al., 2019;
of erosional products by submarine currents. Sachsenhofer et al., 2017). However depositional rates
In the uppermost part of the Zuramakent Formation, of Maikopian sediments at the Sulak River valley
there is some sedimentological and geochemical location varied significantly through time; they were
evidence for stagnation accompanied by the temporary lowest during deposition of the Khadum Formation
occurrence of dysoxic conditions. This suggests that but later increased substantially. An increase in the
there were multiple turnovers of redox conditions sedimentation rate during the second half of the
in this part of the NE Paratethys during the Early Oligocene by almost an order of magnitude was
Neogene, including a transition from relatively stable reported by Popov et al. (2009). This changes was
anoxia during deposition of the Riki Formation to caused by a number of factors, including acceleration
predominantly oxic conditions in the Zuramakent in the uplift and unroofing of the Greater Caucasus
palaeobasin, with short dysoxic episodes during the which supplied an increasing load of clastic debris
final stages of its depositional history. to the surrounding foreland basins; and increased
basin subsidence (Mikhailov et al., 1999) which
INFLUENCE OF REGIONAL AND GLOBAL was necessary to provide accommodation space for
FACTORS ON THE DEPOSITION OF the deposition of the thick (>1 km) upper Oligocene
MAIKOP GROUP SEDIMENTS – lower Miocene succession. Uplift of the eastern
Greater Caucasus in Maikopian time and slope
The depositional characteristics of the Maikop Group instability is indicated by observations of gravity-
sediments in the NE Caucasus was influenced by controlled deformation. These include soft sediment
various factors including: episodic freshening of this deformation structures in the Khadum Formation,
part of the Eastern Paratethys as a result of freshwater numerous olistoliths composed of pre-Maikop rocks
flows from rivers draining the Russian Platform (e.g. together with subaqueous slumps and slides in the
Nedumov, 1993, 1994; Muzylev et al., 1992); uplift and Miatly Formation (Fig. 6A-C), and large rafted slabs
subaerial emergence of the Greater Caucasus providing of the Riki Formation sediments enclosed within the
a significant sediment provenance area; increased basin sediments of the Zuramakent Formation.
subsidence; eustatic sea level variations; periodic
isolation of the Paratethys or re-connection with the CONCLUSIONS
global ocean; and local climatic changes, including a
general cooling trend in the Oligocene. The combined This study investigated the Oligocene – lower Miocene
effect of these factors influenced depositional processes Maikop Group at a well-exposed outcrop succession
in the study area and resulted in a complex facies along the Sulak River in Dagestan (NE Caucasus),
distribution. with particular focus on the boundary between the end-
During the Paleocene and Eocene, a humid tropical Eocene Belaya Glina Formation and the base-Maikop
climate prevailed in Southern Russia and adjacent Khadum Formation. Major conclusions of the study
areas. Cooling began in the mid- early Oligocene, are as follows:
and by the end of the Oligocene the average annual • The results of biostratigraphic studies of
temperature had fallen by 10-15°C in the southern calcareous nannofossils allowed the Belaya Glina
Paratethys. At the same time, the climate became Formation – Khadum Formation boundary to be
more continental (Sinitsyn, 1965; Yasamanov, 1978; defined. The boundary occurs within the CP16 Zone
Akhmetiev et al., 2017). near the division between the CP16a and CP16b
Sea level fluctuations in the Eastern Paratethys have subzones. This definition matches the age of the
been discussed by Krasheninnikov and Akhmetiev boundary in a reference section along the Kheu River
Gavrilov.indd 408 19/06/2021 13:55:19

in Kabardino-Balkaria to the west of the study area in improved the paper significantly. JPG editorial staff
the Central North Caucasus. are acknowledged for assistance with the English
• The oxygen stable isotope record for the language presentation.
transitional Eocene – Oligocene interval demonstrates
a marked decrease of δ18О in the studied outcrop Funding
sections, probably caused by a change of water column This study was carried out following research
salinity. projects of the Geological Institute of the
• Results of Rock-Eval pyrolysis show that Russian Academy of Sciences: project numbers
the samples of the Maikop Group analysed contain АААА-А20-120030490100-6 and АААА-А21-
kerogen Types II and III which is unevenly distributed. 121011590055-6. Pyrolysis studies were supported
Carbonate-free rocks from above the upper ostracod by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of
bed in the Khadum Formation have the greatest oil- the Russian Federation under agreement No. 075-10-
generating potential with Type II kerogen at mid- 2020-119 within the framework of the Development
oil window maturities; the initial hydrogen index Programme for a World-Class Research Center.
is estimated at 400-600 mg of HC/g. The Miatly
sandstones and siltstones contain migrated bitumen, REFERENCES
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PÄLIKE, H., BACKMAN, J. and RIO, D., 2014. Biozonation
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and biochronology of Paleogene calcareous nannofossils
oil potential, although samples of the Riki Formation from low and middle latitudes. Newsletters on Stratigraphy
may have minor gas potential. 47, 2, 131-181.
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Journal of Petroleum Geology,Vol. 44(3), July 2021, pp 385-412 385

STRATIGRAPHY, SEDIMENTOLOGY AND

Yu.Gavrilov*#, R. Nedumov*, E. Shchepetova*, E. Shcherbinina*,

* Geological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences,

Gavrilov.indd 385 19/06/2021 13:55:02

1 Sulak 2 Chirkey 3 Buinaksk

Gavrilov.indd 386 19/06/2021 13:55:02

limestone marl claystone calcareous claystone

sandstone concretions olistolith 390 sample position

Gavrilov.indd 387 19/06/2021 13:55:03

Gavrilov.indd 388 19/06/2021 13:55:03

Gavrilov.indd 389 19/06/2021 13:55:03

Gavrilov.indd 390 19/06/2021 13:55:05

Gavrilov.indd 391 19/06/2021 13:55:05

Fig. 5.Thin sections (PPL) of samples

Miatly Formation interpreted to have become detached and slid down

Gavrilov.indd 392 19/06/2021 13:55:07

Gavrilov.indd 393 19/06/2021 13:55:09

Gavrilov.indd 394 19/06/2021 13:55:10

Gavrilov.indd 395 19/06/2021 13:55:12

Fig. 9. Outcrop photographs and photomicrographs of the Zuramakent Formation.

Gavrilov.indd 396 19/06/2021 13:55:14

Gavrilov.indd 397 19/06/2021 13:55:14

subdistichus (acme) occurs at the transition between Kheu River section

Gavrilov.indd 398 19/06/2021 13:55:14

Gavrilov.indd 399 19/06/2021 13:55:15

Gavrilov.indd 400 19/06/2021 13:55:15

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Forma�on name and TOCchem Mo S Fe Mn Ti P Cr Ni V Cu Co

% ppm ppm % % % % ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm

Forma�on name and

(17) 13 24.1 9.9 9.1 123 63.73 19.63 0.21 85

Gavrilov.indd 403 19/06/2021 13:55:17

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Fig. 14A. Plot of hydrogen index (HI)

Gavrilov.indd 405 19/06/2021 13:55:19

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thrive in well-oxygenated near-surface waters as slope instability as suggested by the gravity-controlled

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Resourses), 1, 69-78. River (North Caucasus): Depositional environment and

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with the high hydrogen sulfide concentrations in the water

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