ENERGY

THE BLUE PLANET: CHAPTER 2

OVERVIEW

• Consider the nature of energy and define some different types of energy
• Introduce the fundamental laws that govern the flows of energy in the Earth
system
• Look at the sources of energy that power the Earth system
• Examine how energy moves through the Earth system
• Consider how humans have tapped into various energy sources to power our
technologies
OUTLINE

• What is Energy?
• External Energy Sources
• Internal Energy Sources
• Earth’s Energy Cycle
• Energy and Society
WHAT IS ENERGY?

• Energy is the capacity to

• Do work
• Move matter
• Make things happen
• Energy exists in many different forms
• The sum of the different kinds of energy in a system is the internal energy
WHAT IS ENERGY?

• Energy is present in every part of the Earth system and is required for the
functioning of every Earth process, whether natural or human
• To change the internal energy of a system, energy must be added or taken away
• This is called work
WHAT IS ENERGY?

• Energy can take lots of different forms, but all are described as either
• Potential Energy
• Energy that is stored in a system
• Kinetic Energy
• Enegy that is expressed in movement
• Or a combination of these
WHAT IS ENERGY?

• Potential energy, energy that is stored in a system, can take the form of

• Chemical energy
• Nuclear energy
• Stored mechanical energy
• Gravitational energy
WHAT IS ENERGY?

• Kinetic energy, energy that is expressed in the movement of electrons, atoms,

molecules, materials, and objects, includes

• Radiant energy
• Electrical energy
• Thermal energy (heat)
• Sound
• Motion
WHAT IS ENERGY?

• The transfer of energy from one form to another and one body to another is
subject to the 3 laws of thermodynamics

• 1st Law: Conservation and Transformation

• 2nd Law: Efficiency and Entropy
• 3rd Law: Absolute Zero
 WHAT IS ENERGY?

• 1st Law: Conservation and

Transformation

• In a system of constant mass, the

energy involved in any physical or
chemical change is neither created
nor destroyed, but merely changed
from one form to another.
WHAT IS ENERGY?

• 2nd Law: Efficiency and Entropy

• Energy always changes from a more useful, more concentrated form to a less
useful, less concentrated form.
• The measurement of the disorganization is called entropy
 WHAT IS ENERGY?

• 3rd Law: Absolute Zero

• The third law of thermodynamics

postulates the existence of the state of
absolute zero temperature
• Temperature is a measure of heat, the
vibrational motion of particles
• In a state of absolute zero temperature,
all of this motion would cease
• Absolute zero provides the foundation
point for the Kelvin temperature scale
OUTLINE

• What is Energy?
• External Energy Sources
• Internal Energy Sources
• Earth’s Energy Cycle
• Energy and Society
EXTERNAL ENERGY SOURCES

• All processes in the Earth system are driven by energy

• External energy sources are

• The sun
• Gravity and tides
EXTERNAL ENERGY SOURCES

• The Sun is a star that radiates heat as a result of thermonuclear reactions

(fusion) in its core
• Fusion converts matter to energy
• Energy released by fusion in the Sun is in the form of gamma rays (98%) and
neutrinos
• Gamma rays are responsible for the tiny fraction of the Sun’s energy that
reaches the Earth
EXTERNAL ENERGY SOURCES

Luminosity: the amount of energy (or light) radiated into space per unit of time.
Earth-Sun distance is 1.5 x 1011 m, surface area = 2 π r2 =2.8 x 1023 m2
Solar energy flux that reached Earth is 1370 W/m2
Total energy output: 3.8 x 1026 Watts
Earth radius: 6.4 x 106 m
Luminosity that hits the Earth is 1.8 x 1017 watts, 1% increase or decrease will change averge
temperature about 1oC
EXTERNAL ENERGY SOURCES

• The Sun consists of six

concentric layers
• The Core: site of all nuclear
fusion reactions, 62% He, 38% H
• The Radiative Layer: energy
released from the core moves
across by radiation
• The Convective Layer: across
which energy moves by
convection
EXTERNAL ENERGY SOURCES

• The Sun consists of six

concentric layers
• The Photosphere: the
visible portion of the sun
that emits light
• The Chromosphere: a low-
density layer of very hot gas
• The Corona: the outermost
layer of even lower density
gas
ORIGIN OF THE ELEMENTS: NUCLEAR SYNTHESIS IN
STARS
• Hydrogen burning: responsible for the majority of the energy
production in the stars, forming He

1
1 H + H → H + β +ν + 0.422 Mev
1
1
2
1
+

β + e → 1.02 Mev (annihilation)

+ −

2
1 H + 11H → 23 He +ν + 5.493 Mev
3
2 He + He → He + 2 H + 12.859 Mev
3
2
4
2
1
1

The formation of 1 mole of 4He produces: 1.9097 trillion J/mol

ORIGIN OF THE ELEMENTS: NUCLEAR SYNTHESIS IN
STARS
• Helium burning (and CNO cycle): forming carbon, and 16O, 20Ne
and perhaps 24Mg with further addition of alpha-particle

He + 24 He → 48 Be C + 11H → 137 N + γ
4 12
2 6
8
4 Be + 24 He → 126 C * → 126 C + γ 13
N → 136 C + β + + ν
7

C + 11H → 147 N + γ
13
6
14
7 N + 11H → 158 O + γ
Half life: 7 x 10-17 second
O → 157 N + β + + ν
15
8
15
7 N + 11H → 126 C + 24 He
EXTERNAL ENERGY SOURCES

• Radiation energy released in the Sun’s core has a very short wavelength and is
extremely energetic
• As gamma rays move outward from the core they are repeatedly absorbed
and reemitted as longer-wavelength, lower-energy radiation
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
 EXTERNAL ENERGY SOURCES

• The energy flux from the Sun varies with wavelength, and the shape of the
Sun’s spectral curve matches that of a blackbody radiator
• This refers to the radiation-absorbing properties of a body, a perfect
blackbody absorbs all light that strikes it
EXTERNAL ENERGY SOURCES
EXTERNAL ENERGY SOURCES

• The spectrum of electromagnetic radiation emitted by the Sun is not the

same as the spectrum of solar radiation that reaches the Earth’s surface
• Gases in the Earth’s atmosphere selectively absorb some wavelengths of solar
radiation
• The ozone layer absorbs very short wavelength (UV) radiation, this energy is
transformed into heat, warming the stratosphere
EXTERNAL ENERGY SOURCES

• The Sun is responsible for 99.985% of all energy in the Earth system, but external
energy also comes in as a result of gravity: the mutual physical attraction between
the Earth and the Moon
• The gravitational pull that the Moon exerts on Earth is balanced by an equal and
opposite inertial force created by Earth’s movement
EXTERNAL ENERGY SOURCES

• The side of Earth nearest the Moon is pulled toward the Moon by gravity
while the side of Earth farthest from the Moon is pulled away by inertial force
• This produces a periodic distortion called a tide, which takes the form of a
flattening distortion (ellipsoid)
EXTERNAL ENERGY SOURCES
EXTERNAL ENERGY SOURCES

• The Earth is elastic, meaning it has the capacity to deform reversibly

• The internal resistance (friction) caused by the elastic deformation within the
planet is translated into heat - one of Earth’s internal heat energy sources
• Though both are caused by gravity, do not confuse Earth tides (body tides)
with ocean tides!
OUTLINE

• What is Energy?
• External Energy Sources
• Internal Energy Sources
• Earth’s Energy Cycle
• Energy and Society
INTERNAL ENERGY SOURCES

• In addition to energy from the Sun and Earth tides, there are sources of
energy that come from within the planet itself
• Terrestrial (geothermal) energy sources have a much smaller input than the
sun, but greater than the tidal contribution
INTERNAL ENERGY SOURCES

• The increase in temperature as you go

deeper in the Earth is called the
geothermal gradient
• The geothermal gradient varies from place
to place and becomes less pronounced
with depth
• By extrapolation, the temperature of the
Earth’s core is calculated to be about 5300
K - almost as hot as the surface of the Sun!
HEAT TRANSFER: CONDUCTION, CONVECTION, AND
RADIATION
Energy transfer in the form of heat is
particularly important in driving a wide
variety of Earth processes:

1.Conduction: the process by which heat

moves directly from one object to an
adjacent object with which it is in contact.
2.Convection: a mechanism of heat
transfer in which heat content is physically
carried from one location to another. This
occurs as a result of the heating and
subsequent movement of hot materials.
3.Radiation: the process in which energy in
the electromagnetic spectrum is
transferred from a radiating or emitting
body through a surrounding gas, liquid, or
vacuum.
INTERNAL ENERGY SOURCES

• Heat energy flows out through solid rocks at Earth’s surface by

conduction
• However, volcanoes involve the movement of hot material
from inside the planet to outside, so some heat energy
reaches the Earth’s surface by convection
• Convection is a very efficient way for the Earth to transfer
heat from its interior to the surface, and convective heat
transfer provides the driving force behind plate tectonics
INTERNAL ENERGY SOURCES
INTERNAL ENERGY SOURCES

• There are several sources for Earth’s internal terrestrial energy

• Radiogenic heat: the main source, accounting for ~66% of interior heat flow, is
produced by decay of radioactive elements
• Accretionary heat: internal heat left over from the formation of the Earth by
countless particles colliding into each other and sticking together
INTERNAL ENERGY SOURCES

• There are several sources for Earth’s internal terrestrial energy

• Tidal heating: heat generated by internal friction from the constant distortion of
the planet
• Core formation: heat from the gravitational potential energy of the dense core
material sinking into the center of the planet plus heat released as the innermost
material solidified
OUTLINE

• What is Energy?
• External Energy Sources
• Internal Energy Sources
• Earth’s Energy Cycle
• Energy and Society
EARTH’S ENERGY CYCLE

• The energy cycle encompasses the inputs and outputs, pathways, and reservoirs
for the energy that drives all of the other cycles of the Earth system
• Functioning like a budget, energy may be added or subtracted and transferred
from one reservoir to another, but overall the transactions must balance
EARTH’S ENERGY CYCLE

• Energy In
• Incoming solar radiation powers the winds, rainfall, ocean currents, waves, the rest
of the hydrologic cycle, and photosynthesis
• > 174,000 terawatts (or 174,000 x 1012 watts) vs. human consumption 10 terawatts
• 99.985% of the total

• Energy produced by gravity, tides, and Earth’s rotation

• 3 terawatts (0.002%)

• Earth’s internal heat energy drives the tectonic cycle, causing the lithospheric
plates to shift, uplift mountains, cause earthquakes and cause volcanic eruptions
• 23 terawatts (0.013 %)
EARTH’S ENERGY CYCLE

• Energy Out
• Earth loses energy by reflection (albedo) and by degradation and re-radiation
• 40% of solar radiation is reflected by the top of the atmosphere, clouds, ocean
surfaces, continents, and ice and snow
EARTH’S ENERGY CYCLE

• Energy Out
• Absorbed solar radiation undergoes irreversible degradation through transfer from
reservoir to another and conversion from one form to another, eventually ending
up as heat, reradiated into space
• Earth’s outgoing radiation is also selectively absorbed by gases in the atmosphere,
causing the greenhouse effect
EARTH’S ENERGY CYCLE
OUTLINE

• What is Energy?
• External Energy Sources
• Internal Energy Sources
• Earth’s Energy Cycle
• Energy and Society
ENERGY AND SOCIETY

• Humans tap into energy from Earth’s reservoirs to extract power for
• Transportation
• Home and office use
• Industrial use
• Energy consumed by the global population annually is 3.0 x 1020 Joules
• Equivalent to burning 10 barrels of oil per person per year
ENERGY AND SOCIETY
ENERGY AND SOCIETY

• 4 energy sources have been extensively • 5 other sources are being

developed: developed more extensively:
• Fossil fuels • Solar energy
• Biomass energy • Wind energy
• Hydroelectric energy • Waves
• Nuclear energy • Tides
• Geothermal energy
MAKING USE THE SUN’S ENERGY

• Solar energy reached Earth from the Sun at a

rate more than 10,000 times greater than that
at which humans use energy from all sources
• Limitations: 1) efficiency is low; 2) price is high; 3)
energy storage and transport is inefficient

• Biomass energy