CONTENTS

S.No. Topics

1. Introduction.

2. Step of project making

3. Block Diagram.

4 Circuit Diagram

5 Working.( 3- 4 , page )

6 Flow Chart.

7 Software Coding.

8 PCB Layout

9 PCB Manufacturing.

10 Components List.

11 Components Specification.

12 Precautions

13. Applications.

14. Bibliography

15 Data Sheets
 1.INTRODUCTION

This is a very interesting project with many practical applications in security and
alarm systems for homes, shops and cars. It consists of a set of ultrasonic receiver
and transmitter which operate at the same frequency. When something moves in
the area covered by the circuit the circuit’s fine balance is disturbed and the alarm
is triggered. The circuit is very sensitive and can be adjusted to reset itself
automatically or to stay triggered till it is reset manually after an alarm. As it has
already been stated the circuit consists of an ultrasonic transmitter and a receiver
both of which work at the same frequency. They use ultrasonic piezoelectric
transducers as output and input devices respectively and their frequency of
operation is determined by the particular devices in use.

Radar detection

The detection process, false alarms and detection probability.

Detection using a single pulse or coherent dwell .
Detection using no coherent integration and cumulative detection.
 2.STEPS OF PROJECT MAKING

The following steps have been followed in carrying out the project:

1) study the books on the relevant topic.

2) Understand the working of the circuit.

3) Prepare the circuit diagram.

4) Prepare the list to components along with their specification estimate the
cost.

5) and procure them after carrying out market survey.

6) Plan and prepare PCB for mounting all the components.

7) Fix the components on the solder them.

8) Test the circuit for the desired performance.

9) Trace and rectify faults if any.

10) Give good finish to the unit.

11) Prepare the project report.

3.BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ULTRASONIC RADAR
SYSTEM

Power Supply 0-12V, 0-5V

Ultrasoni
c BAZZE
TX R
CONT
ROLLE Relay
R Drive
UNIT Circui
BAZZE
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Ultrasoni R
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RX
4.CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
 5.WORKING

An airport or an army base used to have huge structures that could send out signals
to find out if any aircraft were approaching. This technology is now offered to
people who have a computer with Microsoft's quick basic, or a Macintosh, and
space (equivalent to that of a coffeepot) tospare. Ultrasonic radar is now a small
component for a computer, giving computer operators a chance to see low flying
objects, household furniture, and even themselves on their controller memory.
Similar to that of a Polaroid, ultrasonic transducers are used in this type of radar.
A rangefinder emits a brief pulse of high frequency sound that produces an echo
when it hits an object. This echo returns to the emitter where the time delay is
measured and thus the result is displayed. The Polaroid rangefinder is composed of
two different parts. The transducer acts as a microphone and a speaker. It emits an
ultrasonic pulse then waits for the echo to return. The ranging board is the second
part this board provides the high voltages required for the transducer, sensitive
amplifiers, and control logic. Since R1 is variable it controls the sensitivity of the
echo detector. A stepper motor rotates the transducer to get a 360 degree field of
view. An Experimenter is hooked up to the ranging board to control the ranging
board and to measure the round trip time of pulses. It also controls the stepper
motor and communicates with the control computer. The ranging board's power
requirements are usually under a 100 mA, but at peak transmission the circuit can
draw up to 2 Amps of current. Power passes from GND (pin 1) and V+ (pin 9). To
avoid malfunction a 300mF or greater should be connected between pin 1 and pin
9 (or alternately pin 16 and pin 5). Another 300mF resistor should be added to the
Experimenter end of the cable. It takes about 360 microseconds to transmit the
pulses. The transmitter waits 1 millisecond for the pulse transmission and
transducer to complete its task. Then the experimenter waits for the pulse echo to
return. If a pulse is detected the board sets ECHO at high. The Experimenter times
the difference between BINH going high to ECHO going high. The experimenter
sets INIT to low, waits 0.5 seconds for the echo, if no echo is heard the
experimenter cancels the measurement. The measured time is sent to the computer
which then calculates, at thousands of calculations per second, the distance based
on the speed of sound (1100 feet per second). With a program called
DISTANCE.BAS the exact speed of sound can be calculated according to the local
weather conditions.
The stepper motor is used to rotate the radar so it can scan 360 degrees around the
room. An ordinary DC motor would not do for such a project. The rotation must
coincide with the emissions and the receptions of the echoes. In a DC motor the
armature rotates and the brushes connect successive commuter bars to windings to
provide the torque. The speed of this motor depends heavily on how much load
there is and how much voltage is applied. A stepper motor has different wires to
each winding. By energizing a winding the armature rotates slightly, usually a few
degrees. By sequentially charging one winding after another the armature can
rotate completely around. By controlling the windings energized, the operator (in
this case the Experimenter board) can control exactly how many degrees the motor
turns and at a precisely controlled speed.In this case a stepper motor is used
because it gives a
Precise motor-shaft location for the Experimenter board to follow. In a DC motor
the board wouldn't know shaft position and it would not be possible for the
computer to
Take the distance readings at evenly spaced intervals. With the control of the
stepper we can control the number of steps and the step rate required between each
transmission. The Experimenter will control all this. There are many types of
stepper motors available. These motors have two coils, three coils, two coils with
center taps, or four separate coils. These are low-cost, light- duty motors that the
Experimenter can drive. The Experimenter board can control any stepper motor
with drive voltages from 4.5 - 36 volts and currents up to one Amp. The
Experimenter has different hookups for different motors. While all the stepper
motors will operate the radar system, it is imperative that the different advantages
and disadvantages of each be considered. The motor's power consumption, torque,
and resolution are all factors that must be considered when choosing the
appropriate motor. A unipolar stepper motor with its common leads connected to
the positive power supply can be driven in modes 7, 9, 11. In mode 7 (also called
the one-phase drive) the stepper motor minimizes power consumption, because
only one coil is activated at any one time. This mode has very little torque. Mode 9
(also called the two-phase drive) runs two coils at the same time. This provides
maximum torque, although the power consumption is doubled. Mode 11 (called the
half-step drive) uses one coil, then two coils, alternating between modes 7 and 9.
This doubles the number of steps per revolution. If a stepper motor of twelve volts
or less (indicated on the motor, along with maximum current, coil resistance and
step angle) is used it is possible to run both the stepper and the Experimenter from
the same power supply. It may be more economical to use a rechargeable power
supply as an alternative to a small power supply. If the ranging board,
Experimenter, and stepper are run off the same power supply, it is necessary to
know that the boards use about 100 mA each. If a 9 v, 500 mA supply is used the
two boards would use about 200 mA combined. The motor thus has 300 mA for its
own power consumption. Depending on the stepper it must be calculated how
much current is available per coil. If we were to use a two coil stepper that would
be 150 mA per coil. At this low current the voltage drop would be about 0.7 volts
per coil for a total drop of 1.4 volts. The new resistance can be calculated and
installed in the wiring grid on the Experimenter. In this hypothetical case the
resistance value would be 48 ohms. To be sure of the power rating on the circuit,
the equation P = I2R should be used and the proper wattage value should be placed
on the resistors. On the Experimenter power can be drawn from +A drive on driver
A. In building this unit two electrical contacts must be maintained as the
transducer is turning. This is done using brass tube three inches long which will
provide the ground connection between the ranging board and the ultrasonic
transducer. One end must be insulted with electrical tape and covered with a larger
0.5 inch long brass tube (so the two tubes don't touch). A hole drilled in the upper
(longer) tube provides a space where a wire can be fed through the tube and used
as one of the leads for the transducer. The other end of this wire must be soldered
to the small brass ring over the insulation. The other lead of the transducer may be
connected onto the top of the longer brass tube. The outer ring will be the positive
(+) lead and the inner will be the negative (-) lead of the transducer (which can be
connected immediately).The longer tube can be glued to the shaft of the motor. A
plastic cap has been placed on the back of the transducer for appearance.
Automotive alternator brushes can be use as contact leads for the brass tubes. The
negative lead
(From E2 on the ranging board) must be connected with the brush to the upper
(inner) brass tube. The positive lead (from E1 on the ranging board) must be
connected to the
Lower (outer) tube. This assembly can be mounted with the aid of two non-
conducting blocks (i.e. wood or rubber). To operate this device one company has
taken the initiative to create software programs for the PC despite there being no
ready made radar kit on the market today. "Fascinating Electronics" has written a
radar control program to work with the Experimenter board. The programs are
written in QuickBasic called EXPER1.EXE, to operate the radar and
DISTANCE.BAS to measure distances and the speed of sound. If these programs
were not available, any computer hacker with the knowledge of the Experimenter
board would be able to write a simple version of such a program in several hours.
The DISTANCE.BAS program pulses the rangefinder several times per second to
measure within 0.01-inch resolution over a range of 6 inches to thirty five feet. To
calibrate the radar system a flat unit like a box can be placed at a measured
distance and picked up on the radar. When the program is run, it will report the
distance of the box it has measured. If this measurement is wrong the program can
be calibrated for the weather conditions. The program assumes the speed of sound
is 1100 feet per second. This can be calibrated by pressing "4" to increase the
speed by10 feet per second, "3" to increase the speed by 1 foot per second, "2" to
decrease the speed by 10 feet per second, and "1" to decrease the speed by 1 foot
per second. This new speed of sound will be incorporated into your results by a
RADAR.DAT file. To achieve color graphical results the computer must have
EGA, or VGA displays. If the computer only has CGA the results will be in black
or white

Each rangefinder distance is plotted in real-time. This provides scale information

with bars of different colors to and lengths drawn along the axes. Tens of feet are
marked by long green bars; five foot marks are red; the one foot marks are shorter
green bars; half- foot markers are black bars; and green dots indicate quarter-foot
measurements. To the left of the display, the program reports the range values and
the number of scanning points in each rotation of the transducer. The distance and
bearing are updated with each revolution. By pressing "L" the displayed range
increases (up to 35 feet). By pressing "S" the displayed range decreases (down to 5
feet). Pressing "M" will result in scan more points per revolution (up to the
resolution of the stepper motor used). "F" is used to decrease the points scanned
per revolution. With any text file RADAR.DAT can be altered to change the
parameters. This screen can be printed in the monochrome mode (CGA).

This radar assembly is a very interesting project. It can be costly, but for the
enjoyment and learning experiences it can be an asset. It will one day come in a
package at one tenth the cost of the parts (about $250.00 today). Although its
range is restricted, the transducer can be changed and amplified to increase to
range. This radar assembly can open the gates as monitoring equipment and
perhaps one day as a property monitoring alarm system on your own PC at very
little cost. This radar assembly has a Great potential.

Circuit explanation for Ultrasonic Range Meter

The ultrasonic signal

which was received with the
reception sensor is
amplified by 1000 times (60dB) of voltage with the operational amplifier with two
stages. It is 100 times at the first stage (40dB) and 10 times (20dB) at the next
stage. As for the dB (decibel), refer to generally, the positive and the negative
power supply are used for the operational amplifier. The circuit this time works
with the single power supply of +9 V. Therefore, for the positive input of the
operational amplifiers, the half of the power supply voltage is applied as the bias
voltage. Then the alternating current signal can be amplified on 4.5V central
voltage. When using the operational amplifier with the negative feedback, the
voltage of the positive input terminal and the voltage of the negative input
terminal become equal approximately. This is called virtual grounding. So, by this
bias voltage, the side of the positive and the side of the negative of the alternating
current signal can be equally amplified. When not using this bias voltage, the
distortion causes the alternating current signal. This technique is often used when
using the operational amplifier which needs two kinds of powers in the single
power.

Detection circuit

The detection is done to detect the received ultrasonic signal. This is the half-wave
rectification circuit with Shottky barrier diodes. The DC voltage according to the
level of the detection signal is output to the capacitor behind the diode. The
Shottky barrier diodes are used because the high frequency characteristic is good.
As for the Shottky barrier diode, refer to "Diodes ".

Signal detector
This circuit is the circuit which detects the ultrasonic which returned from the
measurement object. The output of the detection circuit is detected using the
comparator. At the circuit this time, the operational amplifier of the single power
supply is used instead of the comparator. The operational amplifier amplifies and
outputs the difference between the positive input and the negative input.
In case of the operational amplifier which doesn't have the negative feedback, the
output becomes the saturation state by a little input voltage. Generally, the
operational amplifier has over 10000 times of mu factors. So, when the positive
input becomes higher a little than the negative input, the difference is tens of
thousands of times amplified and the output becomes the same as the power supply
almost.(It is the saturation state) Oppositely, when the positive input becomes
lower a little than the negative input, the difference is tens of thousands of times
amplified and the output becomes 0 V almost.(It is in the OFF condition) This
operation is the same as the operation of the comparator. However, because the
inner circuit of the comparator is different from the operational amplifier, the
comparator can not be used as theoperationalamplifier.
At the circuit this time, the output of the detection circuit is connected with the
positive input of the signal detector and the voltage of the negative input is made
constant.

The inverter is used for the drive of the ultrasonic sensor. The two inverters are
connected in parallel because of the transmission electric power increase.
The phase with the voltage to apply to the positive terminal and the negative
terminal of the sensor has been 180 degrees shifted. Because it is cutting the direct
current with the capacitor, about twice of voltage of the inverter output are applied
to the sensor.
The power supply voltage of this drive circuit is +9V. It is converting voltage with
the transistor to make control at the operating voltage of PIC (+5V). Because C-
MOS inverters are used, it is possible to do ON/OFF at high speed comparatively.

6.FLOWCHART
 7.SOFTWARE CODING
ORG 00H

LJMP MAIN:

DATA1 EQU P0 ;define LCD data port on port 1

EN EQU P2.2 ;define LCD enable pin on port 1.5
RS EQU P2.0 ;define LCD register select pin on port 1.7
RW EQU P2.1 ;define LCD read/write pin on port 1.6
ORG 30H

MAIN: LCALL DELAY50

LCALL DELAY20
MOV A,#00H
MOV P0,A
mov p1,A
MOV P2,A
MOV P3,A
MOV R2,#50
LCALL INITIALIZE_LCD

INIT: LCALL CLR_LCD

MOV A,#80H
LCALL COMMAND
MOV DPTR,#show0

D1: CLR A
MOVC A,@A+DPTR
LCALL DISPLAY
LCALL DELAY20
INC DPTR
JZ AGAIN2
SJMP D1

AGAIN2: DJNZ R2,AGAIN2

ACALL DELAY
ACALL DELAY
acall CLR_LCD
 MOV A,#80H
LCALL COMMAND
MOV DPTR,#show4

D4: CLR A
MOVC A,@A+DPTR
LCALL DISPLAY
LCALL DELAY20
INC DPTR
JZ AGAIN
SJMP D4

AGAIN: LCALL DELAY

MOV A,#00H
MOV P1,A
LCALL DELAY

scan: MOV A,P1

JNB P1.0, FIRE
JB P1.1, LASER
JNB P1.2, LDR
LJMP scan

FIRE:
SETB P2.5
LCALL DELAY
LCALL DELAY
CLR P2.5

AGAIN1 : LCALL DELAY50

DJNZ R2,AGAIN1
setb p2.6 ; HORN on

AGAIN3: LCALL DELAY50

DJNZ R2,AGAIN3
lcall delay
SETB P2.7
acall delay50
clr p2.6 ; horn off
LCALL CLR_LCD
MOV A,#84H
LCALL COMMAND
MOV DPTR,#show1

D2: CLR A
 MOVC A,@A+DPTR
LCALL DISPLAY
LCALL DELAY20
INC DPTR
JZ a11
SJMP D2

LASER: SETB P2.5

LCALL DELAY
LCALL DELAY
CLR P2.5

AGAIN11:LCALL DELAY50
DJNZ R2,AGAIN11
LCALL DELAY
Setb p2.6 ; horn on

AGAIN33:LCALL DELAY50
DJNZ R2,AGAIN33
lcall delay
acall delay50
clr p2.6 ; horn off
LCALL CLR_LCD
MOV A,#84H
LCALL COMMAND
MOV DPTR,#show2

D22: CLR A
MOVC A,@A+DPTR
LCALL DISPLAY
LCALL DELAY20
INC DPTR
JZ a11
SJMP D22

LDR:
SETB P2.5
LCALL DELAY
LCALL DELAY
CLR P2.5

AGAIN111:LCALL DELAY50
DJNZ R2,AGAIN111
LCALL DELAY
setb p2.6 ; horn on
AGAIN333:LCALL DELAY50
DJNZ R2,AGAIN333
Lcall delay
acall delay50
clr p2.6 ; horn off
LCALL CLR_LCD
MOV A,#84H
LCALL COMMAND
MOV DPTR,#show3

D222: CLR A
MOVC A,@A+DPTR
LCALL DISPLAY
LCALL DELAY20
INC DPTR
JZ a11
SJMP D222

INITIALIZE_LCD:
MOV A,#38H
LCALL COMMAND
MOV A,#0EH
LCALL COMMAND
MOV A,#06H
LCALL COMMAND
MOV A,# 0CH
LCALL COMMAND
MOV A,# 0FH
LCALL COMMAND
RET

CLR_LCD:
MOV A,#01H
LCALL COMMAND
RET

COMMAND:CLR RS
CLR RW
MOV DATA1,A
SETB EN
LCALL DELAY20
CLR EN
RET

DISPLAY:SETB RS
CLR RW
 MOV DATA1,A
SETB EN
LCALL DELAY20
CLR EN
RET

DELAY50:MOV R1,#50
OUTER: MOV R0,#250
INNER: DJNZ R0, INNER
DJNZ R1,OUTER
RET

DELAY20:MOV R1,#20
OUTER2: MOV R0,#250
INNER2: DJNZ R0, INNER2
DJNZ R1,OUTER2
RET

DELAY: MOV R0, #250

OUT: MOV R1, #250
IN: NOP
NOP
DJNZ R1, IN
DJNZ R0, OUT
RET
Org 300h
END
8.PCB LAYOUT
 9.PCB MANUFACTURING PROCESS :

PCB LAYOUT

Lay out of the desired circuit is the most important in any circuit board
manufacturing process. The following points are to be observed while performing
the layout of the PCB
Sufficient space should be maintained between two components. High heat
dissipation components like high voltage resistors should be mounted at a
sufficient distance from the semiconductors and electrolytic capacitors.
Components layout should make proper combination with copper side circuit
layout. Circuit copper line thickness should be decided taking into account the
current drain in the circuit.

PREPARATION OF SCREEN:

Nylon bolting cloth (Silk screen cloth) is stretched and attached to a wooden
frame. Photosensitive chemical (silcot-6) and ammonium bicarbonate is spread on
cloth and dried in total darkness. The screen is exposed to UV light and is
developed in water.

PRINTING:

The screen is placed on suitable copper laminated sheet on copper side and circuit
black printing ink (acid resistant paint) is spread on it. After printing the PCB
should be allowed to dry for at least 10 hrs. in a dust proof chamber.

ETCHING:

The removal of excess copper on the copper laminated PCB apart from the printed
circuit is known as etching. Generally PCB is placed in F3C13 solution and kept
for one hour.

DRILLING:
Under this operation drilling should be done as per circuit lay with the suitable
drill and high speed machine. Drilling should always be done from copper side to
avoid possibility of coming out of copper circuit and chipping out of Bakelite.

GREEN MAKING:

It is done with special epoxy paint and special thinner is requited for cleaning the
screen. It provides as better and also prevents frequency overlapping between the
tacks at high frequency operation.

THINNING:

It is an electroplating process (tin plating) done to increases the conductivity of the

conducting medium and to avoid oxidizing effect.

COMPONENT MOUNTING:

All components are mounted at their respective position as per the components
layout. Proper precautions should be taken during mounting process.

ETCHING PROCESS:

Etching process requires the use of chemicals acid resistant dishes and running
water supply Ferric chloride is maximum used solution but other enchants such as
ammonium per sulfate can be used. Nitric acid can be used but in general it is not
used due to poisonous fumes. The pattern prepared is glued to the copper surface
of the board using a latex type of adhesive that can be cubed after use. The pattern
is laid firmly on the copper use a very sharp knife to cut round the pattern
carefully a remove the paper corresponding to the required copper pattern areas.
Then apply the resist solutions, which can be kind of ink proportion fort the
purpose maintaining smoothing clean outlines as far as possible. While the board
is drying test all the components.

Before going to next stage, check the whole gotten and cross cheek against the
circuit diagram check for any freeing matte on the copper. The etching bath should
be in a galls or enamels disc. If using crystal of ferric-chloride these should be
thoroughly dissolved in water to the proportional suggested. There should be 0.5
Lt. Of water for 125 Gm. of crystal.
Water liquid should be thoroughly deflated and druid in water land; never pour
down the drain. To prevent particles of copper hindering further etching, agitate
the solutions carefully be gently twisting or rocking the tray.

The board should not be left in the bath a moment longer than is needed to remove
just the right amount of copper. In spite of there being a resist coating there is no
protection against etching away through exposed copper edges; this leads to over
etching. Have running water ready so that etched board can be removed properly
and rinsed; this will hall etching immediately.

Drilling is one of those operations that call for great care because most of the
holes will be made a very small drill. For most purposes a 1 mm drill is used Drill
all holes with this size first those that need to be larger can be easily drilled again
with the appropriate lager size.

COMPONENT ASSEMBLES:

From the greatest variety of electronic components available today, which runs
into tent of thousands of different types it is often a perplexing task to know which
the right task for a given job is. There should be damage such as hair line crack
intuit opera on PCB that could age a seriousfiec on the operational ability to the
completed assemble. If there are than they can and should be repaired fiesta bye
soldering a short link of bare copper wire over the affected part.

The most popular method of holding all the items is to been the wires future apart
after they even been indebted in the appropriate holes. This will hold the
component in position ready for soldering.

Some components will be considerably larger than other occupying and possible
partially obscuring neighboring components. Because of this best to start by
mounting the smallest first and progressing through to the largest. Before starting
make certain that no further drilling I likely to be necessary because access may be
impossible later.

Next will probably be the resistor small signal diodes of other similar size
components some capacitor are very small but it would be best to fit these after
words when fitting each group of components marks of each one on the
components its as it is fitted and if we have to leave the job we know where to
recommence. Although transistor & integrated circuit are small items there are
good reasons for leaving the soldering of these until the last step the main pint is
that these components are sensitive to heart and is subjected to prolonged
application to the soldering iron they could be internally damaged.
All the components before mounting are rubbed with sandpaper so that oxide layer
is removed from their tips. Now they are mounted according to the components
layout.

SOLDERING TECHNIQUES:

A soldered connection ensures metal continuity. The soldering process involves:

Melting of the flux which in turn removes the oxide films on the metal to be
soldered. Melting the solder which removes the impurities. The solder partially
dissolve of the metal in the connection. The solder cools and fuses wit the metal.

The soldering techniques involves knowledge of :

Soldering iron
Soldering wire
Soldering procedure
Replacing components
Prosecutions of when using C-MOS, devices
Knowledge of good and bad soldering joints.
Disordering techniques

SOLDERING & SOLDERING TECHNIQUES

Soldering Iron :

Soldering iron is an essential tool for soldering. A. Soldering iron should give
sufficient heat a melt solder by heat transfer when the iron tip is applied to a
connection to be soldered.The selection of the soldering iron can be made as
regard to its tips size shape and wattage. Soldering iron temperature is selected
and controlled according to the work to be performed. Generally two types of
soldering irons are available: Soldering Pencil and Soldering Gun.

Soldering Pencils :

These are light weight soldering iron which can generate around 12 watts to 50
watts of heat. Modular soldering

(2) SOLDERING ALLOY

 Soldering Materials :

The soldering material is used to join together two or more metals at temperatures
below their melting point. The solder alloy consists of Lead (37%) and Tin (63%).
The continuous connection between two metal joint is made by solder materials.

Most commonly used solder wire consists of 60% of Tin 40% Lead. This is in the
from of a hollow wire whose center is filled with an organic paste like material
called rosin. Its melting temperature is 190 degree centigrade.

FLUX :

Flux is a material used to aid soldering process. Flux is needed to scratch away the
small film of oxide on the surface of metals to be soldered. This flux forms a
protective film that prevents reoxiadation while the connection is heated to the
point at which the solder melts. Flux is very helpful on old dusty, eroded joint.

SOLDERING PROCEDURE

The soldering procedure involves selection of soldering iron cleaning of

components to be soldered and cleaning of the PCB to be soldered. The soldering
iron should be selected according to the job and should be powerful enough to
provide heat. The tip of the soldering iron should be selected as per the space
available for soldering. The component that has to be soldered should be properly
bent and its leads should properly inserted in the PCB. Before. If one has already
identified the fault component, then one should not try to remove or desolder the
component. The components should simply be cut and taken out.

PRECAUTIONS WHEN USING C-MOS DEVICES:

CMOS Devices are sensitive to static charges. So care has to be taken while
handling this device. Static charge is generated by rubbing cloth with human body
or by any other friction of human body. Before string or handling CMOS Devices
touching the ground or metallic chassis of the equipment. One can wear a metallic
band in hand which is connected to ground. The working table should be either of
wood or should have rubber sheet. The soldering iron tip should be static charge
free.

DESOLDERING TECHNIQUES

By using a disordering wick

By using a disordering pump
Disordering wick is made of fine copper wire mesh. When this is applied to the
heated components, the molten solder gets attached to the wire mesh by capillary
action. Disordering pump has a suction pump. The nozzle of the disordering pump
is kept to the heated component. The molten solder is sucked by a spring action.
Insertion in the PCB, the lead should be properly cleaned. After component has
been inserted it can be soldered. The oxide on the PCB can be removed by using
flux, sandpaper. The tip of the soldering iron should be clean and should have
proper shape. The shape of the tip normally gets bad over a period of time. The
shape can be made proper by filling. During soldering excessive heat is generated
at the soldering iron tip. If the soldering iron tip is in contact with component for a
longer time then there is possibility of damaged or may loose its characteristics.
Place iron tip at 45 degree to the PCB and component joint. Place the solder near
the iron and let it flow. Smoothen the area of joint by the soldering iron tip. By
doing this, the molten solder alloy flows into the PCB hole. Soldering should be
done when the equipment is off.

REPLACEMENT OF COMPONENT

In case of single sided PCB, the component to be removed can be disordered with
the help of iron and flux. The only precaution that has to be taken is that track
should not break while removing. In case of Through Hole PCB, care has the to be
taken so that component while removing does not damaged the Through Hole. In
this case the component is soldered on one side and the lead flows through the
hole to the other sides, so disordering and removing becomes very difficult and
required practice.

DIODES :-

It is s two terminal device consisting of a P-N junction formed either in GE or SI

crystal. The P and N type regions are referred to as anode and cathode
respectively.Commercially available diodes usually have some means to indicate
which lead is P and which lead is N. Standard notations consists the number
proceeded by IN such as In 240& 250. Here 240 and 250 correspond to color band.
 10.COMPONENT LIST

Number Quantity Rate/P.

1. IC’s

89C51 1 90.00
Ultrasonic Sensor 1 1600.00
LM7805 2 15.00

2 Transistors

BC547B 3 3.00

3 Light Emitting Diodes (LED’s)

Red 7 1.50

4 Diodes

1N4007 6 1.50

5 Crystal

16Hz 1 30.00

6 Electrolytic Capacitors

1000µ F/25V 1 15.00

100µ F/25V 2 5.00
104(Ceramic) 1 1.00

7 Carbon Resistors (0.25W)

10k 4 0.25
4.7k 1 0.25
1K 9 0.25

8 Transformers

0-12v/1A 1 70.00
9 PCB

4” X 6” 1 60.00
4” X 3” 1 40.00

13 Switch (micro) 1 3.00

14 Meslenious

IC Base (40pin) 1 40.00

Mains Cable 2 15.00
Ferric Chloride 100gms. 60.00
Soldering Wire 20gms. 20.00
Connecting wires 2mtrs. 10.00
Soldering Paste 10gms. 5.00
Burg strip 1 20.0
Buzzer 1 20.0

15. Relay (12v) 4 25.00

16. Terminals (2 pin) 3 8.00

Terminals (3 pin) 5 10.00
 11.COMPONENT SPECIFICATIONS

TRANSISTOR

A transistor consists of two junctions by sandwiching either p-type of n-type

semiconductor between a pair of opposite types. Accordingly, there are two types
of transistors namely;

(1) n-p-n-transistor (2) p-n-p-transistor

An n-p-n-transistor is composed of two n-type semiconductors separated by a thin

section of p type. However a p-n-p-transistor is formed by two p-sections
separated by a thin section of n-type. In each type of transistor the following
points may be noted. These are two p-n junctions. Therefore a transistor may be
regarded as combination of two diodes connected back to back. There are three
terminals taken from each type of semiconductor. The middle section is a very thin
layer. This is the most important factor in the function of a transistor.

Transistor as an Amplifier.

A transistor raised the strength of a weak signal and thus acts as an amplifier. The
weak signal is applied between emitter base junction and output is taken across the
load Rc connected in the collector circuit in order achieve faithful amplification
the input circuit should always remain forward biased. This d.c. Voltage V EE is
applied in the input in addition to the signal. This d.c. Voltage is known as bias
voltage and magnitude is such that is always keeps the input circuit forward
besides regardless of the polarity to the signal. As the input circuit has low
resistance therefore a small change in signal voltage caused an appreciable change
emitter current. This caused almost the same change in collector current due to
transistor action. The collector current flowing through a high load resistance Re-
produced a large voltage across it. Thus a weak signal applied in the input circuit
appears in the amplified form in the collector circuit it is in this way that a
transistor acts as an amplifier.

Functions:

Transistors amplify current, for example they can be used to amplify the small
output current from a logic IC so that it can operate a lamp, relay or other high
current device. In many circuits a resistor is used to convert the changing current
to a changing voltage, so the transistor is being used to amplify voltage.
A transistor may be used as a switch (either fully on with maximum current, or
fully off with no current) and as an amplifier (always partly on).
The amount of current amplification is called the current gain, symbol h FE .
For further information please see the Transistor circuits page.

Types of transistor

There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and

PNP, with different circuit symbols. The letters refer
to the layers of semiconductor material used to make
the transistor. Most transistors used today are NPN
because this is the easiest type to make from silicon.
Transistor circuit symbols

If you are new to electronics

it is best to start by learning
how to use NPN transistors.
The leads are labelled base
(B), collector (C) and
emitter (E).
These terms refer to the
internal operation of a
transistor but they are not
much help in understanding
how a transistor is used, so
just treat them as labels!
A Darlinton pair is two
transistors connected
together to give a very high
current gain.
In addition to standard
Transistor leads for some common case styles. (bipolar junction)
transistors, there are field-
effect transistors which are usually
referred .

Connecting
Transistors have three leads which must be
connected the correct way round. Please take care with this because a wrongly
connected transistor may be damaged instantly when you switch on.
If you are lucky the orientation of the transistor will be clear from the PCB or
stripboard layout diagram, otherwise you will need to refer to a supplier's
catalogue to identify the leads.
The drawings on the right show the leads for some of the most common case
styles. Please note that transistor lead diagrams show the view from below with
the leads towards you. This is the opposite of IC (chip) pin diagrams which show
the view from above.
Please see below for a table showing the case styles of
some common transistors.

Soldering

Transistors can be damaged by heat when soldering soif

you are not an expert it is wise to use a heat sink clipped to the lead between the
joint and the transistor body. A standard crocodile clip can be used as a heat sink.
Do not confuse this temporary heat sink with the permanent heat sink which may
be required for a power transistor to prevent it overheating during
Operation.

Heat sinks

Waste heat is produced in transistors due to the current flowing Heat sink
through them. Heat sinks are needed for power transistors because
they pass large currents. If you find that a transistor is becoming
too hot to touch it certainly needs a heat sink! The heat sink helps to dissipate
(remove) the heat by transferring it to the surrounding air.
For further information please see the sink heat page.

Testing a transistor

Transistors can be damaged by heat when

soldering or by misuse in a circuit. If you
suspect that a transistor may be damaged
there are two easy ways to test it:
1. Testing with a multimeter
Use a multimeter or a simple tester (battery,
resistor and LED) to check each pair of leads
for conduction. Set a digital multimeter to Testing an NPN transistor
diode test and an analogue multimeter to a
low resistance range. Test each pair of leads both ways (six tests in total): The
base-emitter (BE) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one way only.
The base-collector (BC) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one way
only. The collector-emitter (CE) should not conduct either way. The diagram
shows how the junctions behave in an NPN transistor. The diodes are reversed in a
PNP transistor but the same test procedure can be
used.

2. Testing in a simple switching circuit

Connect the transistor into the circuit shown on
the right which uses the transistor as a switch. The
supply voltage is not critical, anything between 5
and 12V is suitable. This circuit can be quickly
built on bread board for example. Take care to A simple switching circuit
include the 10k resistor in the base connection to test an NPN transistor
or you will destroy the transistor as you test it! If
the transistor is OK the LED should light when the switch is pressed and not light
when the switch is released. To test a PNP transistor use the same circuit but
reverse the LED and the supply voltage. Some multimeter have a 'transistor test'
function which provides a known base current and measures the collector current
so as to display the transistor's DC current gain h FE .

Transistor codes

There are three main series of transistor codes used in the UK:
Codes beginning with B (or A), for example BC108, BC478
The first letter B is for silicon, A is for germanium (rarely used now). The second
letter indicates the type; for example C means low power audio frequency; D
means high power audio frequency; F means low power high frequency. The rest
of the code identifies the particular transistor. There is no obvious logic to the
numbering system. Sometimes a letter is added to the end (eg BC108C) to identify
a special version of the main type, for example a higher current gain or a different
case style. If a project specifies a higher gain version (BC108C) it must be used,
but if the general code is given (BC108) any transistor with that code is suitable.
Codes beginning with TIP, for example TIP31A
TIP refers to the manufacturer: Texas Instruments Power transistor. The letter at
the end identifies versions with different voltage ratings.
Codes beginning with 2N, for example 2N3053
The initial '2N' identifies the part as a transistor and the rest of the code identifies
the particular transistor. There is no obvious logic to the numbering system.

Choosing a transistor
Most projects will specify a particular transistor, but if necessary you can usually
substitute an equivalent transistor from the wide range available. The most
important properties to look for are the maximum collector current I C and the
current gain h FE. To make selection easier most suppliers group their transistors in
categories determined either by their typical use or maximum power rating.
To make a final choice you will need to consult the tables of technical data which
are normally provided in catalogues. They contain a great deal of useful
 information but they can be difficult to understand if you are not familiar with the
abbreviations used. The table below shows the most important technical data for
some popular transistors, tables in catalogues and reference books will usually
show additional information but this is unlikely to be useful unless you are
experienced. The quantities shown in the table are explained
NPN transistors
Category
Case IC V CE h FE P tot Possible
Code Structure (typical
style max. max. min. max. substitutes
use)
Audio, low BC182
BC107 NPN TO18 100mA 45V 110 300mW
power BC547
General BC108C
BC108 NPN TO18 100mA 20V 110 300mW purpose, BC183
low power BC548
General
BC108C NPN TO18 100mA 20V 420 600mW purpose,
low power
Audio (low
BC184
BC109 NPN TO18 200mA 20V 200 300mW noise), low
BC549
power
General
BC107
BC182 NPN TO92C 100mA 50V 100 350mW purpose,
BC182L
low power
General
BC107
BC182L NPN TO92A 100mA 50V 100 350mW purpose,
BC182
low power
Audio, low
BC547B NPN TO92C 100mA 45V 200 500mW BC107B
power
General
BC548B NPN TO92C 100mA 30V 220 500mW purpose, BC108B
low power
Audio (low
BC549B NPN TO92C 100mA 30V 240 625mW noise), low BC109
power
General
2N3053 NPN TO39 700mA 40V 50 500mW purpose, BFY51
low power
General
purpose,
BFY51 NPN TO39 1A 30V 40 800mW BC639
medium
power
BC639 NPN TO92A 1A 80V 40 800mW General BFY51
 purpose,
medium
power
General
TIP29A NPN TO220 1A 60V 40 30W purpose,
high power
General
TIP31C
TIP31A NPN TO220 3A 60V 10 40W purpose,
TIP41A
high power
General
TIP31A
TIP31C NPN TO220 3A 100V 10 40W purpose,
TIP41A
high power
General
TIP41A NPN TO220 6A 60V 15 65W purpose,
high power
General
2N3055 NPN TO3 15A 60V 20 117W purpose,
high power
Please note: the data in this table was compiled from several sources which are not
entirely consistent! Most of the discrepancies are minor, but please consult
information from your supplier if you require precise data.
PNP transistors
Category
Case IC V CE h FE P tot Possible
Code Structure (typical
style max. max. min. max. substitutes
use)
Audio, low
BC177 PNP TO18 100mA 45V 125 300mW BC477
power
General
BC178 PNP TO18 200mA 25V 120 600mW purpose, BC478
low power
Audio (low
BC179 PNP TO18 200mA 20V 180 600mW noise), low
power
Audio, low
BC477 PNP TO18 150mA 80V 125 360mW BC177
power
General
BC478 PNP TO18 150mA 40V 125 360mW purpose, BC178
low power
General
TIP32A PNP TO220 3A 60V 25 40W purpose, TIP32C
high power
 General
TIP32C PNP TO220 3A 100V 10 40W purpose, TIP32A
high power

TRANSISTOR

LED

The light emitting diode (LED) is commonly used as an indicator.

It can show when the power is on, act as a warning indicator, or be part of trendy
jewelry etc. It needs to be fed from a DC supply, with the anode positive and the
cathode negative, as shown in the diagram. To calculate the value of the series
resistor we need to know the diode forward voltage and current and its
connections.
The necessary data can be obtained from a catalogue or data book.
In our example it is 2 volts and 20mA (0.02 amps).
The cathode lead is the one nearest a "flat" on the body. Since the voltage across
the diode is 2 volts and the battery voltage is 12 volts, then the voltage across the
resistor is 12-2 = 10 volts.The diode is in series with the resistor, so the current
through then both is the same, 0.02 amps. We now know the voltage across, and
the current through the resistor. From Ohm's Law we can now calculate the value
of the resistor. Resistance = Volts divided by Amps = V/I = 10/0.02 =500
ohms.Since this is not a standard value we can use a 470 or 560 ohm resistor as
this application is not critical of values.

LED
DIODES

It is s two terminal device consisting of a P-N junction formed either in GE or SI

crystal. The P and N type regions are referred to as anode and cathode
respectively. Commercially available diodes usually have some means to indicate
which lead is P and which lead is N. Standard notations consists the number
proceeded by IN such as In 240 & 250. Here 240 and 250 correspond to color
band. Diodes are polarized, which means that they must be inserted into the PCB
the correct way round. This is because an electric current will only flow through
them in one direction (like air will only flow one way through a tyre valve).Diodes
have two connections, an anode and a cathode. The cathode is always identified by
a dot, ring or some other mark.

The pcb is often marked with a + sign for the cathode end. Diodes come in all
shapes and sizes. They are often marked with a type number.
Detailed characteristics of a diode can be found by looking up the type number in
a data book. If you know how to measure resistance with a meter then test some
diodes. A good one has low resistance in one direction and high in the other. There
are specialized types of diode available such as the zener and light emitting diode
(LED).

DIODE

ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR

Electrolytic capacitors are polarised and they must be connected the correct way
round, at least one of their leads will be marked + or -. They are not damaged by
heat when soldering.
There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors; axial where the leads are attached
to each end (220µF in picture) and radial where both leads are at the same end
(10µF in picture). Radial capacitors tend to be a little smaller and they stand
upright on the circuit board.
It is easy to find the value of electrolytic capacitors because they are clearly
printed with their capacitance and voltage rating. The voltage rating can be quite
low (6V for example) and it should always be checked when selecting an
electrolytic capacitor. If the project parts list does not specify a voltage, choose a
capacitor with a rating which is greater than the project's power supply voltage.
25V is a sensible minimum for most battery circuits.

Tantalum Bead Capacitors

Tantalum bead capacitors are polarised and have low voltage ratings like
electrolytic capacitors. They are expensive but very small, so they are used where
a large capacitance is needed in a small size. Modern tantalum bead capacitors are
printed with their capacitance, voltage and polarity in full. However older ones use
a colour-code system which has two stripes (for the two digits) and a spot of
colour for the number of zeros to give the value in µF. The standard colour code is
used, but for the spot, grey is used to mean × 0.01 and white means × 0.1 so that
values of less than 10µF can be shown. A third colour stripe near the leads shows
the voltage (yellow 6.3V, black 10V, green 16V, blue 20V, grey 25V, white 30V,
pink 35V). The positive (+) lead is to the right when the spot is facing you: 'when
the spot is in sight, the positive is to the right'.
For example: blue, grey, black spot means 68µF
For example: blue, grey, white spot means 6.8µF
For example: blue, grey, grey spot means 0.68µF

Unpolarised capacitors (small values, up to 1µF)

Examples:

Circuit symbol:

Small value capacitors are unpolarised and may be connected either way round.
They are not damaged by heat when soldering, except for one unusual type
(polystyrene). They have high voltage ratings of at least 50V, usually 250V or so.
It can be difficult to find the values of these small capacitors because there are
many types of them and several different labelling systems Many small value
capacitors have their value printed but without a multiplier, so you need to use
experience to work out what the multiplier should be
For example 0.1 means 0.1µF = 100nF.
Sometimes the multiplier is used in place of the decimal point:
For example: 4n7 means 4.7nF.
Capacitor Number Code Colour Code
A number code is often used on small capacitors where printing
is difficult: Colour Number
the 1st number is the 1st digit, Black 0
the 2nd number is the 2nd digit,
Brown 1
the 3rd number is the number of zeros to give the capacitance in
pF. Red 2
Ignore any letters - they just indicate tolerance and voltage Orange 3
rating.
For example: 102 means 1000pF = 1nF (not 102pF!) Yellow 4
For example: 472J means 4700pF = 4.7nF (J means 5% Green 5
tolerance).
Blue 6
Capacitor Colour Code Violet 7
Grey 8
A colour code was used on polyester capacitors for many years. White 9
It is now obsolete, but of course there are many still around.
The colours should be read like the resistor code, the top three colour bands giving
the value in pF. Ignore the 4th band (tolerance) and 5th band (voltage rating).
For example:
brown, black, orange means 10000pF = 10nF = 0.01µF.
Note that there are no gaps between the colour bands, so 2 identical bands actually
appear as a wide band.
For example:
wide red, yellow means 220nF = 0.22µF.

Polystyrene Capacitors

This type is rarely used now. Their value (in pF) is

normally printed without units. Polystyrene capacitors
can be damaged by heat when soldering (it melts the
polystyrene!) so you should use a heat sink (such as a
crocodile clip). Clip the heat sink to the lead between the
capacitor and the joint.

Real capacitor values (the E3 and E6 series)

You may have noticed that capacitors are not available with every possible value,
for example 22µF and 47µF are readily available, but 25µF and 50µF are not! Why
is this? Imagine that you decided to make capacitors every 10µF giving 10, 20, 30,
40, 50 and so on. That seems fine, but what happens when you reach 1000? It
would be pointless to make 1000, 1010, 1020, 1030 and so on because for these
values 10 is a very small difference, too small to be noticeable in most circuits and
capacitors cannot be made with that accuracy. To produce a sensible range of
capacitor values you need to increase the size of the 'step' as the value increases.
The standard capacitor values are based on this idea and they form a series which
follows the same pattern for every multiple of ten.TheE3 series (3 values for each
multiple of ten)
10, 22, 47, ... then it continues 100, 220, 470, 1000, 2200, 4700, 10000 etc.
Notice how the step size increases as the value increases (values roughly double
each time).The E6 series (6 values for each multiple of ten)
10, 15, 22, 33, 47, 68, ... then it continues 100, 150, 220, 330, 470, 680, 1000 etc.
Notice how this is the E3 series with an extra value in the gaps.
The E3 series is the one most frequently used for
capacitors because many types cannot be made with
very accurate values.

Variable capacitors Variable Capacitor Symbol

Variable capacitors are mostly used in radio tuning
circuits and they are sometimes called 'tuning
capacitors'. They have very small capacitance values,
typically between 100pF and 500pF
(100pF = 0.0001µF). The type illustrated usually has
trimmers built in (for making small adjustments - see
below) as well as the main variable capacitor. Variable Capacitor
Many variable capacitors have very short spindles
which are not suitable for the standard knobs used for variable resistors and rotary
switches. It would be wise to check that a suitable knob is available before
ordering a variable capacitor. Variable capacitors are not normally used in timing
circuits because their capacitance is too small to be practical and the range of
values available is very limited. Instead timing circuits use a fixed capacitor and a
variable resistor if it is necessary to vary the time period.

Trimmer capacitors

Trimmer Capacitor Symbol

Trimmer capacitors (trimmers) are miniature

variable capacitors. They are designed to be
mounted directly onto the circuit board and adjusted
only when the circuit is built.
A small screwdriver or similar tool is required to
adjust trimmers. The process of adjusting them
requires patience because the presence of your hand Trimmer Capacitor
and the tool will slightly change the capacitance of the circuit in the region of the
trimmer!
Trimmer capacitors are only available with very small capacitances, normally less
than 100pF. It is impossible to reduce their capacitance to zero, so they are usually
specified by their minimum and maximum values, for example 2-10pF.

RESISTORS

Example: Circuit symbol:

Function

Resistors restrict the flow of electric current, for example a resistor is placed in
series with a light-emitting diode (LED) to limit the current passing through the
LED.

Connecting and soldering

Resistors may be connected either way round. They are not damaged by heat when
soldering.
 The Resistor
Colour Code
Colour Number
Black 0
Resistor values - the resistor colour code Brown 1
Resistance is measured in ohms, the symbol for ohm is an Red 2
omega . Orange 3
1 is quite small so resistor values are often given in k and M
Yellow 4
.
1 k = 1000 1 M = 1000000 . Green 5
Resistor values are normally shown using coloured bands. Blue 6
Each colour represents a number as shown in the table.
Most resistors have 4 bands: Violet 7
The first band gives the first digit. Grey 8
The second band gives the second digit.
White 9
The third band indicates the number of zeros.
The fourth band is used to shows the tolerance (precision) of the resistor, this may
be ignored for almost all circuits but further details are given

This resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros) and gold bands.
So its value is 270000 = 270 k .
On circuit diagrams the is usually omitted and the value is written 270KFind out
how to make your own
Small value resistors (less than 10 ohm)
The standard colour code cannot show values of less than 10 . To show these
small values two special colours are used for the third band: gold which means
× 0.1 and silver which means × 0.01. The first and second bands represent the
digits as normal.
For example:
red,violet, gold bands represent 27 × 0.1 = 2.7
green, blue, silver bands represent 56 × 0.01 = 0.56
Tolerance of resistors (fourth band of colour code)
The tolerance of a resistor is shown by the fourth band of the colour code.
Tolerance is the precision of the resistor and it is given as a percentage. For
example a 390 resistor with a tolerance of ±10% will have a value within 10% of
390 , between 390 - 39 = 351 and 390 + 39 = 429 (39 is 10% of 390).
A special colour code is used for the fourth band tolerance:
silver ±10%, gold ±5%, red ±2%, brown ±1%.
If no fourth band is shown the tolerance is ±20%.
Tolerance may be ignored for almost all circuits because precise resistor values are
rarely required.
Resistor shorthand
Resistor values are often written on circuit diagrams using a code system which
avoids using a decimal point because it is easy to miss the small dot. Instead the
letters R, K and M are used in place of the decimal point. To read the code:
replace the letter with a decimal point, then multiply the value by 1000 if the letter
was K, or 1000000 if the letter was M. The letter R means multiply by 1.
For example:
560R means 560
2K7 means 2.7 k = 2700
39K means 39 k
1M0 means 1.0 M = 1000 k
Real resistor values (the E6 and E12 series)
You may have noticed that resistors are not available with every possible value,
for example 22k and 47k are readily available, but 25k and 50k are not!
Why is this? Imagine that you decided to make resistors every 10 giving 10, 20,
30, 40, 50 and so on. That seems fine, but what happens when you reach 1000? It
would be pointless to make 1000, 1010, 1020, 1030 and so on because for these
values 10 is a very small difference, too small to be noticeable in most circuits. In
fact it would be difficult to make resistors sufficiently accurate.
To produce a sensible range of resistor values you need to increase the size of the
'step' as the value increases. The standard resistor values are based on this idea and
they form a series which follows the same pattern for every multiple of ten.
The E6 series (6 values for each multiple of ten, for resistors with 20% tolerance)
10, 15, 22, 33, 47, 68, ... then it continues 100, 150, 220, 330, 470, 680, 1000 etc.
Notice how the step size increases as the value increases. For this series the step
(to the next value) is roughly half the value.
The E12 series (12 values for each multiple of ten, for resistors with 10%
tolerance)
10, 12, 15, 18, 22, 27, 33, 39, 47, 56, 68, 82, ... then it continues 100, 120, 150 etc.

Notice how this is the E6 series with an extra value in the gaps.
The E12 series is the one most frequently used for resistors. It allows you to
choose a value within 10% of the precise value you need. This is sufficiently
accurate for almost all projects and it is sensible because most resistors are only
accurate to ±10% (called their 'tolerance'). For example a resistor marked 390
could vary by ±10% × 390 = ±39 , so it could be any value between 351 and
429 .

Resistors in Series and Parallel

For information on resistors connected in series and parallel please see the
resistance page,
Power Ratings of Resistors
 Electrical energy is converted to heat when current
flows through a resistor. Usually the effect is
negligible, but if the resistance is low (or the
voltage across the resistor high) a large current may
pass making the resistor become noticeably warm.
The resistor must be able to withstand the heating
effect and resistors have power ratings to show this.
Power ratings of resistors are rarely quoted in parts
lists because for most circuits the standard power High power resistors
ratings of 0.25W or 0.5W are suitable. For the rare (5W top, 25W bottom)
cases where a higher power is required it should be
clearly specified in the parts list, these will be
circuits using low value resistors (less than about 300 ) or high voltages (more
than 15V).
The power, P, developed in a resistor is given by:
P = I² × R where: P = power developed in the resistor in watts (W)
or I = current through the resistor in amps (A)
P = V² / R R = resistance of the resistor in ohms ( )
V = voltage across the resistor in volts (V)

Examples:
A 470 resistor with 10V across it, needs a power rating P = V²/R = 10²/470 =
0.21W.
In this case a standard 0.25W resistor would be suitable.
A 27 resistor with 10V across it, needs a power rating P = V²/R = 10²/27 = 3.7W.

A high power resistor with a rating of 5W would be suitable.

TRANSFORMER

DEFINITION :

The transformer is static electoral machine that transformers one alternating

current stems into another of different voltage and current. However power
remains the some during the transformation. Those transformers play a major part
in the transmission an distribution of ac power.

PRINCIPAL:

A transformer consists of laminate magnetic core forming the magnetic frame.

Primary and secondary coils are wound upon the two cores of the magnetic Frame,
linked by the common magnetic flux O. When an alternating voltages is applied
across the primary the coil. a current flows in the producing the magnetic flux in
the transformer core:-
Transformers are classified as:-
Position of the windings with respect or core i.e.

Core type transforers

Shell type transformers
Step up transformers
Step down transformers

TRANSFORMER

Core & Shell types:

Transformer is one simplest electrical machine which consists of windings wound

of the larninated magnetic core there are two possibilities of putting up the
windings on the core. Winding encircle the core in the case of core type
transformer. Cores encircle the windings e. g. shell type transformer.

Transformer and Faraday's Law

Ideal Transformer Calculation

Top of Form
For an ideal:

Power
Power used = PP = P S = watts
The ideal transformer neglects losses to resistive heating in the primary coil and
assumes ideal coupling to the secondary (i.e., no magnetic losses).
Bottom of Form
Numerical example
More realistic treatment:
Calculation with primary losses</A.< td>
Notes: For this exploratory calculation, you may enter data for any parameter
except the power. Then click on the active text for the parameter you wish to
calculate; values will not be forced to be consistent until you do. For primary
calculations, the voltage and number of turns in the secondary will be considered to
be established and vice versa. Default values will be entered for unspecified
parameters, but all values except the power may be changed.
SWITCHES

An electrical switch is a device usually used to open or close an electrical circuit.

Mostly switches are manually operated devices. Switches play important role in
electronics, to stop the flow of current or send the current.

TYPES OF SWITCHES

Single Pole Single Throw (SPST) :

This type of switch can contact or disconnected only a single wire circuit. These
are of two types-slide type and toggle type. Its current rating is from 0.5 to 6 and
voltage from 6 volt to 30 volt. It is primarily used as an On-Off switch in small
electrical appliances.

Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT) Switch:

This type of switch has on position. SPDT are also of two types- (1) Slide Type
(2) Toggle switch. The slide type SPDT is used for PCB mounting but toggle
SPDT is used in low current devices as in SPST. Slide type is available in 1 A.4A
for a voltage range of 30v to 6v. Toggle type SPDT has a current rating of 1A,
1.5A for a voltage range of 330 V and 30 V.

Double Pole Single Throw (DPST) Switch:

Such a type of switch has only one position of closure but two contacts
simultaneously. It is similar to a SPST switch. The major difference in DPST
switch is that both side of a two-wire line are switched at once.

Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT) Switch:

This type of switch has two poles and can be moved on either side that is to the
right or to the left. Two DPST switches connected together can also be used a
DPDT switch. There are two types of DPDT switches.

(1) Toggle type (2) Slide type DPDT

Micro Switches:
Micro switches are various types. Basically they can be classified as illuminated
rocker switches and subminiature rocker switch. But all the switches discussed
above are toggle micro-switches. They are suitable for both low level and high
level (power switching) applications. Normally these switches are enclosed in a
nylon case. This nylon construction provides a double insulation for extra safety.
This insulation resistance is generally grater than 10M ohm. The temperature
rating of micro-switches is between 25C to 70C.
Band Switches:

These switches are used in instrument such as Radio, TV and Tape recorder to
select a desired circuit. Mostly a three-band radio receiver set requires a three-
position band switch. These switches are of different types slide type or rotary
type.

Push Button Switches :

Both locking a latching (contacts remaining operated after the button is pressed)
and non locking (contacts release after removal of the finger) designs are
available. Other design variations have multiple contacts, snap action and wiper
action. In most design, state of the switch (operated or not) is determined by visual
observation only. Some designs have an indication light either self-contained or
separate.

Keyboards :

A wide variety of keyboards or key pads are used for providing manual input to
electronic instrument such as telephone sets and adding machines. The most
commonly available keyboard has a 12 button (4 rows and 3 columns) arrangement
identical to the telephone instruments although keyboards with 16 and 20 button
arrangement are also available.
RELAY

Relay is electrical device and it functions as an electrically operated switch. Most

are operated Electro-magnetically. When current flower through a coil.
Electromagnetic field is generated. The generated electrical field attracts the
armature in turn opens or close the electrical contacts. The time taken by relay for
is in mille-second range.

A Common type of relay has open and otherwise a closed contacts shown in
figure. The normally closed contact provides continuity between the armature and
the upper contact. The spring holds the armature as shown in fig. When a desired
voltage is applied to the coil, the armature is attracted to the coil and it is drawn
downwards. This breaks the normally closed and makes the contact open. Now the
continuity exists between the armature and the normally open contact.

RELAY CONSTRUCTION

The relay consists of three basic elements.

An actuating or exciting coil Mechanical linkage to transfer the exciting /de-
excitation of the coil output.

Contact switching.

It consists of a coil wound over a magnetic core or rod. One face of the core is
attached to a base plate that is extenuated to the other face of the coil. A movable
plate extending to the open face of the core is attached to the base plate such that a
small gap remains between the movable plate and the core. The movable contacts
are attached to this plate. The fixed contacts constructed opposite to the moving
contacts. Suitable gap is maintained between the two contacts. The contact
arrangement is such that when the movable plate is in contact with the core face
the contact gets closed. the coil when energized products magnetic field in the
core.

The open face becomes a pole of the electromagnet and attracts the movable plate.
The movable place comes in contact of the pole face and is held firmly there as the
magnetic circuit remains close through the base plate. The contact attached to the
movable plate is now firmly held to the fixed contacts. Thus actuation of the coil
causes the normally open contacts to close.

The normally closes contacts are placed in such a way that they remain closed
when the coil is not energized and get open upon actuation of the coil. A spring is
fitted to the movable plate that brings the movable plate and the contacts back to
their original position when the coil is deactivated.
 There are a variety of devices which are classed as output devices and
are therefore commonly called Actuators. Actuators convert an electrical signal
into a corresponding physical quantity such as movement, force, sound etc.
Actuators can also be considered as either Binary or Continuous devices based
upon the number of stable states their output has. For example, A relay is a Binary
Actuator as it has two stable states, latched and unlatched while a motor is a
Continuous Actuator. The most common types of actuators or output devices are
Relays, Lights, Motors and Loudspeakers and in this tutorial we will look at a
Electromechanical Relays and Solid State Relays.
The Electromechanical Relay.
The term Relay generally refers to a device that provides an electrical connection
between two or more points in response to the application of a control signal. The
most common and widely used type of relay is the Electromechanical Relay or
EMR. Relays are basically electrically operated switches that come in many
shapes, sizes and power ratings suitable for all types of applications but in this
section we are just concerned with the fundamental operating principles of "light
duty" electromechanical relays. Such relays are used in general electrical and
electronic control or switching circuits either mounted directly onto PCB boards or
connected free standing and in which the load currents are normally fractions of an
Ampere up to 20+ Amperes.
As their name implies, Electromechanical Relays are Electro-Magnetic devices
that convert a magnetic flux generated by the application of an electrical control
signal either AC or DC current, into a pulling mechanical force which operates the
electrical contacts within the relay. The most common form of electromechanical
relay consist of an energizing coil called the "Primary Circuit" wound around a
permeable iron core. It has both a fixed portion called the Yoke, and a moveable
spring loaded part called the Armature, that completes the magnetic field circuit
by closing the air gap between the fixed electrical coil and the moveable armature.
This armature is hinged or pivoted and is free to move within the generated
magnetic field closing the electrical contacts that are attached to it. Connected
between the yoke and armature is normally a spring (or springs) for the return
stroke to "Reset" the contacts back to their initial rest position when the relay coil
is in the "de-energized" condition, ie. turned "OFF".
Example of a simple low power electromechanical relay

In
our

simple relay above, we have two sets of electrically conductive contacts. One pair
which are classed as Normally Open, (NO) or make contacts and another set
which are classed as Normally Closed, (NC) or break contacts. These terms
"Normally Open, Normally Closed" or "Make and Break Contacts" refer to the
state of the electrical contacts when the relay coil is "de-energized", i.e, no supply
voltage connected to the coil. An example of this arrangement is given below.

The relays contacts are electrically

conductive pieces of metal which
touch together completing a circuit
and allows the circuit current to flow,
just like a switch. When the contacts
are open the resistance between the
contacts is very high in the Mega-
Ohms, producing an open circuit and
no circuit current flows. When the
contacts are closed the contact
resistance should be zero a short
circuit, but this is not the case. All
relay contacts have a certain amount
of "contact resistance" when they are
closed and this is called the "On-
Resistance". With a new relay and
contacts this on-resistance will be
very small, generally less than 0.2Ω's
because the tips are new and clean.
For example. If the contacts are passing a load current of say 10A, then the voltage
drop across the contacts using Ohms law is 0.2 x 10 = 2 volts. As the contact tips
begin to wear, and if they are not properly protected from high inductive or
capacitive loads, they will start to show signs of arcing damage as the circuit
current still wants to flow as the contacts open. This arcing or sparking will cause
the contact resistance of the tips to increase as the contact tips become damaged. If
allowed to continue the contact tips may become so burnt and damaged to the
point were they are physically closed but do

not pass any or very little current. If this arcing damage becomes to severe the
contacts will eventually "weld" together producing a short circuit condition and
possible damage to the circuit they are controlling. If now the contact resistance
has increased due to arcing to say 1Ω's the volt drop across the contacts for the
same load current increases to 1 x 10 = 10 volts dc. This high voltage drop across
the contacts may be unacceptable for the load circuit especially if operating at 12
or even 24 volts, then the faulty relay will have to be replaced. To reduce the
effects of contact arcing and high "On-resistances", modern contact tips are made
off, or coated with, a variety of Silver based alloys to extend their life as given in
the following table.

Contact Tip
Characteristics
Material
Electrical and thermal conductivity are the highest of all
Ag metals, exhibits low contact resistance, is inexpensive
(fine silver) and widely used.
Contacts tarnish through sulphur influence.
AgCu "Hard silver", better wear resistance and less tendency to
(silver copper) weld, but slightly higher contact resistance.
AgCdO
Very little tendency to weld, good wear resistance and
(silver cadmium
arc extinguishing properties.
oxide)
Hardness and melting point are high, arc resistance is
excellent.
AgW Not a precious metal.
(silver tungsten) High contact pressure is required.
Contact resistance is relatively high, and resistance to
corrosion is poor.
AgNi Equals the electrical conductivity of silver, excellent arc
(silver nickel) resistance.
AgPd Low contact wear, greater hardness.
(silver palladium) Expensive.
 platinum, gold and Excellent corrosion resistance, used mainly for low-
silver alloys current circuits.

Relay manufacturers data sheets give maximum contact ratings for resistive d.c.
loads only and this rating is greatly reduced for either AC loads or highly
inductive or capacitive loads. In order to achieve long life and high reliability
when switching AC currents with inductive or capacitive loads some form of arc
suppression or filtering is required across the relay contacts. This is achieved by
connecting a RC Snubber network in parallel with the contacts. The voltage peak,
which occurs at the instant the contacts open, will be safely short circuited by the
RC network, thus suppressing any arc generated at the contact tips. For example.
Relay Snubber Circuit

Relay Contact Types.

As well as the standard descriptions of Normally Open, (NO) and Normally

Closed, (NC) used to describe how the relays contacts are connected, relay contact
arrangements can also be classed by their actions. Electromechanical relays are
made up of one or more individual switches with each "switch" being referred to
as a Pole. Each one of these switches or poles can be connected or "thrown"
together by energizing the relays coil and this gives rise to the description of the
contact types as:
SPST - Single Pole Single Throw
SPDT - Single Pole Double Throw
DPST - Double Pole Single Throw
DPDT - Double Pole Double Throw
with the action of the contacts being described as "Make" (M) or "Break" (B).
Then a simple relay with one set of contacts as shown above can have a contact
description of:
"Single Pole Double Throw - (Break before Make)", or SPDT - (B-M).Examples of
just some of the more common contact types for relays in circuit or schematic
diagrams is given below but there are many more possible configurations.
Relay Contact Configurations

One final point to remember, it is not advisable to connect relay contacts in

parallel to handle higher load currents. For example, never attempt to supply a
10A load with two relays in parallel that have 5A contact ratings each as the relay
contacts never close or open at exactly the same instant of time, so one relay
contact is always overloaded. While relays can be used to allow low power or
computer type circuits to switch a relatively high currents or voltages both "ON"
or "OFF". Never mix different load voltages through adjacent contacts within the
same relay such as for example, high

voltage AC (240v) and low voltage DC (12v), always use separate relays.

One of the more important parts of any relay is the coil. This converts electrical
current into an electromagnetic flux which is used to operate the relays contacts.
The main problem with relay coils is that they are "highly inductive loads" as they
are made from coils of wire. Any coil of wire has an impedance value made up of
Resistance R and Inductance L in series (AC Circuit Theory). As the current flows
through the coil a self induced magnetic field is generated around it. When the
current in the coil is turned "OFF", a large back EMF (Electromotive Force)
voltage is produced as the magnetic flux collapses within the coil (Transformer
Theory). This induced reverse voltage value may be very high in comparison to the
switching voltage, and may damage any semiconductor device such as a transistor,
FET or microcontroller connected to the coil and used to control the relay.

One way of preventing damage to

the transistor is to connect a
reverse biased diode across the
relay coil. When the current
flowing through the coil is
switched "OFF", an induced back
EMF is generated as the magnetic
flux collapses in the coil. This
reverse voltage forward biases the
diode which conducts and
dissipates the stored energy
preventing any damage to the
semiconductor transistor.
When used in this type of
application the diode is generally
known as a "Flywheel Diode".
Other types of inductive loads
which require a flywheel diode for
protection are solenoids and
motors.

As well as using Flywheel Diodes for protection of semiconductor components,

other devices used for protection include RC Snubber Networks, Metal Oxide
Varistors or MOV and Zener Diodes.

The Solid State Relay.

One of the main disadvantages of an Electromechanical Relay (EMR) is that it is a

"mechanical device", that is it has moving parts. Over a period of time these parts
will wear out and fail, or that the contact resistance through the constant arcing
and erosion may make the relay unusable and it will therefore need to be replaced.
Also, they are electrically noisy with the contacts suffering from contact bounce
which may affect any electronic circuits to which they are connected. There is
another type of relay called a Solid State Relay or (SSR) for short which is a solid
state contact less, pure electronic relay. It has no moving parts with the contacts
being replaced by transistors, thyristors or triacs. The electrical separation between
the input control signal and the output load voltage is accomplished with the aid of
an opto-coupler type light sensor. The Solid State Relay provides a high degree of
reliability, long life and reduced electromagnetic interference (EMI), (no arcing
contacts or magnetic fields), together with a much faster response, as compared to
the conventional electromechanical relay. Also the input control power
requirements of the solid state relay are generally low enough to make them
compatible with most IC logic families without the need for additional buffers,
drivers or amplifiers. However, being a semiconductor device they must be
mounted onto suitable heat sinks to prevent the output switching semiconductor
device from over heating.

Example of a Solid State Relay.

The AC type Solid State Relay turns "ON" at the zero crossing point of the AC
sinusoidal waveform, prevents high inrush currents when switching inductive or
capacitive loads while the inherent turn "OFF" feature of thyristors and triacs
provides an improvement over the arcing contacts of the electromechanical relays.
Like EMR's an RC (Resistor-Capacitor) snubber network is generally required
across the output terminals of the SSR to protect the semiconductor output
switching device from noise and voltage transient spikes when used to switch
highly inductive or capacitive loads and in most modern SSR's this RC snubber
network is built as standard into the relay itself. Non-zero detection switching
(instant "ON") type SSR's are also available for phase controlled applications such
as the dimming or fading of lights at concerts, shows, disco lighting etc, or for
motor speed control type applications. As the output switching device of a solid
state relay is a semiconductor device (Transistor for DC switching applications, or
a Triac/Thyristor combination for AC switching), the voltage drop across the
output terminals of an SSR when "ON" is much higher than that of the
electromechanical relay, typically 1.5 - 2.0 volts. If switching large currents for
long periods of time an additional heat sink will be required.

Input/Output Interface Modules.

Input/Output Interface Modules, (I/O Modules) are another type of solid state
relay designed specifically to interface computers, microcontrollers or PIC's to
"real world" loads and switches. There are four basic types of I/O modules
available, AC or DC Input voltage to TTL or CMOS logic level output, and TTL
or CMOS logic input to an AC or DC Output voltage with each module containing
all the necessary circuitry to provide a complete interface and isolation within one
small device. They are available as individual solid state modules or integrated
into 4, 8 or 16 channel devices.
 RELAY

12.PRECAUTIONS
1) Frist check all component as per the circuit.
2) Check transistor.
3) Pay proper attention to the polarity of capacitors and diodes while assembling.
4) While mounting transistor be sure that you have connected collector, emitter
and base properly.
5) Clean PCB after soldering so those components do not short.
6) Remember the anode and cathode of diode before fitting.
7) Remember to check dry soldering and short circuit.
8) IC should be mounted on IC base.
9) Take care in wiring the circuit to avid loose connection.
10) Check for print short after soldering.
11) Please use resistance of the exact value as given in the circuit.
12) Check primary and secondary winding of the transformer before connecting.
13) The insulation of the wire inside the modes should be of good quality.

13.APPLICATIONS:-
1) Security system (Home).

2) Power Saver.

3) Security system (office).

14.BIBLOGRAPHY
BOOKS:

1) Electronic devices and circuit theory

2) Electronic projects.

3) Microelectronic circuits.

4) Electronic for you.

WEBSITES:

1) www.efyindia.com

2) www.nationalsemiconductor .com

3) www.electroprojectindia.com

4) www.alldatasheet.com

5) www.howstuffworks.com

6) www.datasheet.com
15.DATASHEETS