Oral Literature: African Literature Refers To

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African literature refers to literature of and from Africa.

As George Joseph notes on the first


page of his chapter on African literature in Understanding Contemporary Africa, while the
European perception of literature generally refers to written letters, the African concept includes
oral literature.[1]

As George Joseph continues, while European views of literature often stressed a separation of art
and content, African awareness is inclusive:

"Literature" can also imply an artistic use of words for the sake of art alone. ...
traditionally, Africans do not radically separate art from teaching. Rather than write or
sing for beauty in itself, African writers, taking their cue from oral literature, use beauty
to help communicate important truths and information to society. Indeed, an object is
considered beautiful because of the truths it reveals and the communities it helps to build.
[2]

Oral literature
Oral literature (or orature) may be in prose or verse. The prose is often mythological or historical
and can include tales of the trickster character. Storytellers in Africa sometimes use call-and-
response techniques to tell their stories. Poetry, often sung, includes: narrative epic, occupational
verse, ritual verse, praise poems to rulers and other prominent people. Praise singers, bards
sometimes known as "griots", tell their stories with music.[3] Also recited, often sung, are: love
songs, work songs, children's songs, along with epigrams, proverbs and riddles.[4]

Modern African literatures have been influenced to a remarkable degree by the continent’s long


tradition of oral artistry. Before the spread of literacy in the 20th century, texts were preserved in
memory and performed or recited. These traditional texts served many of the same purposes that
written texts serve in literate societies—entertainment, instruction, and commemoration, for
example. However, no distinctions were made between works composed for enjoyment and
works that had a more utilitarian function. Africa’s oral literature takes the form of prose, verse,
and proverb, and texts vary in length from the epic, which might be performed over the course of
several days, to single-sentence formulations such as the proverb. The collective body of oral
texts is variously described as folklore, verbal art, oral literature, or (more recently) orature.

Foremost among prose forms in African literature is the myth. Like myths everywhere, African


myths typically explain the creation of the universe, the activities of the gods at the beginning of
creation, the essence of all creatures, and the nature of their interrelationships. Next in
importance is the legend, intended to enhance a listener’s understanding of the constitution of the
universe. Legends, which deal with events that occurred after the era of the gods, describe such
heroic human feats as establishing dynasties or single-handedly preventing disaster. The African
legend has much in common with the epic, in that both focus on heroism. However, unlike epics,
legends are less elaborate and are not performed on special occasions or in formal settings.
Instead, these prose works are shared in the context of everyday life.
The folktale, another prose form, is usually told for nighttime entertainment. Folktales feature
human beings and animals, either separately or together. They are often employed for social
commentary and instruction and also serve as a potent means of affirming group values and
discouraging antisocial behavior. A popular type is the trickster tale, which features a small but
wily animal that employs its cunning to protect itself against much larger and more powerful
animals. Examples of animal tricksters are Anansi, a spider in the folklore of the Ashanti people
of Ghana; Àjàpá, a tortoise in Yoruba folklore of Nigeria; and Sungura, a hare found in central
and East African folklore.

The epic is not prevalent in Africa, and scholars disagree on whether the term should even be
applied to African texts. What is beyond question is that the African texts described as epics are
extended celebrations of heroic figures. A good example available in print is The Mwindo Epic
(1969) of the Nyanga of eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC, formerly Zaire).

When the integrity of a text is important, it is cast in verse. Certain myths, for example, must be
recited exactly as part of the sacred cult of a divinity or chanted in the process of divination
(foretelling future events or interpreting omens). Texts in verse form are more easily committed
to memory and recalled. Various devices to aid recall are embedded in the text, as in the Zulu
izibongo performed in praise of chiefs.

Finally, several African cultures possess a rich repertoire of epigrams, including proverbs and


riddles. In many African societies effective speech and social success depend on a good
command of proverbs. These treasured sayings convey the demonstrated wisdom of the ages and
therefore serve as a reliable authority in arguments or discussion. Closely related to proverbs are
riddles—both are based on principles of analogy that require the listener to decipher the intended
meaning. American linguist Albert Scheven’s Swahili Proverbs (1981) offers examples of
proverbs from East Africa.

Despite the major transformations that have taken place in Africa in the past few centuries, a
large number of people remain in close contact with traditional cultures and institutions. Oral
traditions continue to play important roles in their lives. For the westernized elite, oral traditions
are useful resources for placing an authentic African stamp on writings and they can aid in
reconstructions of traditional life.

III
. WRITTEN LITERATURE

With a few exceptions, literacy came to sub-Saharan Africa from elsewhere. In a handful of


instances, rudimentary forms of writing were developed and used by secret societies and other
exclusive groups. The major exception to this rule is Amharic, which for centuries has been used
in written form in the Horn of Africa.

Literacy in Arabic came to Africa with the introduction of the Islamic religion into the kingdom
of Ghana in the 11th century by the Tuaregs, a tribal people of the Sahara. As Islam spread into
other parts of West Africa through jihads (holy wars), literacy spread as well. Islam depended on
the Qur'an (Koran), its sacred scripture, and required converts to memorize passages from it.
From the 7th century on, Arab influence was also prevalent on the east coast of Africa, where
Arab traders and slavers were active. The Arabic script was eventually adapted for Swahili,
which in central and East Africa served as the lingua franca (language for trade and other cross-
cultural communication).

Christianity was a second means for introducing literacy to sub-Saharan Africa. Christian


missionaries became active on the continent in the second half of the 19th century, especially
after the abolition of the slave trade and the rise of interest among Europeans in other types of
trade. The schools that they established were intended to train local helpers for the missionaries,
but they later served European colonial administrations and commercial concerns by preparing
low-level functionaries. In the areas where Muslims introduced literacy, the literature produced
is mainly in African languages. In countries where literacy was introduced by Christian
missionaries, the majority of literature is in English, French, or Portuguese.

Literary Background
African Literature

       Despite the ignorance of most so called "literati" to the domain of African literature, African
literature in fact is one of the main currents of world literature, stretching continuously and
directly back to ancient history. Achebe did not "invent" African Literature, because he himself
was inundated with it as an African. He simply made more people aware of it.

The Beginnings of African Literature

    The first African literature is circa 2300-2100, when ancient Egyptians begin using burial texts
to accompany their dead. These include the first written accounts of creation - the Memphite
Declaration of Deities. Not only that, but 'papyrus', from which we originate our word for paper,
was invented by the Egyptians, and writing flourished. In contrast, Sub-Saharan Africa feature a
vibrant and varied oral culture. To take into account written literary culture without considering
literary culture is definitely a mistake, because they two interplay heavily with each other.
African oral arts are "art's for life's sake" (Mukere) not European "art's for art's sake", and so
may be considered foreign and strange by European readers. However, they provide useful
knowledge, historical knowledge, ethical wisdom, and creative stimuli in a direct fashion. Oral
culture takes many forms: proverbs and riddles, epic narratives, oration and personal testimony,
praise poetry and songs, chants and rituals, stories, legends and folk tales. This is present in the
many proverbs told in Things Fall Apart, and the rich cultural emphasis of that book also is
typically African.
    The earliest written Sub-Saharan Literature (1520) is heavily influenced by Islamic literature.
The earliest example of this is the anonymous history of the city-state of Kilwa Kisiwani. The
first African history, History of the Sudan, is written by Abd al-Rahman al-Sadi in Arabic style.
Traveling performers, called griots, kept the oral tradition alive, especially the legends of the
Empire of Mali.  In 1728 the earliest written Swahili work, Utendi wa Tambuka borrows heavily
from Muslim tradition. However, there are little to no Islamic presence in Things Fall Apart.
 

The Period of Colonization

        With the period of Colonization, African oral traditions and written works came under a
serious outside threat.    Europeans, justifying themselves with the Christian ethics, tried to
destroy the "pagan" and "primitive" culture of the Africans,
to make them more pliable slaves. However, African Literature survived this concerted attack. In
1789, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustava Vassa was the first
slave narrative to be published. Kidnapped from Nigeria, this Ibo man wrote his autobiography
in Great Britain in English, and like Achebe used his narrative as a platform to attack the
injustices of slavery and cultural destruction. Back in Africa, Swahili poetry threw off the
dominating influence of Islam and reverted back to native Bantu forms. One exemplar of this
was Utendi wa Inkishafi (Soul's Awakening), a poem detailing the vanity of earthly life. The
Europeans, by bringing journalism and government schools to Africa, helped further the
development of literature. Local newspapers abounded, and often they featured sections of local
African poetry and short stories. While originally these fell close to the European form, slowly
they broke away and became more and more African in nature. One of these writers was Oliver
Schreiner, whose novel Story of an African Farm (1883) is considered the first African classic
analysis of racial and sexual issues. Other notable writers, such as Samuel Mqhayi and Thomas
Mofolo begin portraying Africans as complex and human characters. Achebe was highly
influenced by these writers in their human portrayal of both sides of colonization.
    Emerging from Paris in the 1920s and 1930s, the negritude movement established itself as
one of the premiere literary movements of its time. It was a French-speaking African search for
identity, which ofcourse took them back to their roots in Africa. Africa was made into a
metaphorical antipode to Europe, a golden age utopia, and was often represented allegorically as
a woman. In a 1967 interview, Cesaire explained: "We lived in an atmosphere of rejection, and
we developed an inferiority complex." The desire to establish an identity begins with "a concrete
consciousness of what we are--…that we are black . . .
and have a history. . . [that] there have been beautiful and important black civilizations…that  its
values were values that could still make an important contribution to the world." Léopold Sédar
Senghor, one of the prime thinkers of this movement, eventually became president of  the
country of Senegal, creating a tradition of African writers becoming active political figures.
Achebe was doubtless familiar with the negritude movement, although he preferred to less
surrealistic and more realistic writing.
    In 1948, African literature came to the forefront of the world stage with Alan Paton's
publishing of Cry the Beloved Country. However, this book was a somewhat paternalistic and
sentimental portrayal of Africa. Another African writer, Fraz Fanon, also a psychiatrist, becomes
famous in 1967 through a powerful analysis of racism from the African viewpoint - Black Skin,
White Masks. Camara Laye explored the deep psychological ramification of being African in his
masterpiece, The Dark Child (1953), and African satire is popularized by Mongo Beti and
Ferdinand Oyono. Respected African literary critic Kofi Awoonor systematically collects and
translates into English much of African oral culture and art forms, preserving native African
culture.
    Chinua Achebe then presents this native African culture in his stunning work, Things Fall
Apart. This is probably the most read work of African Literature ever written, and provides a
level of deep cultural detail rarely found in European literature. Achebe's psychological insight
combined with his stark realism make his novel a classic.

Post-Achebe African Literature

    Achebe simply opened the door for many other African literati to attain international
recognition. East Africans produce important autobiographical works, such as Kenyans Josiah
Kariuki’s Mau Mau Detainee (1963), and R. Mugo Gatheru’s Child of Two Worlds (1964).
African women begin to let their voice be heard. Writers such as Flora Nwapa give the feminine
African perspective on colonization and other African issues. Wole Soyinka writes her satire of
the conflict between modern Nigeria and its traditional culture in her book The Interpreters
(1965). A prolific writer, she later produces famous plays such as Death and The King's
Horseman. Later, in 1986, she is awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. African Literature gains
more and more momentum, and Professor James Ngugi even calls for the abolition of the
English Department in the University of Nairobi, to be replaced by a Department of African
Literature and Languages. African writers J. M. Coetzee, in his Life and Times of Michael K.,
written in both Afrikaans and English for his South African audience, confronts in literature the
oppressive regime of apartheid. Chinua Achebe helps reunite African Literature as a whole by
publishing in 1985 African Short Stories, a collection of African short stories from all over the
continent. Another African writer, Naguib Mahfouz, wins the Nobel Prize in literature in 1988.
In 1990 African poetry experiences a vital comeback through the work I is a Long-Memoried
Woman by Frances Anne Soloman. African Literature is only gaining momentum as time
marches onwards.

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