Huygens Institute - Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW)

Citation:

G.A.F. Molengraaff, On the occurrence of nodules of manganese in mesozoic deep-sea deposits from
Borneo, Timor, and Rotti, their significance and mode of formation, in:
KNAW, Proceedings, 18 I, 1915, Amsterdam, 1915, pp. 415-430

This PDF was made on 24 September 2010, from the 'Digital Library' of the Dutch History of Science Web Center (www.dwc.knaw.nl)
> 'Digital Library > Proceedings of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW), http://www.digitallibrary.nl'

-1-
 415
-

nitel.ll t!tin perfectly condncting srreen. We could srarcely be sure

beforehand til at tlle condltions are suffieiently satisfied even by a
scratch ulJon ~ silvel' deposit. The case of an ordmary speetroscope
slit is quite different. Tt _seems that here the polarisation observed
with the finest -practieable slits eorresponels to th at fl'om the less
fine / scratch es on si! yer deposits".
With the last worels RA YLEIGH refers to an observation by FIZEAU,
who on scratching in a srlvel' layer on glass perceived that the
,transmItteel light was polal'ized perpendicularly to the direetion of
the scratch, If the wielth of the latter was ~ mm. If this wldth
however was estlmated at 1 0 ~ 0 0 mmo the polarisation was in the
Jirection of the scratch, viz. the electric vibrations were chiefly
perpendicnlar to i1. WIth spectroscope slits the lattel' case does not
OCCLll'.
It wil! be remembel'eel that DU BOJs anel RUBENS 1) founel with a
wire gratll1g a point of lllversiQn fol' ultra-red light, jnst as FIZEAl'
observeel wlth scratches.

Geology. - "On the océur1'ence of nocZzdes of rnanganese in

mesozoic deep-sea deposits f1'om Bomeo, Tim01', anc! Rotti,
t!teil' significanee r.md mode of formation". By Pl'Of. G. A.
F. MOIJJt,NGRAAFl!',

lOommunicated in the meeting of January 30, 1915).

The qllestion whether deep-sea deposits, and more especially

oceanic abysmal deposits, of eal'lier geological ages, take part 111
more Ol' less appl'eciable degl'ee In the formatIOn of the existlllg
continental masses, may be considered of pI'lme lluportance fol' the
solution of sevel'al geologlcal pl'oblems. If answel'ed III the affirma-
ti ve, the eoncl usion at onee follows that, lllovemen ts of the earth's
crnst must have taken plaee of an umphtnde, sufficiently gl'eat, to
bl'ing deposits formeel at a depth of 5000 metres or more, above
the surface of the sea,
Some twenty years ago the opinion prevarIed, that t1'ue abysmal
deposits of former geological ages, had nmvhere been proved, wilh
cel'tainty, to eÀlst in the continental areas. lt must be adrmtted that
at that time, descriptions of oeeurrences of s11eh abysmaI deposits
were scanty and far fl'om convinc1l1g. Tlus may luwe been partIy
caused by the fact, tb at fossil deep-sea deposits are not conspicnous
1) H, DU BOlS and H, RUBENS, Bel. Berl, Akademie 112,0, 1892.

-2-
 416
as such, and th at the organisms they contain, bemg only clearly
visible with the aid of a strong pocket lens, or a microscope, are
easily o\'erlooked.
At all events, l\'lURRAY and RENARD, in theil' classical tl'eatise on
recent deep-sea deposits, were very sceptical with regard to the
question whether these plaJ a r01e of any importance in the
structnre of the continents, as can cleal'ly be proved by the following
quotations: "With Rome doubtful exceptions it has been impossible
to recognise in the rocks of the continents formations identical with
these (i. e. the recent) peJagic deposits", 1) and "It seems dou btfnl if
the deposits of the abysmal areas have in tile past tak~n any part
in the formation of the existing continental masses". 2)
Later, it must be admitted, strong proofs have been given 3) of
the deep-sea character of cel'tain red shales with radiolaria, and
certain cherts and hornstones with eadiolaria, the former being the
fossil equivalents of the recent red clay, the latter, the typical
radiolarites, being the tossil equivalents of the recent mdiolarian ooze.
And it also has been pointed out that their occurrences in tlle
continents, must be found strictly limited to folded mountain ranges of
recent and earlier ages i. e. to the movable or geosynclinal areas
of the earth's crust 4 ) and cannot be expected to occur in the original
stabie or continental masses i. e. the "aires continentales" in the
sense of HAUG. Although it bas thus been distinctly proved that the
occurrences of deep-sea deposits of earliel' age'3 in the continental
masses cannot be regarded as "some donbtful exceptions" yet, as
is clearly reflected in the most modern handbaaks of geology, the
doubt l'egarding theiJ' importance nas not yet been dispelled.
One of the most prominent American geologists recently in a
study on the. testimony of the deep-sea deposits 5) strongly supports
the view held by MURRAY and RENAIW in 1891:
It is evident that in Pl'0pol'tion to the strength of the al'guments

1) Report on the scientific results o~ the voyage of H. M. S Chullenger. J.

MURRAY and A. l!'. RENARD. Deep·sea deposits, p 189, London 1891.
2) Ibidem, Introduction p. XXIX.
g) See i. a. G. A. F. MOLTINGRAAFF. Geological explorations in Central Borneo
p. 91 and again pp. 439-4:42. Leiden 1900 and G. STI:INMANN. Geol. Beobachtungen
in dE'D Alpen. 2. Die SCHARDT'sche Ueberfaltungstheolie \lnd die geologische Bedeu-
tung der Tiefseeabsàtze und der ophiolitischen Massengesteine. Berichte d nalurfol'.
Ges. zu Freiburg XVI, p. 33, 1tJ05.
4) G. A. F. MOLENGRAAFF. On oceanic deep-sea deposits of Central-Bomeo. Proc.
of the Royal Academy of Sciences, Amsterdam XLI, p. 141.. Amsterdam. 1909.
Ii) T C. CHA~mERLIN. Diastrophism and the formative processes. V. The testimony
of the deep·sea deposits. Journalof Geology XXl! p. 137, 1914.

-3-
 417
afforded for the identity bet ween all the characteristics of tbe rocks
which are maintained to be the fossd equivalents of the recent
eleep-sea deposits anel of those lat ter deposils themselves the probabi-
lity must increase of this equivalency being genel'ally accepted. Up
to the present it must be admitted, notwithsrandmg the almost
absolute similal'ity, which bas been proved to exist between recent
radiolal'ian ooze, and tl'iassic and jurassic radiolarites from some
Alpine loralities, from Borneo, and some other isJands in the East
lndran archipeJago, one in/'jJortant ancl rema1'lcI1ble chamcte1'istic of
°
recent abysmal deposits, i.e. the concentration ()f o,ricles f 71Iangrme.~e
in nodules bas hitlJerto nevel' been observed in foaad deep-sea
deposits fOl'ming part of continental areas 1).

To rwhat e.I·tent, ancl in rwhic/t rway man,qanr.'I(J noclules are

chamctel'istic of abysmal depo8its?

The accumulation of oxide of manganese or shol·tly of manganese

in recent deep-sea depoqit8 is vel'y stl'lking; al most without except:un
manganese 2) is found in all deep-sea deposits. COnCl'etlOlls of man-
ganese of vfirious' dimension& are especially abundant in true abJsmal
deposits, i. e. the red clay and the radiolarian ooze.
lVlUl{J{AY 3) in his latest book on deep-sea depobits remarks : "The
oxyeles of iron and manganese ... In cel'tain abysmal reglUns of Ihe
ocean . .. form concretions of lal'gel' or smallel' siz:!, which are
among tbe most striking chl'tracfel'Ïstlcs of the oceanic red clay."
The question arises, whether, and to what exlent, nodules of
manganese must be considered charaeteristic e.vclusively of abysmal
deposJts; do tbey occnr in su eh dep08its only Ol' also elsewhel'e?
In tbe report of the Challenger-expedition, and in the memolr of
MURRAY anel HJORT 4) quoted above it is reported that snch nodules
of manganese thwe been dl'edged from shallow depths, alld that they
have been found to occu!' th ere even in abnndance, in some places,

l) PHILIPPI says about this while tL'eating the probabihty of the occurreoce of
deep·sea deposits in former geological formation::. : "Aueh sim! me;nens Wissens
die für recente Tiefseeablagerungen so eharakteristischen Manganknollen . . • .
hisher noch aus keiner Formation bekannt geworden." E. PHILIPPI. Ueber das
Problem der Sehichtung und liber Schichtbildung am Boden der heutigen Mepre.
Zeitschr. d deutsehell geol. Ges, LX, p 356, l<;)OS.
I) T. MURUAY and A. ~'. RENARD say: "Ral'ely eau a large sample of any mud,
clay or ooze be examined with care without traces of the oxides of this metal
being discovered, either as ooatings Ol' minute grains."
S) J. MURRAY and J. HIORT. The depths of the ocean, p. 155/ Londen 1912.
4) I.c. p. 157.

-4-
 418

where volcanic material forms a large proportion of the C'onstituents

of the deposit on the boltom of the sea.
In the Kara-sea, highly ferruginous nodules of manganese have
been brought to the sllrface from terrigenous_ muds, at a moderate
depth by the Netherlands Arctic expedition in the yeal's 1882/83.
DUl'ing the Siboga-expedition, WEBER, in the deep-sea basins of
the Nethedands East-Indian archipelago, has found mangallese
nodules on one spot onIy between the islands oCLetti and Timor, at
a depth of 1224: metres, in mud containing astrong proportion of
terrigenous material, being in no way a tl'lle pelagic deposit; man:
ganese forming an incrus(ation on a fragment of deaà co ral, has
moreover been observed in a sample dredged from a depth of 1633
metres, between the islands of Misol and Oeram. 1)
As to the fossil occurrences, I have found in U pper-Triassic deposits,
on the eiland of Timor, roots of Orinoids which certainly did not
grow on the bottom of an ocean of abysmal depth, hea vily incrus-
stated with a coating of concretionary manganese.
Nodules and concretions of manganese therefore are not chal'ac-
teristic of abysmal deposits in this way, th at from the oC'CUl'rence
of such concretions in a certain deposit, one would be justified in
concluding that the deposit could be nothing else than an abysmal
deposit and cOllld only have been formed on the bottom of a Yery
deep ocean. On the contmry, concretions of manganese have been
formed on the bottom of all oceans in varying depths when the
conditions for their formation were favouraQle.
MURRAY and RENARD maintain - and I have no reason to diverge
from this opinion - that these favomable conditions are afforded
by tbe presence of basic volcanic material in an easily decomposable
form. As soon as this eondition is fulfilled the possibility is reälized
fol' the formation of concretions of manganese, but the chemical
process of their growth is a very slow one, as has been amply
proved by the researches of the Ohallenger-expedition. In shallow
seas, especially at small distances from the mainland, sediments del'Îved
from land or fl'om a planctonic and neritic fauna accumulate rapidly, so
rapidly }ndeed, that there is only a remote chance of finding by
dredging, eoncretions of manganese, whieh in the mud in odd places
grow very slowly. In abysmal seas far from land very different
conditions prevail. the rate of accumulation of sediment is an
extremely slow one th ere, the afflux of terrigenous material is
reduced almost to nil, whereas from the plankton only the siliceous
1) Siboga-Expeditie I. M. WEBER. Introduction el description de l'expédition,
p. 81 and p. 137. Leiden 1902.

-5-
 419

tests i. e. these of radiolaria and diatoms reach the bottom, the

calcareous test being dissolved by the cold water of the deep seas
with its ~igh ratio of oxygenium and carbonic acid held in solution,
·before they reach the bot!om. The gro","th of the concretions of
manganese, however, is not hampered in these depths; on the contl'ary
it even appears as if in abysmal depths in water of a temper'ature
ver)' near the fl'eezing point and containing much oxygenium in
solution, the conditions for the formation of concretions of oxydes of
manganese, are more fftvourable than in shallow seas, provided that
traces of voleanic material occn!' as a source of manganese from
whene~ the manganese could have been deri\'ed. ThllS, concretions
of manganese, slow as they are in thei1' process of formation, and
inconspicuous as they are in sediments in places where the mte of
accumnlation is rapid, can become an important constituent, where
the rate ot accumulation of a deposit is extremely slo\"l, as is the
case in the abysmal al'eas.
Oonsequently concretions of manganese are in this 11wnneJ' chamc-
teristic of abysrnal cleposits tltat they may f01'1n an imp01'tant 2)e1'-
centage in proportion to othe1' ~onstituents exclusively in sltch depvsits.
And from this it is easy to conclnd~ that eOlJcl'etions of manga-
nese are characte1'istic of abysrnal deposits in the same manner as
the tests of radiolaria. The latter sink to the bot.tom of the oceall
from the plankton eyel'J where within the Iimits of thei1' geographical
distrioution, just as weU near the mainland as far from the shore.
Near the land these tests, owing to thei1' minuteness, howevel', dis-
appeal' being incorporated in enormOllS quantities of othe1' chiefly
terrigenous material which there cornes to deposition ; far from land,
on the contt'al'Y, at the bottom of the very deep ocean-basÏlls at
depths over 5000 metres, where calcareous tests sinking down are
dissolved before reaching the bottom of the ocean, these siliceolls
Jests, small as is their individual rnass, may form a great, sometimes
a preponderating portion of whatsoever is deposited.
1t is therefore quite justifiabie to maintain, that radiolaria and
concretioJls of manganese, form part of the most characteristic con-
stituents of abysmal oeeanic deposits, and fnrthet' that nodules of
manganese containing radiolaria almost with certainty mus! have
been formed in the deeper portions of the ocean basins.

Localities 'Wh81'e C01W1'etion8 of manganése have been found

in deep-sea deposits of mesozoic a,ge.

Ooncretions of rnanganese have been discovered- by the geologieal

-6-
 420

expedition to the islands of the Timor gl'onp ill 1910-1912 in

triassic and jurassic deep-sea deposits, on the Island of Timor, and
also weIl ue\'eloped in similar jUl'assic deposits on the Island of Rotti,
and previollsly, (in 1894, and later) I had ngtieed tbem in abysmal
deposits of the pl'ecretaceolls probably jurassic Danau formation,
occu1'1'ing in West and East Borneo.
Rock specimens were collected by the undermentioned obsel'vers,
and their examination has affol'ded proof from which sevel'al dednc-
tions have been included in this paper.
a. In 189,,], in Central Borneo by the author.
b. In 1898--1900 in the basill of the Mahakkam River by rrof.' A.
W. NIEUWENHurs. .....
c. In 1902 in the Long Keloh, a smal! brancl1 of the Long KeJai,
which is one of the gl'eat tl'ibntaries of the Berau-stl'eam in East-
BOl'lleo, by Mr. VAN MAARSEVEEN,
d. in 191J, on the island of Timor by tbe Netherlands Timor-
expedition led by Llle author,
e. in 1911 and 1912, on the island of Hotti, by Dl'. H. A. BROUWER,
olie of the members of the same expedition.
All the specimens collected with the exception only of these of
Central~Borneo al'e stored in the geological museum of the Technical
Highschool at Delft.

On the mode of OCCZl7'rence of the m,rtnpanese in tJte roclc.~.

In the rocks just llIentioned the manganese has been concentrated

in various ways:
1. As g1YÛnS, i.e. minute concl'etions, frequently only recognisable
as suel! nnder the microscope, occurring throughout the rock. This
form of concentration is vel')' common in red shales, which are the
equivalent of recent red clays. These shales val'y in colon)' from
briek red to chocolate brown, they in\'ariably inclnde a noticeable
pl'oportion of silica, (in placer:, a little lime) and, in val'ying quantities,
tests of radiolal'ia. The chaeaetel'istic red colollration is due to the
presence of oxide of iron, and this tint deepens into chocolate bl'own
in proportion to the increase in the percentage of ma,llganese,
entering into the composirion of the rock.
This mode of accnmula,tion - is of almost general OCCUl'l'ence in
all deep-sea deposits containing rnnch clay 1), but is o~ less import-
1) In modern deep-sea deposits the bulk of t1le manganese is just as weil con-
centrated in smal! grains, causing the brownish red an,l chocolate brown colour
of the deep sen silt, especially of the red·clay of the Pacific and the Indiau Ocean.
Compare J. MURRAY and A. l~. RF.NARD 1. C. p. 191, p. 341 and Pl. XXII fig. 1.

-7-
 421
ance, and may even be wanting in siliceolls dE'posits, i.e. the eh erts
and hornstones, which are predominantly composed of tests of
radiolaria.
I have observed manganese accumulated as grains in the following
deep-sea rocks:
a. in red limeless siliceous clayshales with radioJoria, pl'obably
of jurasslc age, which are the pt'evailing rocks i.n the entire area of
the Danau-formation of Central-Borneo, and in lesser quantities also
in the cherts, jaspers and hOL'nstones, which occur interstratified
between the layers of the elaysha1es.
b. in red and brown, mostly limeless, siliceous clayshales of triassic
age in several localities spread over the island of Timor, and also
less abundant in the nodllies 'and layers of chert and hOJ:nstone
accompanying these shales.
c. in siliceous limestones, marls 1) and more or less siliceous and
calcareous clayshales with radiolaria, as weil as in the nodules and
lasers of hornstone contained in those rocks of jurassic age which
occur very plentiful in a great portion of the island of Timor.
d. in jurassic deep-sea deposits on the is land of Rotti 2), being
identicál which those just mentioned from Timor.
Pl'obably the precipitation and accumulation of mallganese is
always illitiated by the formation of sneh grains and a graqnal
transition ean be observed between this mode of eoncentration and
ot hers by which the ore is more strongly localized.
2. as nodules. Nodules of mallganese are aceumulations or ratber
concretions of larger size than grains, being either perfectly ronnd,
UI' more irregular and nodnlar" but always wel! rounded 8). Th('\y

1) The strong proportion of lime contained in these rocks gives rise to the
question, whether the jurassic deep·sea depostts of Timor (md Rotti, although
they are formed far from land and thus truly oceanic, might have been deposited
in water less deep than the sea. in which~ the entirely limeless precretaceous
deep-sea deposits of the Danau-formation of Central-Borneo have been formed
The author intends to discuss el~ewhere the far reaching pl'oblem, cOllllected with
this question:
2) Possibly also triassip. and cretaceous deposits are comprised within this series
of folded strata. Compare H. A. BROUWGR. Voorloopig overzicht der geologie van
het eiland Rotti. Tijdschr Kon. Ned. Aardr. Genootsch 2, XXXI, p. 614, HH4.
3) As far as the shape is concetned, the nodules found in radiolarites of jurassic
age on tlle island of Rotti, are in every respect similar to those which bave been
dredged at STëat depths from the bottom of lhe ocpan Compare J. MURRAY and
J. HJORT. The depths or" the ocean p. 156: "The commonest form of the
manganese nodules is tl1at of more or less ronnded nodules . • . looking -like
marbles at one place, like potatoes or like cricket balls at otber places".

-" --_._-------==-===============

-8-
 422

are found both in the red deep-sea sbale and in the hornstone and
chel't with mdiolaria (radiolarite).
As to theiI' OCClll'l'enCe the following information may be given:
a. The author possesses from the isla!}d of BOl'neo a single,
mediumsized nodule, only collected by VAN lVlAARSEVEEN in chert
from the Danau-formation in the bed of the Long Keloh 1'iver in
East-Borneo.
b. On the lsland of Timor nod111es of manganese have been
observed in sevel'al placE's in deep-sea deposits; a very beautiful
specimen (PI. I, fig. 2) was eollected in clayshale with radiolal'ia,
probably of triassic age near the hill Somoholle m the Beboki-distl1ct,
about 720 metres above sea-level.
c. On the island of Rotti nodl1Ies of manganese' were found in
several loeahties in siliceous limestones, marls, st!ieeons and ealea-
r~ons clayshales with nodul€'s and flat cOllcretions of chert all of
jurassic age, which at'e fuIl of tests of radiolaria. Exceedingly weIl
presel'\7ed are the nodules of manganese in rocks from fatu Sua I/ain l )
on the north eoast of Rotti and the author refers to this locality
where in the following pages he descl'ibes the eomposition and the
mode of formation of these nodul~s. They are always macroseopic-
all.}' weIl demareated from the encIosing rock and in conseql1ence
of their gl'eater resistance to weathering they gradl1ally more and
more protude from the red shales, and white mads, in which they
are tound included, and thus often get detached from the rocks by
the process of weathering. Sueh detaehed nodules of manganese ean be
col1eeted in quantities on the beaeh near Sua Lain. Thus there is
evidently a great chance that thei:le loose nodules may be incorporated
later on in younger deposits. VERBlliEK, on the island of Rotii near
Bebalain, has found nodules of manganese in mads of plistocene
age. I have exammed these nod111es, and have found that they
contain radiolaria identical to those which occur in the nodules
found "in situ" in l'adiolarites of jurassic age at different loealities
on the island of Rotti. These nodules of Bebalain e\idently bave
not originated in the mads of plistocene age, but hàve been in-
cOl'porated as sueh in the rock.
3. as slabs 01' fiat conc1'etions. The coneretions of mangenese often,
are flat, and in this caSe more or less restl'icted to definite layel's
of great horizontal extent; in this way true bedded roanganese
deposits may originate.
1) Fatt! = isolated rock or isolated group of rocks. R. D. M. VERBREK gives a
picture of the Fatu Sua Lain in his report on the geology of the Moluccas. Jaar-
boek van het Mijnwezen. 37. Wetensch. ged. p. 317 Batavia 1908.

-9-
 423

Manganese accumnlated in tbis manner bas been found by the

authol' in more than one locality.
A good example of this mode of occurrence is given in a complex
of uppel'-triassic deep-sea deposits in the 1eft sIope of the valley of
the NoU Bisnain, near the track from Kapan to Fatu Naisusu
(commonly called the rork of Kapan) in Middle Timor. The ore-
bearing' portion of this complex of strata is 25 metres thick, and
about 10 beds of manganese are found in it closely connected with
variegated, siliceous elayshales and eh erts with radiolaria, the entire
complex being intercalated in strata containing limestones with tests
of Radiolal'Ïa and sbells of Halobia. The beds of manganese vary in
thickness bet ween 2 and 30 centimeters. Microscopical examination
reveals traces of tests of radiolaria in the ore as weIl as in the rock.
4. in thin films on fragments of rock fm'med by tbe infiltration
of manganese in cracks of the rock from which these fl'agments
we re derived.
In this way manganese is fOllnd infiltrated in the cracks of all
the shales and in the majority of the cherts of the abysmal series
on the islands of Borneo, Timor, and Rotti.

The elzen-deal cornposition of the nochûes of rnanganese.

I am indebted to Prof. H. TER MEULEN in Delft for a chemical

analysis of a nodule of manganese taken from a marl bed with
concl'etions of bornstone, from 8ua Ijain mentioned previously.
The result of the analysis in as follows:
Nodl1le of manganese from 811a Lain
8i0 2 2.9 1 )
Fe 2 0 3 + Al 2 0 s 2.3
lVIn0 2 57.7
MnO 10.5
CoO 0.3
BaO 11.7
CaO 5.6
// Na 2 0 1.1
00 2 small quantity
The snbstance loses 1.05 0 / 0 of its weight at a temperature of
125 0 O. and 15.S o/ 0 on roasting.
A similar analysis has been made by Mr. G. WITTEVEEN of the

1) In the original Dutch edition of this paper erroneously the figure 2.09 has
been given for the percentage of SiO~.

- 10 -
 424

smaIl nodu1es of manganese mentioned above, which have been

rolleeted by VERBlU!lK 1) in plistocene mad near Bebalain on the island
of Rotti. The l'esult of their analyses was as follows:
Nodule of manganese fIOm Bebalain
8i0 2 3.44
AI 2 0 s
Fe 2 0 S 1.45
1\1n0 2 62.06
MnO 6.03
BaO 9.18
R20 8.86
CaO and~ .
· not determll1ed
I
a 11mIS

Obviously there is a great similarity in chemical composition

between the conr-retions of manganese from 8ua Lain and those of
Bebalain. Baryum figllres highly in both the analyses. Oomparing
these two analyses with 45 analyses~) made from concretions of
manganese dredged by the Ohallenger from recent deep-sea deposits,
the proportion of iron proves to be low in the mesozoic nodules of
Rotti. In recent nodules of manganese ft'om the deep-sea the propor-
tion of iron, determined as oxyde of iron, varies from 6.46 to 46.4.
The proportion of manganese determined as 1\1nO, in these two
extreme cases proved to be 63.23 and 14.82 respectively.

On the 1'elations between t!ze concentmtion of rnanganese in the

f01'171- of gmins ancl of nochÛes.

It is not an easy matter to study the manner in which the accu-

mlllation of manganese in recent deep-sea oozes takes pJace, because
in the process of dredging the samples from a great depth, the
sediment is agitated more Ol' less and therefore the sample does
not show any more the original posirion and mntual arrangement
of the grains and the nodules of mang'anese in the mud Ol' ooze
at the bottom of the ocean. As soon as, howevel', the deep-sea
ooze is cemented into rock as is the case witb these deposits of
former geological ages the mutual arrangement of tbe grains and
nodules of manganese is no more modified, and can be studied under
the rnicl'oscope in slideR made of these rocks, These slides wil! show
i) R. D, M. VERBI!lEK l.c. P 393.
l) J. MURRAl and A. F. HENARD l.c. p. 464-487.

- 11 -
 425

80 to say the process of the accumulation of the manganese in full

progress but fixed Ol- petl'ified at a certam moment.
Rocks from certain localities onl the island of Rotti: which proved
to be suitable for micl'oscopical examination, have been studied by
the author, and thel'efore a few words on tbe mode of occnrrence
of these rocks may serye as an introduction, before the results of
ihis study will be dealt with.
On the island of Rotti deep-sea deposits, both of triassic and of
j ll\'assic age OCCUl', but concretions of manganese in their original
position, have as rei only been found in sediments tbe jura&sic age
of which has been detel'mined in more than one locality. These
sedimental'y rocks are chal'actel'istically exposed in the rocky
cliffs of 811a Lain near Termimoe sittlated on the nOl'th coast 1) of
the island.
They are weIl stratified here, and the strata folded and tilted, but
not so distl1rbed, that the ol'iginal sequence of the beds couJd not be
determined with cel'tainty.
The bulk of this eomplex of strata is composed of true abysmal
deposits in which exclusively. tests of l'adiolal'ia occnr, but in the
same complex also limestones are _found which contain both radio-
Jarja and belemnites of jUl'assic~) age. The geoJogical age of these
deep-sea deposits bas thus been proved beyond donbt.
The deep-sea deposits are here represented by siliceous alld slightly
calcareous red clay shales, which pass illtO l'eddish marls anel lime-
stOlles in propol'tion as. the content of lime in the rock increases,
the latter containing nu merous concentrations of silica in nodules
grouped togethel' in more or less distinct layers. The shales, mal'ls,
limestones and cherts are completely studded with tests of radiolaria.
lVlanganese is concentrated il'reglllarly in fairly equal pl'opol'tions,
howevel', in the ca!careous day shale, in the siliceous limestone

1) H. A. BROUWER. 1. è p. 614.
2) WICHMANN, wbo in bis journey to tbe .island of Rotti in tbe year 1889 visiled
Sua Lain, reports as follows on the geological structure of this groups of rocks:
11 "Del' Fels bestebt aus einem wahrscheinlich tertiären Kalkstein, die seht' reich an
Foramin\feren, namentlich Globigerinen ist und ausserdem von zahlreicben Kalk-
spathlrümmern durchzogen wird." (A. WICHMANN, Tijdschr. Kon. Ned. Aardr.
Genootseh. '2, IX., p. :231, 1~92J. This statement is erroneous. VERUEEK has proved
that the rock is not filled by tests of Globigel'ina but of Radioloria and HINDE takes
them to be of triassic age. (compare: R. D. M. VERBEEK l.c. p. 317 and G. J.
HINDE, ibid. p. 696) moreover, in the numerous samples, taken by BROUWER from
the strata of these rocks, no Globigerina, but E'xclusively Radiolaria are found, whereas
it follows from the Belemnites, occurring in the same complex of strata, th at
these rocks cannot possibly be of tertiary age."

- 12 -
 426

and III the ehert. Manganese is present in small grains and in

nodules, whieb are eithet' spheroidal (PI. I, fig. 1) or possess various
Îl'l'egulal',-often flat cake-like shapes, but are alwaYEl rounded.
Mieroseopieal examination shows that the ore is fonnd as black
dust all through the rock, and that il is, mor'eover, eoneentrated on
numerous spots in largel' grains, which tend to cluster togethel'. In
some spots these grains are so eongregated togethet· that with the
naked eye the pl'esence of a conel'etion of pure manganese is sllr-
mised, but the microseope reveals that in sn eh a case tbe gl'ains,
though very elosely paeked together and thus resembling a eloud,
still remain isolated from each other. -
In other spots the accumulation is still more compact and a trne
concretion or nodule is th\1s formed, eomposed exclnsively of man-
ganese and tests of radiolaria.
Surronnding sueh a 1I0duie or eoncretioIl, there is generally a
eoncentration of the grains of Ol'e, fOl'ming an opaque halo or border,
whicb however rapidly diminishes in density with increasing distance •
from the noduie.
The largel' and smaller Ilodules are more or less arranged and con-
nected together in layel's, thus ten ding to form beds or flat deposits
of manganese. In recent deep-sea deposits flat concretions forming
a kmd of cake or slab of ol'e are similarly fOllnd. 1)
A gl'eat nllmber of slides of nodllies have been examlned under
the microscope in order to determine whethel', in tbe interim' of
the nodllllls, partieles of mineI'als or remains of ol'ganisms were
preseut, that had acted as a cen!t'e or nucleus, around whieh the
ore had gl'own, thus gi ving rise to a eoneentrical structure of
the nodule al'ound one or more nuclei. As a ru Ie no nuclei and IlO
arrangement in eoncentl'le layers have been fOllnd within the llodules.
Sometimes the- manganese is fil'st deposited within the tests of
radiolal'ia, and the authol' bas found cherts in whieh the aeellrnu-
lation of manganese has remained strietly limited to the interiOl' of
the tests of ladiolal'ia In som'e cases the nodules may grow fl'orn
sueh filled tests as centres, and thus po IJ nucleal coneretionR may
bp, formed. This is, ho wever, ratber of rare OCCUl'rence, and as a
mle no nucleus whatever, and no concenü'ie arra~gement could be
detected in the fossil nodules 2).
1) J. MURRAY and A. E. RENARD. 1 c. PI. III fig. 3.
2) In this respect there is a dlfference between the fassil nadules of manganese
and thase of the existing deep-seas, far the Jatter vel'y often, ll.lthough not always,
show a cancentric arrangement around a nucleus as e.g. around a crystalofphil·
lipc;ite, a 8hark's toath or an atolith of a cetacean, It is clear that otaliths could
1

- 13 -
 427

Polished slabs of nodules, examin~d in reflected light, in manJ

cases proved to be bettel' fitted for microscopic study than slides,
the coherence in the nodulus being often not sufficient for the
preparation of thin slides.
In cases where slides of sufficient thinness could be made, the
effect was striking, the perforated testR of the l'adiolaria, which are
composed of silica, and are distinctly pellucid, contrasting strongly
with the completely opaqlle mang~nese both without and within.

On the mode of accurrmlation of manganese in the deep-sea ooze.

From the mutual relations bet ween grains and nodules of manganese
in mesozoic deep-sea deposits and the pecularities of the occurrence
of radiolaria therein, dedurÎlons may be made regardmg the mode
of accumulation of ore in deep-sea ooze.
Manganese is precipitated on JlUmerons spots as minute grains in
tbe deep-sea ooze, which is a siliceous alld somewhat argillaceolls
colloid in which tests of radiolaria are fOllllrl suspended. In some
pI aces the pl'ecipitation is evidentl)' more rapid than in othel's, and
th us grains of dIfferent size are fOl'med, all of them floating in a
similar manner to the tests of radiolal'ia in the srIieeous colloid. It
appeal's th at by mlltual attraction 1) the grltins pack together and
thus form stronger and stronger centra of attraction for other grains,
fOl'ming eventually clouds, which on· closer packing together, are
gradually transformed into concretions Ol' nodules, composed of pure ore.
Dnring this process of gradual concentratioll of the ore into nodules,
the tests of radiolaria are surrounded by the ore, without being shifted
from their position, and final1y are found in the nodnles just at these
places where they had been floating, suspended in the ooze. As long
as the ooze remains viscous, a nodllle once fOl'med, continues to be
a centre of aUraction and collecting more and more minute gl'ains of

not be expected in jurassic deposJts, but sharks' teelh and remains of other animals
as e. g. belemnites could be expected to occu!' as nuclei iJl the jurassic nodules of
manganese ThlS dIfference, certainly, is remarkable, and as yet cannot be explained,
but not too much importance ought to be attached to lt, acc'ordmg to the authol"s
opinion, firstly because many nodules from recent deep·sea deposits in a similar manner
do not show a concentrlCal structure, and seconcllj because thc fossil nodules,
which hitherto have been examined microscopical!y, come from three 10caiitIes
only, not far distant fr om each other, all from the lsland of Rotti,
1) The existfnce of this attraction is deduced by the author from the observed
facts, without giving an explanatlon of its cause; a fair proportion of iron always
entering into the compositJon of the nodules of manganese it might be suggested
\ that magnetic forces could be the cause of tue mutual attraction of the smal! grains.
28
Proceedings Royal Acad. Amsterdam. Vol. XVIII.

- 14 -
 428

Me, becomes surrolln.ded by a kind of halo in w bieh' gmins of

ore tI'a.velling slowly towal'ds the fOCllS of attraclion, become more
nnmerOllS tban a.t a cel'tain distance fl'om the growing nodule
beyond its sphere of influenre, \vhere the gl'ains are fOllIld equally
distl'ibnted in the ooze, The grains, it- may be safe)y admitted,
travel vel'Y slowly towal'ds the larger nodules, and evidently the
position of the tests of l'adlOlal'ia in the ooze is not altered by their
slow moyement. The l'adiolaria are just as numerOliS and are spread-
in the same irregnlar manner both withont 0)' within the noclules.
Althongh (he mode of formation of the cO]1rl'etions by the close
pacldng together of gmins of llIanganese fairly well explains the
obsel'ved facts, it is, however, not quite Cleal\ how finally roncl'etions
are formeel, composed of ll1anganese anti tests of radiolal'ia exclusively -
without traceti of the ooze being enclosed, '
It might be supposed that in the ooze diffusion curl'ents around the
growing- nodules, cal'l'ying manganese in' solution towal'ds them are
1 \
strongel' al'ound graills which are lal'gel', and that consequently the
latter grow faster, and by their growth may mcorporate and absorb
the smaller ones, and finaJly by this process a concl'etion or nodule
may be formed. Also in this case the tests of radiolal'ia might be
surrounded and absorbed by the gl'owing concretions without being
shifted from their original position, but it is not possible to explain
why in this case halos of highet' concentration with minute gl'ains
of manganese abundantly in suspensión, should be found al'ound the
larger grains.
Pl'obably these two processes collabOl'ate in the mode of formatipn of
the nodules, firstly growih 'by precipitation of manganese fl'Olli con-
verg'ent diffusion Cllrrents and secondly growth by accllillulalion and
packing of preexisting minute grains 1).
The l:esult is the formation of a cOllcretion with fairl}' weIl demar-
cated outlines, slll'l'ouncted by a eloud of smaller grains rapidly
diminishing in density, The concretion itself is composed almost

1) In the discussion following on the reading of this paper Mr. WICHMANN

remarked that according to his opinion, the nodules in deep·sea deposits are not
formed by anorganic processes, but by biochemica! processes caused by bacteria
He drew the attentiol1 of the members to experiments made by Mr, BCrJERINClC,
who proved the existence of bacteria possessing the qUcllily to precipitate manga-
nese as superoxyde from solutions of carbonate of manganese. The authol' admilted'
the possibility of such biochemica! processes as the cause of the accumulation of
mallganese in deep·sea ooze, but he pointed out that hitherto the existenee of
bacteria! life in abysmal ueplhs had not been proved, Compare M. W, BEfJERINCK.,
Oxidation of mangano cal'binate by microbes. Proc, of the section of sciences
of the Kon, Akad, del' We~ensch. Amsterdam XVI ,I .. p; 397, 1914,

- 15 -
 429

exclusively of manganese but as a rule 1) contains l1umërous tests of

l'adiolaria, whieh in the nodules show a lack of any regular arrange-
ment just as is the ease outside the nodules in the surrounding ooze.

The nmtual relation -between the (lCcumulation of manganese

ancl of silica.

The study of fossil deep-sea deposits l'eveals th at, befol'e these I

deposits had been converted into rock, the siliea in the ooze has
been coneentrated in the same manner as the manganese, with th is
difference only, that the concl'etions of siliea, as ehel't, or hornstone
have much greater dimensions, and are far more numerous than
those of manganese.
Siliea just as wen as manganese is aceumulated in fOflSil deep-sea
déposits in eoncre(io~s or nodules of manifold shapes, origin~lly ~aving
been formed in an ooze or collbid, whieh itself by eementation (petri-
fication) has been converted later into siliceolls elayshale, marl Ol' lime-
stone. 2 ) The pt'ocess of aggregation of the siliea is, however, posterior
to that of the manganese..The silica, in eoncentl'ating, not only
envelops, and encloses, the tésts of radiolaria which float sllspended in
the ooze, but in the same way also the Ilodules of manganese. Bath,
the tests of the radiolaria anc{ the nodules of manganese, remaill
in thei1' plaees; and, being enveloped by the siliea, are not shifted
from their original position.
The radiolarites (I'adiolarian rocks) from the island of Rotti thus
prove that in theil' ol'igin and development the nodules of manganese
are absolutely, independent of those fOl'med of siliea; they are just
as numet·ous within as without the nodules of hornstone, and fl'eqnently
one nodl!le of manganese is fonnd enclosed partially by hornstone,
and pal'tiaIly by silieeous r/ayshale or marl. Radio/aria occur just
as plentifnl and seattel'ed in the same way in the nodllies of man-
ganese, in the eoncretions of hornstone, and in the surrouncling clay-
shale of marly clayshale.
It is fllrther obviol1s that ihe two pl'oeesses of t1le accumulation
of manganese and of silica are not only entil'ely independent of
eaéh other, but are also not synehronous; in fact, the pl'oeess, i.e.
1) On the island of Roui the nuthor has found scvel'al jUl'assie noc1ules of man·
ganese eontaining hardly any test of radiolaria.
2) Aeeording to the resu/ts of all analysis, fol' whieh I arn indebted to Mr. J. DI]
VRIES, in a siliceous limestone with 1l0dules both of manganese and hOl'Dstone,
the proportion of siliea of the rock outsic1e of the nodules of hornslonc amounted
10 4.94%, notwith,standing obviously the bulk of the silieo in this rock had been
concentraled into lhe nodules of hornstone.
28*

- 16 -
 430

the accnmnlation of the manganese, must have reached Hs flnal

stage, - before the second commenced. This is qnite in barmony
with the testirnony given by modern cteep-sea deposiLs. Nodules of
manganese at'e found in abundance in the deep-sea oozes, but concre-
tions bf silica e. g, as nodules of hornstone; have nof yet ,been met
wilh. Ohviously, in the recent deep-sea oozes (especially iln the red
clay and the l'adiolal'Ïan ooze), tlle process of accumulation of man-
ganese partiJ" has 'been completed, pal,tly is still in fnll progress,
but the pl'ocess of concentl'ation pf. siliëa into hornslone, cher!, jasper'
etc. has not yet rommeneed.
It might be 'qnestioned, w helher possibly the C'oncentration of the
manganese and a fortiori of lhe silica, might ha,re takeu place aftel'
the de~p-sea deposits, by diastrophisIll, hn.d been' brought into the
position, where they take part now in the fOl'malion of mountain-
ranges. This q'uestion has to be answered in the negative; the' con-
cl'etions of manganese and those of silica have been influenced by
the mountain-building processes precisely in the same way as the
rocks- in which they are found enclosed, and it· is easy to Pl'ove
that before the mountain-making processes came 'into operatioH they'
had alrèady been SO'lidified, and had attained theü: full size.
It is only the Jast of the possible modes of accumulation mentioned
on p. 421-423 Le. the intiltration of manganese in the cl'acks of the
rocks, which according to the opinion of the author has taken place
en til'ely , or almost entirely aftel' the deep-sea ooze had been solidified
into flrrn rock, and had been crushed more or less by pressure.
Iron and manganese are generally found toget.her in cracks of
fossil deep-sea deposits, especially in cherts. In some places," as is
the case in West-Bol'l1eo, iron predomina.tes, in o,ther places, as in'
East-Borneo, manganese prevails. In case of stl'ong' pressure thé chert
is often converted into a cru sh· breccia cemented by manganiferous
iron-ore. Frequently the chel't is then found altered into white amol'phous
silica, in which case" beautiful rocks originate, being composed of a
mosaic of pure white anglllar fragments, cemented by chocolate-brown
films of iron-ore. 1)

1) G. A. F. MOLENGRAAFF, Geological explorations in Central-Borneo, p. 92,1902.

- 17 -
 P1at~ I.

G. A. F. MOLE !rI GRAAF F. "0.. eh, o((uruftC, Of aodul .. ol mlftllft ... In

muo.ol< d •• " .... d~"Olill or Born.o, Th.... r an d ROlt!, lhel r .IC"lft.
CI"CO I nd Ih ~l, mo do or formallon."

Fil. I. M' n(.!>tSe lIOdul. in ju'""'ic mlrl with cltcrl·nodulH .rId

radiolaril Irom SUl Loin, IsI,rId of RoCli. Original ~iu.

Fil. 2. MI."_ nodule in lrimic dot1',.u drposit., in lho .idnily or I""

m.... nl.in So,noholle, district IJ<bolci, r..... d of Timor, Oricinil l iz •.

PrOC«di"gs Royol ACId. AmRltrdlm, Vol. XVIII.

- 18 -