Palaeolithic and Mesolithic

by Louise Austin

I. Introduction Evidence
The majority of the evidence for Lower and Middle
The Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods are covered in Palaeolithic occupation in East Anglia survives as
this chapter although divided into two parts which are redeposited flakes and tools recovered from river gravel
considered separately: the Lower and Middle Palaeolithic deposits. Large quantities of artefacts were identified
(c. 500,000–40,000) and the Upper Palaeolithic and from gravel quarries during the 19th and early 20th
Mesolithic (c. 40,000–6,000). century due to the increased demand for gravel in the
construction industry and the hand sorting of this gravel.
II. Lower and Middle Palaeolithic These collections of material and the sites from which
they come are not only important for identifying the
(c. 500,000–40,000) presence of early humans and the potential for sites which
survive undisturbed, for example at channel edges, but
Introduction also for the study of specific assemblages of artefacts from
The study of early humans has made great advances in the particular deposits within sequences of gravel terraces.
last ten years, having become a completely inter- Artefacts in certain contexts of river terrace deposits give a
disciplinary study, integrating the specialist skills of minimum date for the use of these artefacts.
anthropology and geology with those already familiar in The far smaller number of sites with in situ
archaeology. The purpose, to discover how people lived, archaeological material which have been discovered
does not differ from that of later periods. However, the and/or excavated in East Anglia in recent years have been
methodologies employed may be broader ranging due to fundamental to the understanding of the British
the particular problems in recovering the maximum Palaeolithic as well as that of Western Europe e.g.
amount of data from the types of evidence which survive. Clacton, Essex; Hoxne, High Lodge and Barnham, all
Within the East Anglian Region there is a great history Suffolk. Through the recent greater understanding of the
of study and research into Palaeolithic archaeology along- geological sequence and depositional processes which
side work on Pleistocene geology. East Anglia is unique in have occurred within the region, a greater understanding
having extensive deposits of Lowestoft Till, regarded as of the climate, the environment with which early humans
the single most important stratigraphic marker in have interacted and the chronological sequence of
Pleistocene Britain, although it has been suggested that archaeological events has been possible.
there may be two stages masquerading as the Anglian It is the location of East Anglia at the limits of the ice
(Sumbler 1995). Most of the sites which have been sheets, where the Lowestoft Till from the Anglian
excavated previously can be related to this and can there- glaciation can be directly correlated to the formation of the
fore be given a relative date, making the understanding of the Thames terrace sequence, that makes this area unique for
period in East Anglia pivotal to the understanding of the building a British Pleistocene framework. The abundance
Lower Palaeolithic in the whole of Britain. In recent years of archaeological sites that can be related to these deposits
there have been a number of major studies of Quaternary makes the area critical for the understanding of the Lower
sites. These have resulted in great leaps and strides being Palaeolithic in Britain.
made in understanding the material culture and lifestyle of The retreat and advance of the ice sheets over the last
the earliest occupants of the British Isles and the changing half million years has greatly affected the topography and
climate and environment with which they interacted. geography of East Anglia. The river drainage patterns
Currently the only work which brings together have changed dramatically over this time. One of the
information for sites across the whole of the region is John major elements has been the change in the River Thames
Wymer’s Palaeolithic sites of East Anglia (Wymer 1985). drainage pattern which, prior to the Anglian glaciation,
This covers Lower and Middle Palaeolithic sites and find followed a north-eastern course out to sea by way of the
spots in the form of a Gazetteer and also includes Suffolk Coast. The subsequent changes to its course have
consideration of the depositional history of specific areas resulted in remnants of this channel surviving in areas of
and important sites. Suffolk and Essex. The River Thames gravel terraces have
This work will, however, be superseded by The been identified as being of great importance as the longest
English Rivers Palaeolithic Survey, currently being record of Quaternary events in Britain with a relatively
undertaken by Wessex Archaeology, which will bring uninterrupted chronological sequence of deposits. The
together a gazetteer of all sites and find spots, information gravels of the Lower Thames have also been found to be
and assessments of geology, the history of discoveries and extremely rich in Palaeolithic sites with large collections
minerals data as well as mapping the extent of Quaternary of material from many sites including Purfleet and Grays
sediments combined with the distribution of Palaeolithic among others along the north bank of the river. Recent
discoveries. This will undoubtedly aid planning archaeol- work in this area (Bridgland 1994), has reassessed the
ogists to identify schemes which have a potential threat to sequence and has reinterpreted the dating and significance
Palaeolithic archaeological remains. The finished reports of a number of the deposits.
for the East Anglian areas of the survey are expected in There is also evidence of pre-Anglian rivers from the
1996 and 1997. Midlands crossing the area which is now the Fens into

5
Figure 2 Location of places mentioned in text: Palaeolithic and Mesolithic

6
 Plate I Mersea Island, Essex. Erosion of bluffs of Pleistocene sediments continues relentlessly.
Copyright: Essex County Council

Norfolk and Suffolk. Some of the gravels identified as climatic events which affect the region as well as the
being part of this drainage system contain Palaeolithic development of the hominid and human population within
artefacts. However the river systems which are now in this it. There is still great debate over the absolute and relative
area (e.g. the Ouse and the Cam) were initiated after the dates of many of the previously collected or excavated
Anglian glaciation. sites in the region. The recent work at High Lodge in
The importance of the Quaternary deposits both with Suffolk has shown that the presence of early humans in
and without archaeological material must be stressed. It is East Anglia occurs at c. 500,000 years BP. It is currently
through the combination of these studies, fitting argued that there are no earlier securely dated sites for
archaeological sites into the broader understanding of the most of Western Europe. French claims for early sites are
Quaternary, its environment and depositional history as being seriously challenged although sites in Spain such as
well as the chronological sequence of events that a better Atapuerca and Orce are less controversial.
understanding of how people lived is being achieved. The evidence for the Lower and Middle Palaeolithic
More information is needed on all aspects of the periods which survives in East Anglia is of national and
environment. These include the understanding of international importance in understanding Europe’s
formation processes of Pleistocene deposits as well as the earliest populations.
changing interglacial faunas and floras across the region Further areas within the region which are recognised at
both as dating tools and environmental indicators. this time (prior to the publication of results of The English
The reliance on the typology of flint tools for Rivers Survey) as being of particular interest include the
identifying chronological markers has through recent Chiltern Brickearths, the Breckland of Norfolk and
work been shown to be problematic. Work at Barnham, Suffolk and particularly the pre-Anglian Bytham River
Suffolk (Ashton et al. 1994), High Lodge, Suffolk (Ashton deposits and post-Anglian fluvial and lacustrine deposits
et al. 1992) and other early sites such as Boxgrove, West in this area, the palaeochannel deposits at Clacton and
Sussex (Roberts 1986) suggests that ‘Clactonian’ flint East Mersea, Essex, the Cam and Ouse gravel terraces and
assemblages can no longer be considered as tech- the lacustrine deposits in central Essex.
nologically and chronologically earlier than ‘Acheulian’
assemblages. These assemblages may not indicate the III. Environment and Economy
presence of culturally separate groups. This work needs to by Peter Murphy
be considered and compared with the results of further
excavation of sites with both ‘Clactonian’ and ‘Acheulian’ The Cromerian channel deposits at West Runton,
material. Sites with flint collections previously identified extensively studied by Quaternary palaeoecologists (West
as ‘Clactonian’ require re-analysis in order to re-assess and Wilson 1966), and recently re-investigated in
what these industries represent. association with the near-complete elephant skeleton
The absolute and relative dating of archaeological sites from the site, have not produced indisputable evidence for
is needed to increase the understanding of the sequence of human activity. However, artefacts are now known from

7
late ‘Cromerian Complex’ sediments (c. 500,000 years) at Bridgland, D. R., Quaternary of the Lower Thames (Chapman and
Warren Hill and High Lodge, Mildenhall, relating to a 1994 Hall, London)
pre-Anglian river system (the ‘Bytham River’) flowing French C. A. I., ‘An analysis of the molluscs from an Ipswichian
eastwards across East Anglia from the Midlands (Ashton 1982 interglacial river channel deposit at Maxey,
et al. 1992, 18–19). Clayey silts at High Lodge produced a Cambridgeshire, England’, Geol. Mag. 119,
pollen assemblage indicating pine/spruce woodland with 593–8
juniper, herbs and heath plants, a cool temperate insect Gibbard, P. L., 1985 Pleistocene History of the Middle Thames Valley
fauna and mammalian remains, including an extinct
species of rhinoceros, elephant, bovid and deer. Gibbard, P. L., 1994 Pleistocene History of the Lower Thames Valley
The predominantly marine Nar Valley Beds (West and
Whiteman 1985), lake deposits at Hoxne (West 1956), Girling, M. A., ‘Evidence from Lincolnshire on the age and
1974 intensity of the mid-Devensian temperate
Clacton Channel deposits (Bridgland et al. 1992), and episode’, Nature 250, 270
lake sediments at Marks Tey (which produced a complete
interglacial pollen sequence: Turner 1970) are all attrib- Lewis, S. G., Central East Anglia and the Fen Basin, (Field
uted to the Hoxnian Stage, though it is possible that more Whiteman C. A. Guide, Quaternary Research Association,
and Bridgland, D. London)
than one interglacial stage is conflated within the Hoxnian R., 1991
(Bridgland 1994, 13). Palaeoecological data from Hoxne
are presented by Singer et al. (1993). Bridgland et al. (1992) Reynolds, T., ‘Palaeolithic of the Ouse and Cam Valleys’ in
have re-investigated the Clacton deposits, providing forthcoming Proceedings of the 1994 Archaeology of the Ouse
additional palaeoecological information and confirming the Valley Conference
Thames-Medway origin of the deposits; whilst the earlier Roberts, M. B., ‘Excavations of the Lower Palaeolithic Site at
studies of Singer et al. (1973) produced artefacts associated 1986 Amey’s Eartham Pit, Boxgrove, West Sussex,
with bones of deer, bovids, horse, elephant and rhinoceros. Preliminary Report’, Proc. Prehist. Soc. 52, 215–45
Evidence for a human presence within the Ipswichian Stage,
Roe, D. A., 1981 The Lower and Middle Palaeolithic Periods in
defined by the presence of Hippopotamus (=Oxygen Isotope Britain
Sub-stage 5e) is very slight (Wymer 1984). Molluscan and
other evidence indicates that temperatures were relatively Singer, R.G., ‘Excavation of the Clactonian industry at the Golf
high in this interglacial, allowing thermophilous species to Gladfelter, B. G. Course, Clacton-on-Sea, Essex’, Proc. Prehist.
extend their range northwards (e.g. French 1982; Sparks and and Wolff, R.,1973 Soc. 39, 6–74
West 1970). Singer, R.G., The Lower Palaeolithic Site at Hoxne, England,
There are several palaeoecological studies of middle Gladfelter, B. G. (University of Chicago Press, Chicago/London)
Devensian interstadial deposits from East Anglia (Bell and Wymer, J. J.,
1970; Girling 1974; Bridgland et al. 1991). At Bramford 1993
Road, Ipswich Late Mousterian bifaces appear to have Sparks B. W. and ‘Late Pleistocene deposits at Wretton, Norfolk’,
been derived from interstadial deposits (Wymer 1984, 38). West R. G., 1970 Phil. Trans Roy. Soc. B258, 1–30

Bibliography Sumbler, M. G., ‘The terraces of the Thame and Thames and their
1995 bearing on the chronology of glaciation in central
and eastern England’, Proc. Geol. Ass. 106,
The bibliography includes some recent relevant work. 93–106
This is by no means exhaustive but, along with the
bibliographies within the books cited, should aid an Turner, C., 1970 ‘The Middle Pleistocene deposits at Marks Tey,
Essex’, Phil. Trans Roy. Soc. London B257,
understanding of the present state of knowledge for the 373–440
Lower and Middle Palaeolithic within East Anglia.
Warren, S. H., 1955 ‘The Clacton (Essex) Channel Deposits’, Quart.
Ashton, N. M. et ‘Excavations at the Lower Palaeolithic Site at East J. Geol. Soc. London 111, 287–307
al., 1994 Farm, Barnham, Suffolk 1989–92’, J. Geol. Soc.
151, 599–605 Wessex Proposals for a survey of Lower Palaeolithic Sites
Archaeology, 1994 north of the Thames and the Severn
Ashton, N. M., High Lodge. Excavations by G. de G. Sieveking
Cook J., Lewis S. 1962–68 and J. Cook 1988, (British Museum West, R.G., 1956 ‘The Quaternary deposits at Hoxne, Suffolk’,
G. and Rose J., Press, London) Phil. Trans Roy. Soc. London B239, 265–356
1992
West, R.G. and ‘Cromer Forest Bed Series’, Nature 209, 497–8
Bell, F. G., 1970 ‘Late Pleistocene floras from Earith, Wilson, D.G. ,1966
Huntingdonshire’, Phil. Trans Roy. Soc. London
B258, 347–378 West, R.G. and The Nar Valley and North Norfolk, (Field Guide,
Whiteman, C.A., Quaternary Research Association, London)
Bridgland, D.R., ‘The Pleistocene sequence in the Peterborough 1985
Keen, D.H. and district: possible correlation with the deep-sea
Davey, N.D.W. oxygen isotope record’, in Lewis et al 1991, Wymer, J. J., 1984 ‘East Anglian Palaeolithic sites and their settings’,
1991 209–212 qv. in Barringer, C. (ed.) Aspects of East Anglian
Pre-history, 31–42 (Geo Books, Norwich)
Bridgland, D.R., An investigation of the Clacton channel deposits
Selby, I., Wymer, J., exposed during re-development of the former Wymer, J. J., 1985 Palaeolithic sites of East Anglia
Preece, R., Butlin’s holiday camp, Clacton-on-Sea, Essex,
Boreham, S., Stuart, (pre-publication draft of report to Essex County Wymer, J. J., 1996 ‘The Palaeolithic period in Essex’ in Bedwin, O.
T., Peglar, S. and Council Archaeology Section.) (ed.), The Archaeology of Essex: Proceedings of
McNabb, J. 1992 the 1993 Writtle Conference

8
IV. Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic There are no recent published accounts which deal
(c. 40,000–6,000) specifically with the Upper Palaeolithic of East Anglia.
For accounts of recently excavated sites from the period
the following should be considered: Hengistbury Head,
Introduction Dorset (Barton 1992) and Uxbridge, Middlesex (Lewis
This period covers the end of the last glaciation forthcoming).
(Devensian Stage) and the immediate post-glacial period In general this period is still poorly understood in East
(Flandrian). At the beginning of this period Britain was a Anglia. The rarity of well preserved sites increases the
part of the European landmass and settlement in East importance of those few which may survive. It is of vital
Anglia was just an extension of the settlement of the North importance that the potential presence of such sites is
European Plain, while by the end of this period it had considered in all appraisal, assessment and evaluation
become more or less the island that we now know. which is undertaken within the region.
At the end of the Devensian the sea-level was about
30m below present with most of the land becoming
Mesolithic
forested with the ameliorating climate. In the mid 9th East Anglia is quite rich in Mesolithic sites, and has a far
millennium BP, with the breaching of the land bridge, East more widespread distribution of known remains than for
Anglia became cut off from the rest of north-west Europe. the Upper Palaeolithic. However, although there have
Sea levels rose rapidly and peat formation commenced in been numerous surface finds there have been very few
low lying areas. A date of 8,600BP has been found for excavations of sites with material in primary context,
buried peat in Cambridgeshire (Hall 1987). particularly where there has also been associated dating
Material has been recovered from across the region and environmental evidence.
dating to this period, however there have been very few The light soils and open landscape of the Brecklands,
large scale excavations, particularly in recent years. river channels and roddons within the Fens appear to be
areas particularly rich in Mesolithic activity. Other areas
Upper Palaeolithic which are currently identified within the region as being of
Relatively few Upper Palaeolithic sites have been particular interest or importance to the Mesolithic
identified in East Anglia. The region lacks the cave sites includes estuarine and coastal intertidal zones as well as
which have proved to be so important for the preservation the ground surfaces sealed beneath peat and alluvium
of sites in other areas e.g. Kent’s Cavern, Torbay, Devon; formation.
Creswell Crags, Derbyshire; Gough’s Cave, Cheddar The Lea valley has also been identified as being of
Gorge, Somerset; etc. The Earlier Upper Palaeolithic is particular importance for the survival of Mesolithic
very poorly represented across the whole region although remains and appears to have been a favoured area for
there is somewhat more known from the Later Upper settlement (Jacobi forthcoming). Remains of occupation
Palaeolithic. have been found within the organic peat deposits which
The majority of material identified from East Anglia began accumulating in the area during the Mesolithic
consists of stray artefacts with only a few known stratified period. Such sites have the potential for the survival of
sites. The main stone tool ‘industry’ of the British Upper organic and environmental evidence. An example of the
Palaeolithic is identified as ‘Creswellian’ which has potential of the Lea valley is the nationally important site
affinities with material from Northern Germany and the at Rikoff’s Pit at Broxbourne.
Low Countries which in turn are regarded as aspects of the A positive policy is needed for the study and
Magdalenian, the latest of the major technocomplexes investigation of the Mesolithic and Upper Palaeolithic
(Smith 1992). Long blade sites are also known but none periods across the region. At present many of the fenland
have been securely dated, although a date of c.10,000BP is and river valley deposits which have the potential for the
suggested by the typology and continental parallels. excellent preservation of such late glacial and early
There is the potential for good survival of Late Glacial post-glacial sites are under threat from mineral extraction
archaeology in alluvium in river valleys and under Fen and other large scale development. In addition, where
deposits. organic remains survive associated with these sites there is
The recent discovery and excavation of a late also the threat of dewatering through drainage resulting in
glacial/early Mesolithic site of national significance at the destruction of irreplaceable artefactual, economic and
Uxbridge in the Colne valleys (Lewis forthcoming) has environmental information.
particularly highlighted the potential for the survival of All areas where remnants of late glacial and early
well preserved occupation sites. Although this site post-glacial landsurfaces are preserved have the potential
technically lies outside East Anglia similar situations for well preserved Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic
occur in the alluvium and peat of valleys and fens across sites. Areas where subsequent peat formation or
the region. This discovery emphasises the need to consider deposition of alluvium etc. has resulted in the sealing and
the potential for the preservation and survival of such sites burial of parts of the landscape.
in alluviated and other areas where buried landscapes may Areas which have been identified as currently of
survive. particular importance or interest for the Mesolithic within
Recent work at Titchwell, Norfolk (Wymer pers. com.) East Anglia are the Lea and Colne river valleys and their
has discovered evidence of a long blade industry similar to tributaries, the Crouch estuary palaeochannel, estuarine
that identified at Uxbridge. This adds to mounting, but and coastal intertidal zones particularly in the Wash area
currently unpublished, evidence of similar long blade sites and Essex, Breckland, the Fens and areas of alluvium
below the water table of Norfolk and Suffolk Rivers and within river valleys.
the Fens. Other examples of long blade industries in East
Anglia come from Hockwold-cum-Wilton and Methwold,
Norfolk (Healy 1996, 53).

9
V. Environment and Economy Bennett et al. (1990) discuss the significance of high
by Peter Murphy micro-charcoal frequencies in sediments pre-dating
5000BP, concluding that they relate primarily to domestic
The Devensian glacial maximum was around fires rather than woodland clearance. However, Lewis et
25,000–18,000BP (Evans 1975, 42), when ice advanced al. (1992) suggest that dense charcoal deposits in the
to the North Norfolk coast and the Fen Basin (Bridgland et sediments at Uxbridge may relate to more widespread
al. 1991). The aeolian Cover Loam of north-east Norfolk burning of woodland. Evidence for fires during the Boreal
and the Cover-Sands of the Breckland were deposited at is reviewed by Macdonald et al. (1991).
about this time (Corbett 1973; Tatler and Corbett 1977, Smith et al. (1989) have argued for a pronounced
10–11). At Sproughton, Suffolk, Late Upper Palaeolithic Mesolithic impact on woodland, about 8250BP, at
artefacts came from a buried soil overlying channel Peacock’s Farm, and soil micromorphological data from
sediments defined palynologically as Zone III–Younger sites at Borough and Newborough Fens are thought to
Dryas (Wymer and Rose 1976). Chambers and Mighall indicate late Mesolithic disruption of woodland cover
(1991) have presented palynological and other (French and Pryor 1993).
palaeoecological data from late glacial sediments at Few sites in East Anglia have produced Mesolithic
Enfield Lock for an environment dominated by sedges faunal remains, though a bone assemblage dominated by
with dwarf birch and arctic willow. Penecontemp- red deer is reported from Uxbridge (Lewis et al. 1992).
oraneous sediments at Uxbridge, associated with a There is virtually no information on the Mesolithic plant
long-blade industry, have produced horse and reindeer economy.
The Mesolithic coastline is discussed by Waller (1994)
bone with pollen and soil micromorphological data; and Wilkinson and Murphy (1995). There was a rapid rise
significantly vegetational changes inferred from pollen in relative sea-level in the Mesolithic: between 8500 and
were related to dense bands of charcoal (Lewis et al. 7000BP, MHW rose from -25.5m OD to -8.9m OD
1992). At Titchwell, Norfolk, sediments unfortunately (Devoy 1979), resulting in submergence of extensive
appear to post-date a long-blade industry (Wymer 1989). lowland areas. A significant positive sea-level tendency at
Devensian periglacial features including pingos around 6500BP is widely distinguishable (Wash I,
(Sparks et al. 1972), stripes, polygons, ice-wedge casts Yarmouth I, Thames II: Brew et al. 1992).
(Evans 1972) and amorphous involutions are widespread.
The presence of radiocarbon-dated pine charcoal and Bibliography
associated Mesolithic artefacts in the latter (Healy 1988,
104; Murphy 1992) shows that many survived as The bibliography includes some relevant recent work.
depressions into the post-glacial, though differentiation This is by no means exhaustive but along with the
from post-glacial tree-throw holes is not always easy. bibliographies within the books cited it should aid an
Palynological information on the developing post- understanding of the present state of knowledge for Upper
glacial woodland has been provided by Waller (1994), in Palaeolithic and Mesolithic period in East Anglia.
the fens, and Devoy (1979), Scaife (1988) and Evans
(1995) in Essex: as elsewhere in lowland Britain, birch/ Barton N., 1992 Hengistbury Head
pine woodland was ultimately replaced by ‘climax’ lime/ Bennett K.D., ‘Fire and man in the postglacial woodlands of
oak/elm/hazel woods. More recent work (mostly as yet Simpson W.D. and eastern England’, J. Archaeol. Sci. 17, 635–642
unpublished) has focused on sedimentary sequences Peglar S.M., 1990
directly associated with Mesolithic and later sites. Lewis
Bonsall C. (ed.), The Mesolithic in Europe
et al. (1992) present data from Uxbridge indicating 1989
Mesolithic activity in an open swampy habitat, with
regional pine woodland prevalent in the early to mid Brew D.S., Funnell ‘Sedimentary environments and Holocene
Boreal and a succession towards deciduous woodland in B.M. and Kreiser evolution of the lower Blyth Estuary, Suffolk
the late Boreal. At Boxmoor, Berkhamstead pollen and A., 1992 (England), and a comparison with other East
Anglian coastal sequences’, Proc. Geol. Ass.
macrofossils from late Devensian to Flandrian fills of 103(1), 57–74
pingos have recently been assessed: basal fills formed in
standing water including pollen of birch, with pine, Bridgland D.R., ‘The Pleistocene sequence in the Peterborough
willow and arctic/alpine steppe herbs, and dwarf birch Keen D.H. and district: possible correlation with the deep-sea
Davey N.D.W., oxygen isotope record’, in Lewis et al. 1991 qv.
catkin scales, were overlain by sediments formed under 1991 209–212
birch and then mixed deciduous woodland, with
representation of an alder rise (c. 8000-7500BP) and the Campbell J. B., The Upper Palaeolithic in Britain Vols I and II
elm decline of c. 5000BP (Murphy, Wiltshire, in prep.). A 1977
palaeochannel of the River Snail at Fordham had basal
Chambers F. M. and Palaeoecological investigations at Enfield Lock:
fills producing pollen assemblages dominated by herbs, Mighall T., 1991 pollen, pH, magnetic susceptibility and charcoal
aquatics, birch, pine and hazel-type (Zone IV), overlain by analysesof sediments, (unpublished report,
sediments of Zones V and VI in which hazel-type and pine Environmental Research Unit, University of
dominated, followed by a local alder rise and development Keele)
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into till at Stebbingford produced molluscs, plant
macrofossils and pollen indicating infilling probably from Devoy R. J. N., ‘Flandrian sea-level changes and vegetational
Zone IV onwards, with abundant micro-charcoal 1979 history in the lower Thames Estuary’, Phil. Trans
Roy. Soc. London B285, 355–407
throughout (Wiltshire and Murphy 1996).

10
Evans, A. 1995 ‘Palynological investigations at Bradwell-on- Macdonald G. M., ‘The reconstruction of Boreal forest fire history
Sea’, in Wilkinson, T. and Murphy, P., Larsen C. P. S., from lake sediments: a comparison of charcoal,
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