Walls

Internal Influences on the wall

• Warmth from heating

appliances via convection

• Radiation or conduction

• Vapor due to man’s way living

• Damp, due to condensation of

vapor and possible cooling due
to air conditioning
External Influences on the wall

• Heating of external surface area

by sunshine and warm air rising
up the facade

• Impact of rain and hail and

consequent running water and
penetration

• Drying and cooling by wind

• Dust and other particles

• Sound waves and vibration due

to traffic
 Wall Functionality

➢External Walls ➢Internal walls

 External & Internal Walls

• Functional Requirement:
• Strength and stability
• Weather exclusion and durability
• Thermal insulation
• Sound insulation
• Fire resistance
• Appearance

• The fundamental function of internal walls is to partition or

divide the floor area of a dwelling into compartments or
room
 Walls Classification

1. Load Bearing Walls

2. Non-load Bearing Walls
 Load Bearing Walls

• Transferring structural
load from the upper
structure to the lower
structure

load bearing wall supported the load

from roof
 Non-load Bearing Walls

Roof
• Walls in the building
that are not taking any
structural loads

Load
bearing
wall
Non load
bearing wall
 Wall Materials

• Timber
• Brick
• Block
• Metals / Alloys
• Curtain Wall
• Precast Panel
 Timber Wall
Advantages :
✓Corrosion free.
✓ Non-rot material.
✓Ease of installation.
✓ Comparatively cheap.
✓ Low thermal transmittance.
✓ High moisture absorption capacity.
 Timber Wall
Disadvantages :
Few choices of durable finishes.
Decadency of wood.
Prone to insects/termites attack.
Low fire resistance.
Limited length of building material.
 Timber Wall

How wood are being

clad on buildings
 Timber Wall
Types of timber wall system

Stick frame Laminated log

system system

Structural Swedish cope

insulated sys. log system

Select cedar log Hand Hewn log

wall system wall system

D-style log wall Timber frame

system system
 Timber Wall
Examples of wooden walls

Picture above showing the oldest wood school in

A Japanese temple using wood as structural as well as
Interior view ofFlorida
a wooden
cladding . building.
material
 Timber Wall
Types of failure for wood/timber :
Unsuitable wood to be used as building cladding.

Rotted wood

Exposed
to
terminate Untreated wood
attack.
 Bricks Wall

CLAY CALCIUM CONCRETE

BRICKS SILICATE BRICKS
BRICKS
 Bricks Wall

• fired clay
• a wide range of different colours and textures
• produced in many different shapes, sizes and
strength, with differing material properties such as
water absorption, suction rate and compressive
strength.
• Texture - dependent upon the method of
manufacture & the clay used for making the
bricks.
 Bricks Wall
Varieties of clay bricks are available

• based on material & method

e.g. Common bricks, Facing bricks , Engineering
bricks

• based on shape & use

e.g. Solid brick , Perforated brick ,
Cellular brick, Frogged brick
 Bricks Wall

Standard size deep fogged clay brick

 Bricks Wall

Brick Walls Orientation

 Brick Wall

Brick wall with reinforcements

 Bricks Wall

• sand or flint mixed with lime

• mechanically pressed together & combined by the
action of steam under pressure.
• colour - natural colour @ pigments - darker when
wet than when dry.
• Solid brick, Frogged brick
 Bricks Wall

• Dense aggregate concrete bricks

- hydraulically pressing a concrete mix into
individual preformed moulds
• Lightweight concrete bricks
- lightweight aggregate @ autoclaved
aerated concrete
• Type of brick
-Solid brick, Perforated, hollow and
cellular bricks, Fixing unit
 Blocks Wall

• Dense and light aggregate concrete blocks

- aggregate and cementitious binder, compacted into
mould boxes , demoulded & cured (controlled
accelerated techniques @ air curing)
• Reconstructed stone masonry units
- aggregate and cementitious binder, casting, or
pressing techniques.
 Blocks Wall

• Autoclaved aerated concrete blocks

- slurry incorporating cement, finely ground sand @
pulverized fuel ash (PFA), lime & aluminium
powder
• Type
- Solid block, Cellular block, Hollow
block
 Brick & Blocks Wall
Newly laid concrete
masonry walls are braced
against wind because of
their low strength when
freestanding

Construction of a high-rise
hotel with engineering load-
bearing concrete masonry
Brick & Blocks Wall
Example Of Walls Designed For Aesthetical Value
Metal Cladding (Portal Frame)
Steel Wall Frame
 Curtain Wall

Shenzhen Development Bank Far Eastern Plaza

Glass being used as a cladding material for aesthetical value.
Gateway 1 Entertainment Center
Calakmul - Mexico City, Mexico
Tikal Futura-Guatemala Intercontinental Plaza Argentina
Sherif Hussein AbuDhabi,UAE LonrhoHouse-Nairobi,Kenya
Mondrian Condominium 101Avenue of the Americas
 Curtain Wall
When would you use it?
• Relatively expensive but lightweight
• Spectrum
– Basic stick systems on low cost business parks
to………..
– Bespoke, stone faced applications on high class,
‘landmark’ buildings
• ‘Image’
 Curtain Wall
• constructed one level at a
time with the seismic
wedge applied between
the panel and mullion
after all panels are in
place
• The units can then be
erected on site without
the use of scaffolding
• used in large commercial
buildings where a
continuous expanse of
glazing running past
floor levels is required
 Curtain Wall

What about windows?

• Main differences
– C/W is storey
height
– Windows fixed
into openings
– C/W fixed back
to frame
 Curtain Wall

Glazing systems for roofs

• Some similarities with cladding
• Full description outside the scope of this
lecture
 Curtain Wall

Three basic designs

• Front-sealed curtain wall

• Drained and ventilated (Secondary seal)
• Pressure equalised ‘rainscreen’
 Curtain Wall

Front sealed curtain wall

• Relies on outer seal for
water resistance
– Usually ‘mastic’ or silicone
• Inner seal merely
locates the glass
• Simple
• Easy to trace leaks
• Favoured in the USA
 Curtain Wall

Drained & ventilated

• Acknowledges that the
outer seal can not keep out
ALL the water
• Small holes in the outer seal
enable water to drain out
• More complex
• US (& some others) say
‘crazy to put holes in a
wall!’
 Curtain Wall
Pressure equalised
• Acknowledges that if -the pressure
builds up inside system then water
will be sucked in
• Aims to ensure that the internal
pressure equals the external
pressure instantaneously
• Larger holes or slots to balance
pressure and allow water egress
• Inner seal becomes crucial
• Even more complex
• US (& some others) say ‘even
more crazy to put BIG holes in a
wall!’
 Curtain Wall

THREE system types

• Stick
• Unitised
• Panellised
 Curtain Wall
System types

• Stick
• Unitised
• Panellised
 Curtain Wall
System types

• Stick
• Unitised
• Panellised
 Curtain Wall

System types

• Stick
• Unitised
• Panellised
 Curtain Wall

Materials & Finishes

Materials Finishes
• Almost always • Polyester powder coat
aluminium & glass – Dry powder process
– Any colour
– Can be ‘touched up’
• Anodising
– Electrolytic process
– Limited colour
– Impossible to repair
 Curtain Wall
‘Bolt-on goodies’

• Natural stone
– Granite @ 40mm
• Feature panels
– ‘glazed’ in
– grp, upvc
– advanced composites
– etc
 Curtain Wall
Manufacture
• Extrusions
– mainly non-UK
• Powder coating
• Glazing
• Assembly (for panels)
 Curtain Wall

Testing
• Test what causes problems
– Water
– Wind
– Stability
– Noise
– Fire
– Durability
 Curtain Wall
Stick Curtain Wall
Delivery & Installation
• Delivered to Site “Knocked-Down”
• Assembled and Glazed on site
• Needs scaffold or external access

Stick Curtainwall: Material Layout - Courtesy Kawneer UK

 Curtain Wall

Curtainwall
Stick
Construction

Shear Block
Joinery
Stick Curtainwall Erection: Shear Block Application
Stick Curtainwall Erection: Mullion Setting
Stick Curtainwall Erection: Vertical/Horizontal Layout
Stick Curtainwall Erection: Grid Layout
Unitised Curtain Wall
Manufacture, Delivery & Installation

Unitised Curtainwall: Delivery at Site - Courtesy Kawneer UK

 Unitised
Curtain Wall
Construction

Screw Spline
Joinery
Unitised Curtainwall: Offsite Factory Delivery
Unitised Curtainwall: Unit Assembly
Unitised Curtainwall: Unit Glazing
Unitised Curtainwall: Unit Structural Glazing
Unitised Curtainwall: Installation of Thermal Insulation
Unitised Curtainwall: Installation of Thermal Insulation
Unitised Curtainwall: Pre-Glazed Units
Unitised Curtainwall: Unit Racking
Unitised Curtainwall Construction: Unit Curing
Unitized Curtainwall Construction: Unit Shipment
Unitized Curtainwall Erection: Anchor Layout
Unitised Curtainwall Erection: Anchor Layout
Unitised Curtainwall: Pre-Set Anchor Layout
Unitised Curtainwall: Pre-Set Anchor Layout
Unitised Curtainwall: Units Delivered to Site
Unitized Curtainwall Installation: Hoisting Units
Unitised Curtainwall Installation: Final Preparation
Unitised Curtainwall: Unit Setting
Unitised Curtainwall Erection: Portable Hoist
Unitised Curtainwall Erection: Unit Setting
Unitised Curtainwall Erection: Unit Setting
Unitised Curtainwall Erection: Unit Setting
Unitised Curtainwall Erection: Unit Setting
Unitised Curtainwall Erection: Unit Setting
Unitised Curtainwall: Installation
Unitised Curtainwall: Installation
East Jin Jiang Hotel - Shanghai, ROC
 Curtain Wall
Panellised
Curtain Wall

Manufacture,
Delivery &
Installation

Courtesy Gartner
Curtain Wall
Curtain Wall
Curtain Wall
Curtain Wall
 Curtain Wall

Stick or Panels?
• Panels
• Stick More expensive
Cheaper
– needs craneage/runways
– less craneage
– must understand technology
– less ‘technical’
– must design for movements
– less movement
– Exaggerates tolerance probs
problems
– No scaffold needed
– Needs scaffold
– Quicker to fix -
– Slower to fix
• faster water-tight
• Less on-site time
– Can come complete with
‘goodies’
Curtain Wall Construction

Courtesy Kawneer UK
 Curtain Wall
• Components
– glass and aluminum
plate panels
– captured
– concealed vents and
balcony doors
• High Performance
– wind pressure
– water infiltration
resistance
• Symmetrical Floor
Plate

Cheng Loong Plaze - Taipei, Taiwan ROC

 Curtain Wall

• High Performance
– wind pressure
– water infiltration
resistance
• Architectural Features
– koala bear???

Lippo Towers - Hong Kong, ROC

 • Medium Performance
– wind pressure
– water infiltration
resistance
– thermal
• 4 Side Structural
Silicone Glazing

Wall Centre - Vancouver, Canada

 • Low Performance
– wind pressure
– water infiltration
resistance
• 4 Side Structural
Silicone Glazing
• Curtainwall Elevations
Separated by Stone

Reforma II - Mexico City, Mexico

 • First Chinese
Skyscraper
• Glass Openings with
Stone
• High Performance
– wind pressure
– water infiltration
resistance
• Architect (C.Y. Lee)
concerned about
quality of installation

Grand 50 Tower - Kaohshiung, Taiwan

Grand 50 Tower - Kaohshiung, Taiwan
Curtainwall Construction: Stick or Unitized???
Rainscreen

• Panels fixed to framework

with a separate backing
wall
• Panels keep rain out
• Backing wall is main
weather barrier
• Various facing materials
• New build or
‘overcladding’
 Rainscreen

Terracotta
The millennium cladding
material
Various facing materials

Louvres and
other specials
to be
incorporated

Complex interfaces
 Safety
• Working at height
• Craneage (panels)
• Edge protection
removed to install
cladding
• Handling glazing
• External access for
joint sealant
(especially stick)
 Quality
• Workmanship
dependant
• Finished items
installed early
• Easy to damage
• Sort interfaces
– tolerances
– damage /protection
– weathering
– sequence
Inspection and Handover