Brown Bear

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The brown bear (Ursus arctos) is a large bear species found across Eurasia and North America.[1]

[2]
In North America, the populations of brown bears are called grizzly bears, while the subspecies
that inhabits the Kodiak Islands of Alaska is known as the Kodiak bear. It is one of the largest living
terrestrial members of the order Carnivora, rivaled in size only by its closest relative, the polar
bear (Ursus maritimus), which is much less variable in size and slightly bigger on average.[3][4][5][6][7] The
brown bear's range includes parts of Russia, Central Asia, China, Canada, the United
States, Hokkaido, Scandinavia, the Balkans, the Picos de Europa and the Carpathian region
(especially Romania and Bulgaria), Iran, Anatolia, and the Caucasus.[1][8] The brown bear is
recognized as a national and state animal in several European countries.[9]
While the brown bear's range has shrunk, and it has faced local extinctions, it remains listed as
a least concern species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) with a total
estimated population in 2017 of 110,000. As of 2012, this and the American black bear are the only
bear species not classified as threatened by the IUCN.[1][2][6] Populations that were hunted to extinction
in the 19th and 20th centuries are the Atlas bear of North Africa and the Californian, Ungavan[10]
[11]
and Mexican populations of the grizzly bear of North America. Many of the populations in the
southern parts of Eurasia are highly endangered as well.[1][12] One of the smaller-bodied forms,
the Himalayan brown bear, is critically endangered, occupying only 2% of its former range and
threatened by uncontrolled poaching for its body parts.[13] The Marsican brown bear of central Italy is
one of several currently isolated populations of the Eurasian brown bear and is believed to have a
population of just 50 to 60 bears.[9][14]
Brown bear
Temporal range: 0.5–0 Ma
PreꞒ
Pg
N
↓
Middle Pleistocene-Holocene
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Kodiak bear on Kodiak Island
Conservation status
Least Concern (IUCN 3.1) [1]
Scientific classification
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Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Ursidae
Genus: Ursus
Species: U. arctos
Binomial name
Ursus arctos
Linnaeus, 1758
Subspecies
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15, see text and article
Brown bear range map
Evolution and taxonomy[edit]

The brown bear is sometimes referred to as the bruin, from Middle English. This name originated in the
fable History of Reynard the Fox translated by William Caxton from Middle Dutch bruun or bruyn,
meaning brown (the color).[15][better source needed] In the mid-19th century United States, the brown bear was termed
"Old Ephraim" and sometimes as "Moccasin Joe".[16]
The scientific name of the brown bear, Ursus arctos, comes from the Latin ursus, meaning "bear",[17] and
from ἄρκτος arktos, the Greek word for bear.[18]
Generalized names and evolution[edit]

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Brown bears are thought to have evolved from Ursus etruscus in Asia.[19][20] The brown bear, per Kurten (1976),
has been stated as "clearly derived from the Asian population of Ursus savini about 800,000 years ago; spread
into Europe, to the New World."[21] A genetic analysis indicated that the brown bear lineage diverged from
the cave bear species complex approximately 1.2–1.4 million years ago, but did not clarify if U.
savini persisted as a paraspecies for the brown bear before perishing.[22] The oldest fossils positively identified
as from this species occur in China from about 0.5 million years ago. Brown bears entered Europe about
250,000 years ago and North Africa shortly after.[19][23] Brown bear remains from the Pleistocene period are
common in the British Isles, where it is thought they might have outcompeted cave bears (Ursus spelaeus).
The species entered Alaska 100,000 years ago, though they did not move south until 13,000 years ago. [19] It is
speculated that brown bears were unable to migrate south until the extinction of the much larger giant short-
faced bear (Arctodus simus).[24][25]
Several paleontologists suggest the possibility of two separate brown bear migrations: inland brown bears, also
known as grizzlies, are thought to stem from narrow-skulled bears which migrated from northern Siberia to
central Alaska and the rest of the continent, while Kodiak bears descend from broad-skulled bears from
Kamchatka, which colonized the Alaskan peninsula. Brown bear fossils discovered
in Ontario, Ohio, Kentucky and Labrador show that the species occurred farther east than indicated in historic
records.[19] In North America, two types of the subspecies Ursus arctos horribilis are generally recognized—the
coastal brown bear and the inland grizzly bear; these two types broadly define the range of sizes of all brown
bear subspecies.[12]
Scientific taxonomy[edit]
Main article: Subspecies of brown bear
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Eurasian brown bear (Ursus arctos arctos), the nominate subspecies
There are many methods used by scientists to define bear species and subspecies, as no one method is always
effective. Brown bear taxonomy and subspecies classification has been described as "formidable and
confusing," with few authorities listing the same specific set of subspecies. [26] Genetic testing is now perhaps
the most important way to scientifically define brown bear relationships and names. Generally, genetic testing
uses the word clade rather than species because a genetic test alone cannot define a biological species. Most
genetic studies report on how closely related the bears are (or their genetic distance). There are hundreds of
obsolete brown bear subspecies, each with its own name, and this can become confusing; Hall (1981) lists 86
different types, and even as many as 90 have been proposed.[27][28] However, recent DNA analysis has identified
as few as five main clades which contain all extant brown bears,[29][30] while a 2017 phylogenetic study revealed
nine clades, including one representing polar bears.[31] As of 2005, 15 extant or recently extinct subspecies were
recognized by the general scientific community.[32][33]
As well as the exact number of overall brown bear subspecies, its precise relationship to the polar bear also
remains in debate. The polar bear is a recent offshoot of the brown bear. The point at which the polar bear
diverged from the brown bear is unclear, with estimations based on genetics and fossils ranging from 400,000
to 70,000 years ago, but most recent analysis has indicated that the polar bear split somewhere between
275,000 and 150,000 years ago.[34] Under some definitions, the brown bear can be construed as
the paraspecies for the polar bear.[35][36][37][38]
DNA analysis shows that, apart from recent human-caused population fragmentation,[39] brown bears in North
America are generally part of a single interconnected population system, with the exception of the population
(or subspecies) in the Kodiak Archipelago, which has probably been isolated since the end of the last Ice Age.
[40][41]
These data demonstrate that U. a. gyas, U. a. horribilis, U. a. sitkensis and U. a. stikeenensis are not
distinct or cohesive groups, and would more accurately be described as ecotypes. For example, brown bears in
any particular region of the Alaska coast are more closely related to adjacent grizzly bears than to distant
populations of brown bears,[42] the morphological distinction seemingly driven by brown bears having access to
a rich salmon food source, while grizzly bears live at higher elevation, or further from the coast, where plant
material is the base of the diet. The history of the bears of the Alexander Archipelago is unusual in that these
island populations carry polar bear DNA, presumably originating from a population of polar bears that was left
behind at the end of the Pleistocene, but have since been connected with adjacent mainland populations
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through movement of males, to the point where their nuclear genomes are now more than 90% of brown bear
ancestry.[43]
Brown bears are apparently divided into five different clades, some of which coexist or co-occur in different
regions.[2]
Hybrids[edit]
See also: Grizzly–black bear hybrid and Grizzly–polar bear hybrid
Possible grizzly-black bear hybrid in the Yukon Territory, Canada
A grizzly–polar bear hybrid (known either as a pizzly bear or a grolar bear) is a rare ursid hybrid resulting
from a crossbreeding of a brown bear and a polar bear. It has occurred both in captivity and in the wild. In
2006, the occurrence of this hybrid in nature was confirmed by testing the DNA of a strange-looking bear that
had been shot in the Canadian Arctic, and seven more hybrids have since been confirmed in the same region,
all descended from a single female polar bear.[44] Previously, the hybrid had been produced in zoos and was
considered a "cryptid" (a hypothesized animal for which there is no scientific proof of existence in the wild).
Analyses of the genomes of bears have shown that introgression between species was widespread during the
evolution of the genus Ursus,[45][46][47] including the introgression of polar bear DNA introduced to brown bears
during the Pleistocene.
A bear shot in autumn 1986 in Michigan, US, was thought by some to be a grizzly/American black
bear hybrid, due to its unusually large size and its proportionately larger braincase and skull. DNA testing was
unable to determine whether it was a large American black bear or a grizzly bear. [48]
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Description[edit]
Brown bears are highly variable in size. Eurasian brown bears often fall around the middle to low sizes for the species.
The brown bear is the most variable in size of modern bears. The typical size depends upon which population
it is from, and most accepted subtypes vary widely in size. This is in part due to sexual dimorphism, as male
brown bears average at least 30% larger in most subtypes. Individual bears also vary in size seasonally,
weighing the least in spring due to lack of foraging during hibernation, and the most in late fall, after a period
of hyperphagia to put on additional weight to prepare for hibernation. Therefore, a bear may need to be
weighed in both spring and fall to get an idea of its mean annual weight.[49][50]
Skeleton
The normal range of physical dimensions for a brown bear is a head-and-body length of 1.4 to 2.8 m (4 ft 7 in
to 9 ft 2 in) and a shoulder height of 70 to 153 cm (2 ft 4 in to 5 ft 0 in). The tail is relatively short, as in all
bears, ranging from 6 to 22 cm (2.4 to 8.7 in) in length.[51][52] The smallest brown bears, females during spring
among barren-ground populations, can weigh so little as to roughly match the body mass of males of the
smallest living bear species, the sun bear (Helarctos malayanus), while the largest coastal populations attain
sizes broadly similar to those of the largest living bear species, the polar bear.[5][12][53] Interior brown bears are
generally smaller than is often perceived, being around the same weight as an average lion, at an estimate
average of 180 kg (400 lb) in males and 135 kg (298 lb) in females, whereas adults of the coastal populations
weigh about twice as much.[12][54] The average weight of adult male bears from 19 populations, from around the
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world and various subspecies (including both large- and small-bodied subspecies), was found to be 217 kg
(478 lb) while adult females from 24 populations were found to average 152 kg (335 lb).[12][55][56][57]
Color[edit]
Brown bear on a rock
Brown bears are often not fully brown.[58] They have long, thick fur, with a moderately long mane at the back of
the neck which varies somewhat across the types.[59] In India, brown bears can be reddish with silver-tipped
hairs, while in China brown bears are bicolored, with a yellowish-brown or whitish collar across the neck,
chest and shoulders.[58][60] Even within well-defined subspecies, individuals may show highly variable hues of
brown. North American grizzlies can be dark brown (almost black) to cream (almost white) or yellowish-
brown and often have darker-colored legs. The common name "grizzly" stems from their typical coloration,
with the hairs on their back usually being brownish-black at the base and whitish-cream at the tips, giving them
their distinctive "grizzled" color. Apart from the cinnamon subspecies of the American black bear (U.
americanus cinnamonum), the brown bear is the only modern bear species to typically appear truly brown.
[61]
The winter fur is very thick and long, especially in northern subspecies, and can reach 11 to 12 centimetres
(4 to 5 in) at the withers. The winter hairs are thin, yet rough to the touch. The summer fur is much shorter and
sparser and its length and density varies geographically.[62]
Cranial morphology and size[edit]

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Skull
Adults have massive, heavily built concave skulls, which are large in proportion to the body. The forehead is
high and rises steeply.[61] The projections of the skull are well developed when compared to those of Asian
black bears (Ursus thibetanus): the latter have sagittal crests not exceeding more than 19–20% of the total
length of the skull, while the former have sagittal crests comprising up to 40–41% of the skull's length. Skull
projections are more weakly developed in females than in males. The braincase is relatively small and
elongated. There is a great deal of geographical variation in the skull, and presents itself chiefly in dimensions.
[62]
Grizzlies, for example, tend to have flatter profiles than European and coastal American brown bears.
[63]
Skull lengths of Russian brown bears tend to be 31.5 to 45.5 centimetres (12.4 to 17.9 in) for males, and
27.5 to 39.7 centimetres (10.8 to 15.6 in) for females. The width of the zygomatic arches in males is 17.5 to
27.7 centimetres (6.9 to 11 in), and 14.7 to 24.7 centimetres (5.8 to 9.7 in) in females.[62] Brown bears have very
strong teeth: the incisors are relatively big and the canine teeth are large, the lower ones being strongly curved.
The first three molars of the upper jaw are underdeveloped and single crowned with one root. The second
upper molar is smaller than the others, and is usually absent in adults. It is usually lost at an early age, leaving
no trace of the alveolus in the jaw. The first three molars of the lower jaw are very weak, and are often lost at
an early age.[62] The teeth of brown bears reflect their dietary plasticity and are broadly similar to other bears,
excluding the two most herbivorous living bears, the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) and the spectacled
bear (Tremarctos ornatus), which have blunt, small premolars (ideal for grinding down fibrous plants)
compared to the jagged premolars of ursid bears that at least seasonally often rely on flesh as a food source. [64]
[65]
The teeth are reliably larger than American black bears, but average smaller in molar length than polar
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bears.[66][67] Brown bears have the broadest skull of any extant ursine bear; only the aforementioned most
herbivorous living bears exceed them in relative breadth of the skull. [12][55][68] Another extant ursine bear,
the sloth bear (Melursus ursinus), has a proportionately longer skull than the brown bear and can match the
skull length of even large brown bear subtypes, presumably as an aid for foraging heavily on insect colonies
for which a long muzzle is helpful as an evolved feature in several unrelated mammalian groups. [61][68]
Claws and feet[edit]
Front paws
Brown bears have very large and curved claws, those present on the forelimbs being longer than those on the
hind limbs. They may reach 5 to 6 centimetres (2.0 to 2.4 in) and may measure 7 to 10 centimetres (2.8 to
3.9 in) along the curve.[69] They are generally dark with a light tip, with some forms having completely light
claws.[62] Brown bear claws are longer and straighter than those of American black bears (Ursus americanus).
[61]
The claws are blunt, while those of a black bear are sharp. Due to their claw structure, in addition to their
excessive weight, adult brown bears cannot typically climb trees as well as both species of black bear, although
in rare cases adult female brown bears have been seen in trees. [70] The claws of a polar bear are also quite
different, being notably shorter but broader with a strong curve and sharper point, presumably both as an aid to
traveling over ice (sometimes nearly vertically) and procuring active prey. [23][71] The paws of the brown bear are
quite large. The rear feet of adult bears have been found to typically measure 21 to 36 cm (8.3 to 14.2 in) long,
while the forefeet tend to measure about 40% less in length. All four feet in average sized brown bears tend to
be about 17.5 to 20 cm (6.9 to 7.9 in) in width. In large coastal or Kodiak bear males, the hindfoot may
measure up to 40 cm (16 in) in length, 28.5 cm (11.2 in) in width, while outsized Kodiak bears having had
confirmed measurements of up to 46 cm (18 in) along their rear foot.[72][73][74] Brown bears are the only extant
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bears with a hump at the top of their shoulder, which is made entirely of muscle, this feature having developed
presumably for imparting more force in digging, which is habitual during foraging for most bears of the
species and also used heavily in den construction prior to hibernation.[61][75]
Distribution and habitat[edit]
Brown bear at Brooks Falls
Brown bears were once native to Europe, much of Asia, the Atlas Mountains of Africa, and North America,
[76]
but are now extirpated in some areas, and their populations have greatly decreased in other areas. There are
approximately 200,000 brown bears left in the world.[77] The largest populations are in Russia with 120,000,
[78]
the United States with 32,500, and Canada with around 25,000. About 95% of the brown bear population in
the United States is in Alaska, though in the lower 48 states, they are repopulating slowly, but steadily along
the Rockies and the western Great Plains. Although many people hold the belief some brown bears may be
present in Mexico and the Atlas Mountains of North Africa, both are almost certainly extinct. The last known
Mexican grizzly bear was shot in 1960, while the Atlas bear has been extinct since the 19th century. In Europe,
there are 14,000 brown bears in ten fragmented populations, from Spain (estimated at only 20–25 animals in
the Pyrenees in 2010,[79][80] in a range shared between Spain, France and Andorra, and some 210 animals
in Asturias, Cantabria, Galicia and León, in the Picos de Europa and adjacent areas in 2013[81]) in the west, to
Russia in the east, and from Sweden and Finland in the north to Romania (4000–5000), Bulgaria (900–
1200), Slovakia (with about 600–800 animals), Slovenia (500–700 animals) and Greece (with about 200
animals) in the south. They are extinct in the British Isles, endangered in France, and threatened in Spain and
most of Central Europe. The Carpathian brown bear population of Romania is the largest in Europe outside
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Russia, estimated at 4,500 to 5,000 bears, although declining alarmingly due to overhunting. [82] There is also a
smaller brown bear population in the Carpathian Mountains in Ukraine (estimated at about 200 in
2005), Slovakia and Poland (estimated at about 100 in 2009 in the latter country).[83] The total Carpathian
population is estimated at about 8,000.[84] Northern Europe is home to a large bear population, with an
estimated 2,500 (range 2,350–2,900) in Sweden, about 1,600 in Finland,[85] about 700 in Estonia and 70
in Norway. Another large and relatively stable population of brown bears in Europe, consisting of 2,500–3,000
individuals, is the Dinaric-Pindos (Balkans) population, with contiguous distribution in northeast
Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia, Albania, Bulgaria and Greece.[86]
Brown bears live in Alaska, east through the Yukon and Northwest Territories, south through British
Columbia and through the western half of Alberta. The Alaskan population is estimated at a healthy 32,000
individuals.[87] Small populations exist in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem of northwest Wyoming (with
about 600 animals), the Northern Continental Divide Ecosystem of northwest Montana (with about 750
animals), the Cabinet-Yaak Ecosystem of northwest Montana and northeast Idaho (with about 30–40 animals),
the Selkirk Ecosystem of northeast Washington and northwest Idaho (with about 40–50 animals), and the
North Cascades Ecosystem of northcentral Washington (with about 5–10 animals). These five ecosystems
combine for a total of roughly 1,470 wild grizzlies still persisting in the contiguous United States.
Unfortunately, these populations are isolated from each other, inhibiting any genetic flow between ecosystems.
This poses one of the greatest threats to the future survival of the grizzly bear in the contiguous United States.
In Asia, brown bears are found primarily throughout Russia, thence more spottily southwest to parts of the
Middle East, to as far south as southwestern Iran, and to the southeast in a small area of Northeast China,
Western China, and parts of North Korea, Pakistan, Afghanistan and India. They can also be found on the
Japanese island of Hokkaidō, which holds the largest number of non-Russian brown bears in eastern Asia with
about 2,000–3,000 animals.[72]
The population of brown bears in the Pyrenees mountain range between Spain and France is extremely low,
estimated at 14 to 18, with a shortage of females. Their rarity in this area has led biologists to release bears,
mostly female, from Slovenia in spring 2006 to reduce the imbalance and preserve the species' presence in the
area. The bears were released despite protests from French farmers. A small population of brown bears (Ursus
arctos marsicanus) still lives in central Italy (the Apennine Mountains, Abruzzo and Latium), with no more
than 50–60 individuals, protected by strong laws, but endangered by the human presence in the area. [citation needed] In
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2020, a film crew working in Natural Park O Invernadeiro in Ourense, Galicia recorded the first brown bear in
Northern Spain in 150 years.[88]
In Arctic areas, the potential habitat of the brown bear is increasing. The warming of that region has allowed
the species to move farther north into what was once exclusively the domain of the polar bear. In non-Arctic
areas, habitat loss is blamed as the leading cause of endangerment, followed by hunting.
This species inhabits the broadest range of habitats of any living bear species. [72] They seem to have no
altitudinal preferences and have been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 5,000 m (16,000 ft) (the latter
in the Himalayas).[72] In most of their range, brown bears generally seem to prefer semiopen country, with a
scattering of vegetation that can allow them a resting spot during the day. However, they have been recorded
as inhabiting every variety of northern temperate forest known to occur.[72] North American brown bears,
or grizzly bears, generally seem to prefer open or semi-open landscapes, with the species once having been
common on the Great Plains and continues to occur in sizeable numbers in tundra and coastal estuaries and
islands. Variable numbers still occur in prairie areas of the northern Rocky Mountains (mostly in Canada but
some in the contiguous United States).[72] In western Eurasia, they inhabit mostly mountainous woodlands, in
ranges such as the Alps, the Pyrenees and the Caucasus, though they may have been driven into more wooded,
precipitous habitats due to the prior extensive persecution of the species in some regions. [89][90] Desolate parts of
northern and eastern Europe, like large patches of Scandinavia and the Carpathian Mountains, have always
been quite heavily forested and have maintained relatively stable populations of bears, indicating that the
brown bears here are well-adapted to forest-dwelling.[72] In Central Asia, human disturbances are minimal as
this area has a harsher environment and is more sparsely populated. In this part of the world, bears may be
found in steppe, alpine meadows and even desert edge. In Siberia, the species seems well-adapted to living in
denser pine forests. Eastern Russian forests hold arguably the largest number of brown bears in the world
outside of possibly Alaska and northeastern Canada. [72] It is thought the Eurasian bears which colonized
America were tundra-adapted and the species is sometimes found around sub-Arctic ice fields. This is
indicated by brown bears in the Chukotka Peninsula on the Asian side of Bering Strait, which are the only
Asian brown bears to live year-round in lowland tundra like their North American cousins. [91]
Conservation status[edit]
While the brown bear's range has shrunk and it has faced local extinctions, it remains listed as a Least
concern species by the IUCN, with a total population of approximately 200,000. As of 2012, this and
the American black bear are the only bear species not classified as threatened by the IUCN.[1][2] However,
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the California grizzly bear, Ungavan brown bear, Atlas bear and Mexican grizzly bear, as well as brown bear
populations in the Pacific Northwest, were hunted to extinction in the 19th and early 20th centuries and many
of the southern Asian subspecies are highly endangered.[92] The Syrian brown bear (Ursus arctos syriacus) is
very rare and it has been extirpated from more than half of its historic range.[93] One of the smallest-bodied
subspecies, the Himalayan brown bear (Ursus arctos isabellinus), is critically endangered, occupying only 2%
of its former range and threatened by uncontrolled poaching for its body parts.[13] The Marsican brown bear in
central Italy is believed to have a population of just 50–60 bears.
Behavior and life history[edit]
Like all bears, brown bears can stand on their hindlegs and walk for a few steps in this position, usually motivated to do so
by curiosity, hunger or alarm
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Brown bear sounds
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Brown bear sounds including
huffing, jaw popping and
growling
Brown bear roars
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Brown bears roaring over a
carcass
Problems playing these files? See media

help.
The brown bear is often described as nocturnal. However, it frequently seems to peak in activity in the
morning and early evening hours.[94] Studies have shown that activity throughout the range can occur at nearly
any time of night or day, with bears who dwell in areas with more extensive human contact being more likely
to be fully nocturnal. Furthermore, yearling and newly independent bears are more likely to be active diurnally
and many adult bears in low-disturbance areas are largely crepuscular.[95][96][97] In summer through autumn, a
brown bear can double its weight from the spring, gaining up to 180 kg (400 lb) of fat, on which it relies to
make it through winter, when it becomes very lethargic.[98][99] Although they are not full hibernators and can be
woken easily, both sexes like to den in a protected spot during the winter months. Hibernation dens may
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consist of any spot that provides cover from the elements and that can accommodate their bodies, such as a
cave, crevice, cavernous tree roots, or hollow logs.[100][101]
Brown bears have one of the largest brains of any extant carnivoran relative to their body size and have been
shown to engage in tool use (e.g., using a barnacle-covered rock to scratch its neck), which requires advanced
cognitive abilities.[102] This species is mostly solitary, although bears may gather in large numbers at major food
sources (e.g., open garbage dumps or rivers holding spawning salmon) and form social hierarchies based on
age and size.[103][104] Adult male bears are particularly aggressive and are avoided by adolescent and subadult
males, both at concentrated feeding opportunities and chance encounters. Female bears with cubs rival adult
males in aggression and are much more intolerant of other bears than single females. Young adolescent males
tend to be least aggressive and have been observed in nonantagonistic interactions with each other. [105]
[106]
Dominance between bears is asserted by making a frontal orientation, showing off canines, muzzle twisting
and neck stretching to which a subordinate will respond with a lateral orientation, by turning away and
dropping the head and by sitting or lying down.[107] During combat, bears use their paws to strike their
opponents in the chest or shoulders and bite the head or neck. In his Great Bear Almanac, Gary Brown lists 11
different sounds bears produce in nine different contexts. Sounds expressing anger or aggravation include
growls, roars, woofs, champs and smacks, while sounds expressing nervousness or pain include woofs, grunts
and bawls. Sows will bleat or hum when communicating with their cubs.[61]
Home ranges[edit]
Brown bears usually occur over vast home ranges; however, they are not highly territorial. Several adult bears
often roam freely over the same vicinity without issue, unless rights to a fertile female or food sources are
being contested.[12][106] Males always cover more area than females each year. Despite their lack of traditional
territorial behavior, adult males can seem to have a "personal zone" in which other bears are not tolerated if
they are seen.[108] Males always wander further than females, due to both increasing access to females and food
sources, while females are advantaged by smaller territories in part since it decreases the likelihood of
encounters with male bears who may endanger their cubs.[12][75][55][109] In areas where food is abundant and
concentrated, such as coastal Alaska, home ranges for females are up to 24 km2 (9.3 sq mi) and for males are
up to 89 km2 (34 sq mi). Similarly, in British Columbia, bears of the two sexes travel relatively compact home
ranges of 115 km2 (44 sq mi) and 318 km2 (123 sq mi). In Yellowstone National Park, home ranges for females
are up to 281 km2 (108 sq mi) and up to 874 km2 (337 sq mi) for males. In Romania, the largest home range
was recorded for adult males (3,143 km2, 1214 sq mi).[110] In the central Arctic of Canada, where food sources
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are quite sparse, home ranges range up to 2,434 km2 (940 sq mi) in females and 8,171 km2 (3,155 sq mi) in
males.[12][72][75][106]
A study of male-inherited Y chromosome DNA sequence found that brown bears, over the past few 10,000
years, have shown strong male-biased dispersal.[111] That study found surprisingly similar Y chromosomes in
brown bear populations as far apart as Norway and coastal Alaska, indicating extensive gene
flow across Eurasia and North America. Notably, this contrasts with genetic signals from female-
inherited mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), where brown bears of different geographic regions typically show
strong differences in their mtDNA, a result of female philopatry.
Reproduction[edit]
Pair of mating brown bears at the Ähtäri Zoo in Ähtäri, Finland
The mating season is from mid-May to early July, shifting later the further north the bears are found. [72][55]
[112]
Being serially monogamous, brown bears remain with the same mate from a couple of days to a couple of
weeks.[12][113] Outside of this narrow time frame, adult male and female brown bears show no sexual interest in
each other.[12] Females mature sexually between the age of four and eight years of age, with an average age at
sexual maturity of 5.2–5.5 years old, while males first mate about a year later on average, when they are large
and strong enough to successfully compete with other males for mating rights.[114][108][115] Males will try to mate
with as many females as they can; usually a successful one mates with two females in a span of one to three
weeks.[52][115] The adult female brown bear is similarly promiscuous, mating with up to four, rarely even eight,
males while in heat and potentially breeding with two males in a single day. Females come into oestrus on
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average every three to four years, with a full range of 2.4 to 5.7 years. The urine markings of a female in
oestrus can attract several males via scent.[75][55][116][117][118][119][109][120] Paternity DNA tests have shown that up to 29%
of cubs in a litter will be from two to three different males.[109] Dominant males may try to sequester a female
for her entire oestrus period of approximately two weeks, but usually are unable to retain her for the entire
time.[55][109] Copulation is vigorous and prolonged and can last up to an hour, although the mean time is about
23–24 minutes.[55][121]
Grizzly bear cubs often imitate their mothers closely
Males take no part in raising their cubs – parenting is left entirely to the females.[106][122] Through the process
of delayed implantation, a female's fertilized egg divides and floats freely in the uterus for six months. During
winter dormancy, the fetus attaches to the uterine wall. The cubs are born eight weeks later while the mother
sleeps. If the mother does not gain enough weight to survive through the winter while gestating, the embryo
does not implant and is reabsorbed into the body.[114][123][124] There have been cases of brown bears with as many
as six cubs, although the average litter size is one to three, with more than four being considered uncommon. [114]
[125][126]
There are records of females sometimes adopting stray cubs or even trading or kidnapping cubs when
they emerge from hibernation (a larger female may claim cubs away from a smaller one).[72][127][128] Older and
larger females within a population tend to give birth to larger litters[129] The size of a litter also depends on
factors such as geographic location and food supply.[130] At birth, the cubs are blind, toothless and hairless and
may weigh from 350 to 510 g (0.77 to 1.12 lb), again reportedly based on the age and condition of the mother.
[131]
They feed on their mother's milk until spring or even early summer, depending on climate conditions. At
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this time, the cubs weigh 7 to 9 kg (15 to 20 lb) and have developed enough to follow her over long distances
and begin to forage for solid food.[132][133]
Kodiak bear cubs play-fighting
The cubs are fully dependent on the mother and a close bond is formed. During the dependency stage, the cubs
learn (rather than inherit as instincts from birth) survival techniques, such as which foods have the highest
nutritional value and where to obtain them; how to hunt, fish and defend themselves; and where to den.
[75]
Increased brain size in large carnivores has been positively linked to whether a given species is solitary, as is
the brown bear, or raises their offspring communally, thus female brown bears have relatively large, well-
developed brains, presumably key in teaching behavior.[134] The cubs learn by following and imitating their
mother's actions during the period they are with her.[135] Cubs remain with their mother for an average of 2.5
years in North America, uncommonly being independent as early as 1.5 years of age or as late as 4.5 years of
age.[55] The stage at which independence is attained may generally be earlier in some parts of Eurasia, as the
latest date which mother and cubs were together was 2.3 years, most families separated in under two years in a
study from Hokkaido and in Sweden most cubs on their own were still yearlings.[136][137] Brown bears
practice infanticide, as an adult male bear may kill the cubs of a female bear.[109] When an adult male brown
bear kills a cub, it is usually because he is trying to bring the female into oestrus, as she will enter that state
within two to four days after the death of her cubs.[109] Cubs flee up a tree, if available, when they see a strange
male bear and the mother often successfully defends them, even though the male may be twice as heavy as she,
although females have been known to lose their lives in these confrontations. [138][139][140]
Dietary habits[edit]
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Main article: Dietary biology of the brown bear
Brown bear feeding on salmon
The brown bear is one of the most omnivorous animals in the world and has been recorded as consuming the
greatest variety of foods of any bear.[72] Throughout life, this species is regularly curious about the potential of
eating virtually any organism or object that they encounter. Food that is both abundant and easily accessed or
caught is preferred. Their jaw structure has evolved to fit their dietary habits. Their diet varies enormously
throughout their differing areas based on opportunity.
Despite their reputation, most brown bears are not highly carnivorous, as they derive up to 90% of their
dietary food energy from vegetable matter.[141] They often feed on a variety of plant life, including berries,
grasses, flowers, acorns and pine cones, as well as fungi such as mushrooms.[12] Among all bears, brown bears
are uniquely equipped to dig for tough foods such as roots and shoots. They use their long, strong claws to dig
out earth to reach the roots and their powerful jaws to bite through them.[12] In spring, winter-provided carrion,
grasses, shoots, sedges and forbs are the dietary mainstays for brown bears internationally.[72] Fruits, including
berries, become increasingly important during summer and early autumn. Roots and bulbs become critical in
autumn for some inland bear populations if fruit crops are poor.[72] They will also commonly consume animal
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matter, which in summer and autumn may regularly be in the form of insects, larvae and grubs,
including beehives. Bears in Yellowstone eat an enormous number of moths during the summer, sometimes as
many as 40,000 Army cutworm moths in a single day, and may derive up to half of their annual food energy
from these insects.[142] Brown bears living near coastal regions will regularly eat crabs and clams. In Alaska,
bears along the beaches of estuaries regularly dig through the sand for clams.[61] This species may eat birds and
their eggs, including almost entirely ground- or rock-nesting species.[61] The diet may be supplemented
by rodents or similar smallish mammals, including marmots, ground squirrels, mice, rats, lemmings and voles.
[12]
With particular regularity, bears in Denali National Park will wait at burrows of Arctic ground
squirrels hoping to pick off a few of the 1 kg (2.2 lb) rodents.[143]
In the Kamchatka peninsula and several parts of coastal Alaska, brown bears feed mostly on spawning salmon,
whose nutrition and abundance explain the enormous size of the bears in these areas. The fishing techniques of
bears are well-documented. They often congregate around falls when the salmon are forced to breach the
water, at which point the bears will try to catch the fish in mid-air (often with their mouths). They will also
wade into shallow waters, hoping to pin a slippery salmon with their claws. While they may eat almost all the
parts of the fish, bears at the peak of spawning, when there is usually a glut of fish to feed on, may eat only the
most nutrious parts of the salmon (including the eggs and head) and then indifferently leave the rest of the
carcass to scavengers, which can include red foxes, bald eagles, common ravens and gulls. Despite their
normally solitary habits, brown bears will gather rather closely in numbers at good spawning sites. The largest
and most powerful males claim the most fruitful fishing spots and bears (especially males) will sometimes
fight over the rights to a prime fishing spot.[61]
Beyond the regular predation of salmon, most brown bears are not particularly active predators. [61] While
perhaps a majority of bears of the species will charge at large prey at one point in their lives and most eat
carrion, many predation attempts start with the bear clumsily and half-heartedly pursuing the prey and end with
the prey escaping alive.[61] On the other hand, some brown bears are quite self-assured predators who habitually
pursue and catch large prey items. Such bears are usually taught how to hunt by their mothers from an early
age.[61] Large mammals preyed on can include various ungulate species such
as elk, moose, caribou, muskoxen and wild boar.[12] When brown bears attack these large animals, they usually
target young or infirm ones, as they are easier to catch. Typically when hunting (especially with young prey),
the bear pins its prey to the ground and then immediately tears and eats it alive. [144] It will also bite or swipe
some prey to stun it enough to knock it over for consumption.[90] To pick out young or infirm individuals, bears
will charge at herds so the slower-moving and more vulnerable individuals will be made apparent. Brown
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bears may also ambush young animals by finding them via scent.[12] When emerging from hibernation, brown
bears, whose broad paws allow them to walk over most ice and snow, may pursue large prey such as moose
whose hooves cannot support them on encrusted snow. [90] Similarly, predatory attacks on large prey sometimes
occur at riverbeds, when it is more difficult for the prey specimen to run away due to muddy or slippery soil.
[12]
On rare occasions, while confronting fully-grown, dangerous prey, bears kill them by hitting with their
powerful forearms, which can break the necks and backs of large creatures such as adult moose and adult
bison.[61] They also feed on carrion, and use their size to intimidate other predators, such as wolves, cougars,
tigers, and American black bears from their kills. Carrion is especially important in the early spring (when the
bears are emerging from hibernation), much of it comprised by winter-killed big game. [12] Cannibalism is not
unheard of, though predation is not normally believed to be the primary motivation when brown bears attack
each other.[61]
When forced to live in close proximity with humans and their domesticated animals, bears may potentially
predate any type of domestic animal. Among these, domestic cattle are sometimes exploited as prey. Cattle are
bitten on the neck, back or head and then the abdominal cavity is opened for eating.[12] Plants and fruit farmed
by humans are readily consumed as well, including corn, wheat, sorghum, melons and any form of berries.
[61]
They will also feed at domestic bee farms, readily consuming both honey and the contents of the honey
bee colony.[61] Human foods and trash or refuse is eaten when possible. When an open garbage dump was kept
in Yellowstone, brown bears were one of the most voracious and regular scavengers. The dump was closed
after both brown and American black bears came to associate humans with food and lost their natural fear of
them.[61]
Interspecific predatory relationships[edit]

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Brown bear being followed by a wolf
Adult bears are generally immune to predatory attacks except from tigers and other bears. Siberian tigers prefer
preying on young Ussuri brown bears, but smaller adult female brown bears outside their dens may also be
taken, generally when lethargic from hibernation.[145][146][147] Of 44 recorded encounters between the two
predators, 20 resulted in confrontations; in 50% of these, the bears were killed, in 27% the tigers were killed,
and 23% of the cases ended with both animals surviving and parting ways. [148] Some bears emerging from
hibernation seek out tigers in order to steal their kills.[149] Some large brown bears may actually benefit from the
tiger's presence by appropriating tiger kills that the bears may not be able to successfully hunt themselves and
follow tiger tracks.[150] Geptner et al. (1972) stated bears are generally afraid of tigers and change their path
after coming across tiger trails.[151] In the winters of 1970–1973, Yudakov and Nikolaev recorded 1 case of
brown bear showing no fear of the tigers and another case of brown bear changing path upon crossing tiger
tracks.[152] Other researchers have observed bears following tiger tracks for various reasons.[153]
Brown bears regularly intimidate wolves to drive them away from their kills. In Yellowstone National Park,
bears pirate wolf kills so often, Yellowstone's Wolf Project director Doug Smith wrote, "It's not a matter of if
the bears will come calling after a kill, but when." Despite the high animosity between the two species, most
confrontations at kill sites or large carcasses end without bloodshed on either side. Though conflict over
carcasses is common, on rare occasions, the two predators tolerate each other on the same kill. To date, there is
a single case of fully-grown wolves being killed by a grizzly bear.[154] Given the opportunity, however, both
species will prey on the other's cubs.[155] Conclusively, the individual power of the bear against the collective
strength of the wolf pack usually results in a long battle for kills or domination.
In some areas, grizzly bears also regularly displace cougars from their kills.[156] Cougars kill small bear cubs on
rare occasions, but there was one report of a bear killing a cougar of unknown age and condition between 1993
and 1996.[157][158] Smaller carnivorous animals, including coyotes, wolverines, lynxes, and any other
sympatric carnivores or raptorial birds, are dominated by grizzly bears and generally avoid direct interactions
with them, unless attempting to steal scraps of food. However, wolverines have been persistent enough to fend
off a grizzly bear as much as ten times their weight off a kill. [61] There is one record of a golden eagle predating
on a brown bear cub.[159]
Brown bears usually dominate other bear species in areas where they coexist. Due to their smaller
size, American black bears are at a competitive disadvantage to grizzly bears in open, unforested areas.
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Although displacement of black bears by grizzly bears has been documented, actual interspecific killing of
black bears by grizzlies has only occasionally been reported. Confrontation is mostly avoided due to the black
bear's diurnal habits and preference for heavily forested areas, as opposed to the grizzly's largely nocturnal
habits and preference for open spaces.[160] Brown bears may also kill Asian black bears, though the latter
species probably largely avoids conflicts with the brown bear, due to similar habits and habitat preferences to
the American black species.[161] They will eat the fruit dropped by the Asian black bear from trees, as they
themselves are too large and cumbersome to climb.[162] Improbably, in the Himalayas Brown bears are
reportedly intimidated by Asian black bears in confrontations.[163]
There has been a recent increase in interactions between brown bears and polar bears, theorized to be caused
by climate change. Brown and grizzly bears have been seen moving increasingly northward into territories
formerly claimed by polar bears. They tend to dominate polar bears in disputes over carcasses, [164] and dead
polar bear cubs have been found in brown bear dens.[165]
Longevity and mortality[edit]
Front paw imprint
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Rear paw imprint
The brown bear has a naturally long life. Wild females have been observed reproducing up to 28 years of age,
which is the oldest known age for reproduction of any ursid in the wild. The peak reproductive age for females
ranges from four to 20 years old.[72][166] The lifespan of brown bears of both sexes within minimally hunted
populations is estimated at an average of 25 years.[167] The oldest wild brown bear on record was nearly 37
years old.[167] The oldest recorded female in captivity was nearly 40 years old, while males in captivity have
been verified to live up to 47 years, with one captive male possibly attaining 50 years of age. [12][52]
While male bears potentially live longer in captivity, female grizzly bears have a greater annual survival rate
than males within wild populations per a study done in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem.[168] Annual
mortality for bears of any age is estimated at around 10% in most protected areas; [72] however, the average
annual mortality rate rises to an estimated 38% in hunted populations.[72] Around 13% to 44% of cubs die
within their first year even in well-protected areas.[12] Mortality rates of 75–100% among the cubs of any given
year are not uncommon.[169] Beyond predation by large predators including wolves, Siberian tigers and other
brown bears, starvation and accidents also claim the lives of cubs. Studies have indicated that the most
prevalent source of mortality for first-year cubs is malnutrition.[12][75][140][170] By the second and third years of their
lives, the annual mortality rate among cubs in the care of their mothers drops to 10-15%. [75]
Even in populations living in protected areas, humans are still the leading cause of mortality for brown bears. [2]
[167][171]
The largest amount of legalized brown bear hunting occurs in Canada, Finland, Russia, Slovakia and
Alaska.[72] Hunting is unregulated in many areas within the range of the brown bear. Even where hunting is
legally permitted, most biologists feel that the numbers hunted are excessive considering the low reproduction
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rate and sparse distribution of the species.[2][132][169] Brown bears are also killed in collisions with automobiles,
which is a significant cause of mortality in the United States and Europe. [172][173]
Relationship with humans[edit]

Conflicts between bears and humans[edit]
Ancient depiction of a brown bear in the arena (Papyrus 3053)
Brown bears usually avoid areas where extensive development or urbanization has occurred, unlike the
smaller, more inoffensive American black bear which can adapt to peri-urban regions.[174][175][176][177] Under many
circumstances, extensive human development may cause brown bears to alter their home ranges. [178][179] High
road densities (both paved and gravel roads) are often associated with higher mortality, habitat avoidance and
lower bear density.[180] However, brown bears can easily lose their natural cautiousness upon being attracted to
human-created food sources, such as garbage dumps, litter bins and dumpsters. Brown bears may even venture
into human dwellings or barns in search of food as humans encroach on bear habitats. [181] In other areas, such
as Alaska, dumps may continue to be an attractant for brown bears.[182][183] In different parts of their distribution,
brown bears sometimes kill and eat domesticated animals.[184][185][186] The saying "A fed bear is a dead bear" has
come into use to popularize the idea that allowing a bear to scavenge human garbage, such as trash cans and
campers' backpacks, pet food, or other food sources that draw the bear into contact with humans, can result in
the bear's death.[187] Results of a 2016 study performed in a southeastern British Columbian valley indicate that
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areas where attractive bear food and concentrated human settlements overlap, human-bear conflict can create
an ecological trap resulting in a lower apparent survival rate for brown bears, as well as attracting additional
bears and thereby causing overall population declines.[188]
When brown bears come to associate human activity with a "food reward", they are likely to continue to
become emboldened; the likelihood of human-bear encounters increases, as they may return to the same
location despite relocation. Relocation of the bear has been used to separate the bear from the human
environment, but it does not address the problem of the bear's newly learned association of humans with food
or the environmental situations which created the human-habituated bear. "Placing a bear in habitat used by
other bears may lead to competition and social conflict, and result in the injury or death of the less dominant
bear."[189] Yellowstone National Park, a reserve located in the western United States, contains prime habitat for
the grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis) and due to the enormous number of visitors, human-bear encounters
are common. The scenic beauty of the area has led to an influx of people moving into the area. In addition,
because there are so many bear relocations to the same remote areas of Yellowstone, and because male bears
tend to dominate the center of the relocation zone, female bears tend to be pushed to the boundaries of the
region and beyond. As a result, a large proportion of repeat offenders, bears that are killed for public safety, are
females. This creates a further depressive effect on an already-endangered subspecies. The grizzly bear is
officially described as "Threatened" in the U.S.. Although the problem is most significant with regard to
grizzlies, these issues affect the other types of brown bears as well. [190][191][192]
In Europe, part of the problem lies with shepherds; over the past two centuries, many sheep and goat herders
have gradually abandoned the more traditional practice of using dogs to guard flocks, which have concurrently
grown larger. Typically, they allow the herds to graze freely over sizeable tracts of land. As brown bears
reclaim parts of their range, they may eat livestock as sheep and goats are relatively easy for a bear to kill. In
some cases, the shepherds shoot the bear, thinking their livelihood is under threat. Many are now better
informed about the ample compensation available and will make a claim when they lose livestock to a bear. [193]
[194][195]
Another issue in several parts of their range in Europe is supplemental feeding stations where various
kind of animal carrion is offered, which are set up mainly in Scandinavia and eastern Europe both to support
the locally threatened species and so humans can enjoy watching bears that may otherwise prove evasive.
Despite that most stations were cautiously set in remote areas far from human habitations, some brown bears in
such areas have become conditioned to associate humans with food and become excessively bold "problem
bears". Also, supplemental feeding appears to cause no decrease in livestock predation. [196][197]
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Bear encounters and attacks[edit]
A statue of the Ussuri brown bear from Hokkaido which perpetrated the worst brown bear attack in Japanese history,
killing seven people
Brown bears seldom attack humans on sight and usually avoid people. In Russia, it is estimated that 1 in 1,000
on-foot encounters with brown bears results in an attack.[198] They are, however, unpredictable in temperament,
and may attack if they are surprised or feel threatened.[199] There are an average of two fatal attacks by bears per
year in North America.[200] In Scandinavia, there are only four known cases since 1902 of bear encounters
which have resulted in death. The two most common causes for bear attack are surprise and curiosity. [201] Some
types of bears, such as polar bears, are more likely to attack humans when searching for food, while American
black bears are much less likely to attack. Despite their boldness and potential for predation if the bear is
hungry, polar bears rarely attack humans, because they are infrequently encountered in the Arctic sea.
[200]
Aggressive behavior in brown bears is favored by numerous selection variables. Increased aggressiveness
also assists female brown bears in better ensuring the survival of their young to reproductive age. [202] Mothers
defending cubs are the most prone to attacking, being responsible for 70% of brown bear-caused human
fatalities in North America.[203]
Sows with cubs account for many attacks on humans by brown bears in North America. Habituated or food-
conditioned bears can also be dangerous, as their long-term exposure to humans causes them to lose their
natural shyness and, in some cases, to associate humans with food. Small parties of one or two people are more
often attacked by brown bears than large groups, with only one known case of an attack on a group of six or
more. In that instance, it is thought that due to surprise, the grizzly bear may not have recognized the size of
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the group.[204] In the majority of attacks resulting in injury, brown bears precede the attack with a growl or
huffing sound.[199] In contrast to injuries caused by American black bears, which are usually minor, brown bear
attacks more often tend to result in serious injury and, in some cases, death.[199] Brown bears seem to confront
humans as they would when fighting other bears: they rise up on their hind legs, and attempt to "disarm" their
victims by biting and holding on to the lower jaw to avoid being bitten in turn.[24] Due to the bears' enormous
physical strength, even a single bite or swipe can be deadly as in tigers, with some human victims having had
their heads completely crushed by a bear bite.[63][205] Most attacks occur in the months of July, August and
September, the time when the number of outdoor recreationalists, such as hikers or hunters, is higher. People
who assert their presence through noises tend to be less vulnerable, as they alert bears to their presence. In
direct confrontations, people who run are statistically more likely to be attacked than those who stand their
ground. Violent encounters with brown bears usually last only a few minutes, though they can be prolonged if
the victims fight back.[199] In Alberta, two common behaviors by human hunters, imitating the calls of deer to
attract them and carrying ungulate carcasses, seem to court aggressive behavior and lead to a higher rate of
attack from grizzly bears.[206]
Attacks on humans are considered extremely rare in the former Soviet Union, though exceptions exist in
districts where they are not as often pursued by hunters.[62] East Siberian brown bears, for example, tend to be
much bolder toward humans than their shyer, more persecuted European counterparts. The delineation in
Eurasia between areas where aggressiveness of brown bears tends to increase is the Ural Mountains, although
the brown bears of eastern Europe are somewhat more aggressive than those of western Europe. [167][207] In 2008,
a platinum mining compound in the Olyotorsky district of northern Kamchatka was besieged by a group of 30
bears, who killed two guards and prevented workers from leaving their homes. [208] 10 people a year on average
are killed by brown bears in Russia, more than all the other parts of the brown bear's international range
combined, although Russia also holds more brown bears than all other parts of the world combined. [209] In
Scandinavia, only three fatal attacks were recorded in the 20th century.[210]
In Japan, a large brown bear nicknamed "Kesagake" (袈裟懸け, "kesa-style slasher") made history for causing
the worst brown bear attack in Japanese history at Tomamae, Hokkaidō during numerous encounters during
December 1915. It killed seven people and wounded three others (with possibly another three previous
fatalities to its credit) before being gunned down after a large-scale beast-hunt. Today, there is still a shrine at
Rokusensawa (六線沢), where the event took place in memory of the victims of the incident.[211]
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Within Yellowstone National Park, injuries caused by grizzly attacks in developed areas averaged
approximately one per year during the 1930s through to the 1950s, though it increased to four per year during
the 1960s. They then decreased to one injury every two years during the 1970s. Between 1980 and 2002, there
have been only two human injuries caused by grizzly bears in a developed area. Although grizzly attacks were
rare in the backcountry before 1970, the number of attacks increased to an average of approximately one per
year during the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s.[212] In Alberta, from 1960 to 1998, the number of attacks by grizzly
bears ending in injury were nearly three times more common than attacks ending in injury by American black
bears, despite the American black bear being an estimated 38 times more numerous in the province than the
grizzly bear.[213]
History of defense from bears[edit]

A study by U.S. and Canadian researchers has found pepper spray to be more effective at stopping aggressive
bear behavior than guns, working in 92% of studied incidents versus 67% for guns.[214] Carrying pepper spray is
highly recommended by many authorities when traveling in bear country; however, carrying two means of
deterrent, one of which is a large caliber gun, is also advised. Solid shotgun slugs, or three buckshot rounds, or
a pistol of .44 caliber or more is suggested if a heavy hunting rifle is not available. Guns remain a viable, last
resort option to be used in defense of life from aggressive brown bears.[215] Too often, people do not carry a
proper caliber weapon to neutralize the bear. According to the Alaska Science Center, a 12-gauge shotgun
with slugs has been the most effective weapon. There have been fewer injuries as a result of only carrying
lethal loads in the shotgun, as opposed to deterrent rounds. State of Alaska Defense of Life or Property (DLP)
laws require one to report the kill to the authorities and salvage the hide, skull and claws. [216] A page at the State
of Alaska Department of Natural Resources website offers information about how to "select a gun that will
stop a bear (12-gauge shotgun or .300 mag rifle)".[217]
Campers are often told to wear bright-colored red ribbons and bells and carry whistles to ward off bears. They
are told to look for grizzly bear scat in camping areas and be careful to carry the bells and whistles in those
areas. Grizzly bear scat is difficult to differentiate from American black bear scat, as diet is in a constant state
of flux depending on the availability of seasonal food items. If a bear is killed near camp, the bear's carcass
must be adequately disposed of, including entrails and blood, if possible. Failure to move the carcass has often
resulted in it attracting other bears and further exacerbating a bad situation. Moving camps immediately is
another recommended method.[199]
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Culture[edit]
"The Story of the Three Bears", illustration from Childhood's Favorites and Fairy Stories
Brown bears often figure into the literature of Europe and North America, in particular that which is written for
children. "The Brown Bear of Norway" is a Scottish fairy tale telling the adventures of a girl who married a
prince magically turned into a bear and who managed to get him back into a human form by the force of her
love and after many trials and difficulties. With "Goldilocks and the Three Bears", a story from England, the
Three Bears are usually depicted as brown bears. In German-speaking countries, children are often told the
fairytale of "Snow White and Rose Red"; the handsome prince in this tale has been transfigured into a brown
bear. In the United States, parents often read their preschool age children the book Brown Bear, Brown Bear,
What Do You See? to teach them their colors and how they are associated with different animals.[218]
The Russian bear is a common national personification for Russia (as well as the former Soviet Union), despite
the country having no appointed national animal. The brown bear is Finland's national animal. [219]
The grizzly bear is the state animal of Montana.[220] The California golden bear is the state animal of California.
[221]
Both animals are subspecies of the brown bear and the species was extirpated from the latter state.
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The coat of arms of Madrid depicts a bear reaching up into a madroño or strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo) to
eat some of its fruit, whereas the Swiss city of Bern's coat of arms also depicts a bear and the city's name is
popularly thought to derive from the German word for bear. The brown bear is depicted on the reverse of the
Croatian 5 kuna coin, minted since 1993.
The Bundesliga club Bayern Munich has a brown bear mascot named Berni. The Chicago National Football
League (NFL) franchise is named the Bears. In this context, no differentiation between American black and
brown bears is needed. The school mascot for Bob Jones University, Brown University, Cornell
University, George Fox University, the University of Alberta, the University of California, Berkeley,
the University of California, Los Angeles, the University of California, Riverside, and numerous American
high schools is the brown bear.
In the town of Prats de Molló, in Vallespir, French Catalonia, a "bear festival" (festa de l'ós) is celebrated
annually at the beginning of spring, in which the locals dress up as bears, cover themselves with soot or coal
and oil and "attack" the onlookers, attempting to get everyone dirty. The festival ends with the ball de
l'ós (bear dance).

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The brown bear (Ursus arctos) is a large bear species found across Eurasia and North America.[1]

Kodiak bear on Kodiak Island

Least Concern (IUCN 3.1) [1]

Brown bear range map

Evolution and taxonomy[edit]

Generalized names and evolution[edit]

Eurasian brown bear (Ursus arctos arctos), the nominate subspecies

Possible grizzly-black bear hybrid in the Yukon Territory, Canada

Brown bear on a rock

Cranial morphology and size[edit]

Claws and feet[edit]

Distribution and habitat[edit]

Brown bear at Brooks Falls

Behavior and life history[edit]

Brown bear sounds

Brown bear roars

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Pair of mating brown bears at the Ähtäri Zoo in Ähtäri, Finland

Grizzly bear cubs often imitate their mothers closely

Kodiak bear cubs play-fighting

Main article: Dietary biology of the brown bear

Brown bear feeding on salmon

Interspecific predatory relationships[edit]

Brown bear being followed by a wolf

Longevity and mortality[edit]

Rear paw imprint

Relationship with humans[edit]

Ancient depiction of a brown bear in the arena (Papyrus 3053)

Bear encounters and attacks[edit]

History of defense from bears[edit]

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