COMPARISM BETWEEN MACHINE CRUSHED AGGREGATE AND HAND CRUSHED

AGGREGATE ON CONCRETE STRENGTH.

BY

IBRAHIM USMAN (13/32129/U/4)

&

EMMANUEL UDO GEORGE (12/30056/UT/2)

BLDR ADAMU SANI

Supervisor

APRIL 2019

1
 COMPARISM BETWEEN MACHINE CRUSHED AGGREGATE AND HAND

CRUSHED AGGREGATE ON CONCRETE STRENGTH.

BY

IBRAHIM USMAN (13/32129/U/4)

&

GEORGE EMMANUEL UDO (12/30056/UT/2)

A project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of

DEGREE IN BACHELORS OF TECHNOLOGY (B.TECH) in Building Technology.

Department of Building Technology

ABUBAKAR TAFAWA BALEWA UNIVERSITY

APRIL 2019

2
 DECLARATION

The work provided in this project, unless otherwise reference is the researchers own work and

has not been submitted elsewhere for any other qualification.

______________________________ ____________________

Ibrahim Usman Signature/Date

(Student)

______________________________ ____________________

Emmanuel Udo George Signature/Date

(Student)

3
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that IBRAHIM USMAN AND GEORGE EMMANUEL UDO carried out this

research titled “COMPARISM BETWEEN MACHINE CRUSHED AGGREGATE AND

HAND CRUSHED AGGREGATE ON CONCRETE STRENGTH” in partial fulfillment for

the award of Bachelor of Technology Degree in Building Technology.

BLDR ADAMU SANI ______________________________

Supervisor Signature Date

DR. BLBR.NURUDDEN USMAN ______________________________

Head of Department Signature Date

DR. BLDR. DIKO KADO ______________________________

External Supervisor Signature Date

4
 DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to Almighty Allah for his blessings, our beloved parents Mr A.M

Usman, Mrs Maryam Usman and Mr/Mrs Udo George Mathew for their support, love, tireless

motivation and prayers, my supervisors who had a lot of impact on my practical experience, the

entire lecturers building technology department ATBU, Our sister’s Salamatu Gidado and

siblings Zainab Usman, Hamra Usman and Rashida Usman, I also want to give gratitude to my

friends Yakubu Daud Onimisi and Salim Haruna for their moral and intellectual support and to

my greatest motivator John Confidence Chidimma.

iv

5
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My profound gratitude goes to the almighty Allah, for the gift of life, wisdom and divine

guidance. I wish to express my sincere gratitude to our parents for their moral support.

Secondly, our appreciation goes to our supervisors Bldr Adamu Sani and Dr I.Y

Muhammed for their guidance and encouragement. We thank you all on your efforts towards us.

Thirdly, my enormous gratitude goes to the entire staff and management of Building

Technology Department, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University. Finally, I am grateful to all my

family and relatives, friends and well-wishers.

6
 ABSTRACT

This project was conducted to compare the effect of machine and hand aggregate of

1/2inch and 3/4inch grading on Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) of machine crushed is 18.8% and

hand crushed is 21.5% while Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) for machine crushed is 27.6%

and hand crushed is 24.7% compressive and flexural strength concrete cubes of 150mm x

150mm x 150mm and concrete beams of 100mm x 100mm x 500mm were cast using 1:2:4

samples were cured by immersion in a water tank and their strength density where determined

for 7,21 and 28 days respectively. The result of 28 days average compressive strength 0f 12.7mm

and 19.7mm of machine aggregate are 19.85N/mm2 and 23.56N/mm2 while that of hand

aggregate are 15.70N/mm2 and 18.89N/mm2 while the flexural strength of machine aggregate are

10.6N/mm2 and 11.5N/mm2 and for hand aggregate are 7.3N/mm2 and 8.65N/mm2

vi

7
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page - - - - - - - - - I

Declaration - - - - - - - - ii

Certification - - - - - - - - iii

Dedication - - - - - - - - - iv

Acknowledgement - - - - - - - v

Abstract - - - - - - - - - vi

Table of Contents - - - - - - - vii

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION - - - - - - - - 1

1.1 Background of Study - - - - - - - 1

1.1.1 Classification of Aggregate - - - - - - - 3

1.1.2 Sources of Aggregate - - - - - - - - 4

1.2 Problem Statement - - - - - - - - 5

1.3 Aim and objectives of the study - - - - - - 5

1.4 Significance of Study- - - - - - - 5

1.5 Scope and Limitation- - - - - - - 6

8
CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW - - - - - - - 7

2.1 Workability of Concrete - - - - - - 7

2.2 Factors Affecting Workability - - - - - 9

2.2.1 Strength - - - - - - - - - 9

2.2.2 Water Tightness - - - - - - - - 10

2.2.3 Durability - - - - - - - - - 10

2.2.4 Chemical Resistance - - - - - - - - 11

2.2.5 Fire Resistance - - - - - - - - 11

2.3 Aggregate - - - - - - - - - 12

2.3.1 Properties of Aggregate - - - - - - - 12

2.3.2 Classification of Aggregate - - - - - - - 13

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Methodology - - - - - - - - - 15

3.1 Preparation of Materials - - - - - - 27

3.1.1 Cement - - - - - - - - - 27

9
3.1.2 Fine Aggregate - - - - - - - - 27

3.1.3 Coarse Aggregate - - - - - - - 27

3.1.4 Water - - - - - - - - - 28

3.2 Casting of Concrete - - - - - - - - 28

3.2.1 Testing Carried out - - - - - - - - 28

3.2.2 Particle size Distribution - - - - - - 28

3.2.3 Aggregate Impact Value AIV Test - - - - - - 30

3.2.4 Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) Test - - - - - 32

3.2.5 Slump Test - - - - - - - - 33

3.2.6 Compacting Factor Test - - - - - - 34

3.2.7 Flexural Strength of Concrete test (BS 12 part 4) - - - 35

3.3 Casting - - - - - - - - - 37

3.3.1 Concrete Mix Design - - - - - - - - 37

3.4 Production of Concrete Cubes - - - - - 39

3.4.1 Batching - - - - - - - - - 39

3.4.2 Mixing- - - - - - - - - - 26

3.4.3 Transportation - - - - - - - - - 26

10
3.4.4 Placing - - - - - - - - - 27

3.4.5 Compacting - - - - - - - - 27

3.4.6 Curing - - - - - - - - - - 27

3.5 Testing - - - - - - - - - 27

3.6 Flexural Strength (Beams) - - - - - - - 28

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 DISCUSSION AND RESULT - - - - - - 29

4.1 Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) Calculation and Result - - - 29

4.2 Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) Calculation and Result - - - 29

4.3 Slump Test Result - - - - - - - 30

4.4 Calculations - - - - - - - - 31

4.5 Compressive Strength Calculations, Result and Graphs - - - 32

4.5.1 Calculations - - - - - - - - 33

4.5.2 Calculations - - - - - - - - 44

11
CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENATION - - 45

5.1 Summary - - - - - - - - 45

5.2 Conclusion - - - - - - - - 46

5.3 Recommendation - - - - - - - 47

Reference

12
 LIST OF TABLE

Table2.1: British code of practice CP110:1972 factors for increase compressive strength of

concrete with age (average values)

Table 4.1: Result of Compressive strength test for 1/2 in (12.7mm) coarse

aggregate concrete cubes (machine crushed aggregate)

Table 4.2: Results of compressive strength test for 3/4 in coarse machine crushed aggregate

concrete cubes

Table 4.3: Results of compressive strength test for 1/2 inch hand crushed concrete cubes

Table 4.4: Results of compressive strength test for 3/4 inch hand crushed concrete cubes

Table 4.5: Result of flexural strength test

13
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: Relation between 7 days strength and the effect if richness mix ratio in concrete

Figure 2.2: Relation between 7 days strength and water/cement ratio for concrete with a rapid-

hardening Portland cement

Figure 2.3: Relative gain of strength with time of concrete with water/cement ratio with

ordinary Portland cement

Figure 2.4: Comparison of strength of concrete with a water ratio of 0.4 cast in

Lagos in Nigeria and in England

14
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Concrete is a major component of most of our infrastructural facilities today in the 21 st century

because of its versatility in use. Concrete is used more than any other man-made material in the

world. As of 2006, about 7.5 cubic kilometers of concrete were made each year—more than one

cubic meter for every person on Earth. The word concrete comes from the Latin word concretus

(meaning compact or condensed), the past participle of concresco, from com- (together) and

Cresco (to grow). The importance of concrete in modern society cannot be underestimated. The

coarse aggregate in normal concrete are mainly from rock fragments characterized by high

strength. Therefore, the aggregate interface is not a limiting factor governing the strength

requirement Beshr, Almusallam, and Maslehuddin (2003).

Concrete is used in making pavements, small bungalows, high-rise buildings, classroom blocks,

office buildings, dams, bridges, warehouses, and motorways/roads, bridges, parking structures,

fences and poles. In nutshell, concrete is applied in parts of foundations to buildings and used to

make floor slabs, columns, beams, lintels, roof, staircases, walls, arches, etc. Concrete is an

artificial stone-like material used for various constructional purposes and manufactured by

mixing cement and various aggregates, such as sand, pebbles, gravel, stone, shale, etc with water

and sometimes admixture and allowing the mixture to harden by hydration. Better still, concrete

could be a composite material, which is made up of filler and a binder Falade, (2009).

The binder which is the cement paste glues the filler together to form a synthetic conglomerate.

The constituents used for the binder are cement and water, while the filler can be fine or coarse

15
aggregates. English Engineer Joseph Aspdin patented Portland cement in 1824 and was so

named because of its similarity in color to Portland limestone, quarried from the English Isle of

Portland and used extensively in London architecture, it consists of a mixture of oxides

of calcium, silicon and aluminum. Portland cement and similar materials are made by

heating limestone (a source of calcium) with clay, and grinding this product (called clinker) with

a source of suphate (most commonly gypsum). According to NBRRI (2009), building failure

occur far more frequently during the construction period than in service. Construction business is

a capital intensive venture which has enormous cost and social implications when it fails this is

why Nawy, et al (1997), opined that, merely choosing the appropriate constituent materials for a

particular concrete is a necessity but not a sufficient condition for the production of high-quality

concrete. Remarking that, the materials must be proportioned correctly, and the concrete must

then be mixed, placed, and cured properly, and also there must be careful quality control of every

part of the concrete-making process which requires the full cooperation among the materials

supplier, the builder and the engineer.

Concrete fail when it can no longer provide the required strength to support its designed

load. The failure of Concrete can sometimes be mild with visible cracks and deflections or

severe, leading to partial or total collapse of the structure either during the construction or post-

construction stage. Incidences of failures of structures linked to bad concrete practice are

abounding in Nigeria particularly in our major cities such as Lagos, Port-Harcourt, and Abuja,

among others. The findings of the committee of enquiry that investigated the collapsed four-

storey building at Okpuno, Awka, Anambra state capital in September 2008 reported that the

building collapsed the same day the casting of the concrete third floor slab was concluded. The

incident took the lives of four persons. The report further revealed that among the causes of the

16
collapse was the use of sub-standard materials stating that “poor quality of stone aggregates

materials were used for concrete production”.

Aggregate are classified as follows:

Aggregate exist in wide variety and can be classified based on the following:

i. Shape texture

ii. Density

However, as far as construction is concerned aggregate are basically categorized into two:

i. Natural aggregates and

ii. Artificial aggregates

However, artificial aggregate can be sub-divided into three (3):

Heavy weight aggregate: these are aggregate with particle density ranging from

3000kg/m3 to 5500kg/m3.

Normal weight aggregate: these are aggregate with particle density ranging from

1200kg/m3 to 2500kg/m3.

Light weight aggregate: these are aggregate with particle density ranging from 30kg/m3

to 185kg/m3.

However, in terms of sizes aggregates that are below 5mm or 3/16 inch are known as fine

aggregate while the ones 5mm are called coarse aggregate.

17
Sources of coarse aggregates

Almost all aggregates materials originate from bed rocks. There are three (3) kinds of rocks

namely igneous. Sedimentary and metamorphic; this classification is based on the mode of

formation of rocks.

Aggregate from igneous rocks: most igneous rocks made highly satisfactory concrete aggregate

because they are normally hard, tough and dense. Igneous rock as a class are the most chemical

active concrete aggregate and show a tendency to react with alkalis in cement.

Aggregate from sedimentary rocks: igneous rocks or sedimentary rocks are subjected to

weathering agencies such as rain, wind and sun. The sedimentary rocks with the stratified

structures are quarried and concrete are derived from it. The quality of aggregate derive from

sedimentary rocks will vary in quality depending on cementing materials and the pressure under

which these rocks are originally compacted.

Aggregate from metamorphic rocks: many properties of aggregate depends mostly on the

quality of the parent rock. But there are some properties possessed by the aggregate which are

important so far as concrete making is concerned which have no relation with parent rock,

particularly, the shape and sizes.

1.2 Problem Statement

Concrete plays the key role in construction and a large quantum of concrete is being utilized in

every construction practice. Aggregate, which is one of the constituents used in the production of

18
concrete, is mostly chosen wrongly due to price difference and how easily accessible they are.

Aggregate type has effect on compressive strength of normal concrete due to size specification;

the material selected to for use could perhaps increase the Strength of concrete to enhance the

properties of concrete at the same time resulting in a better concrete mix Neville; A.M (1981)

1.1 Aim and Objectives of the Study

AIMS

To determine the effect of crushing method on mechanical properties of concrete

OBJECTIVES

The project will enable us to:

• Determine the proper aggregate sizes for concreting in a particular construction.

• To determine the (ACV) Aggregate Crushing Value of the hand-crushed and machine-

crushed aggregate.

• To determine the aggregate impact value (AIV) of the hand-crushed and machine-

crushed aggregate.

1.2 Significance of study.

The study seeks to determine the suitability of different aggregate sizes to be used in concrete

and come up with optimum results on concrete strength. Different cubes and cylinders will be

made containing varying proportions of Machine crushed aggregate and hand crushed

19
aggregate and the mix proportion yielding the maximum compressive and tensile strength shall

be selected as the ratio for the optimum mix.

1.3 Scope and limitation.

The study is limited to the following tests:

• Aggregate crushing value ACV test

• Aggregate impact value AIV test

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

20
2.0 General

It is a fact that in the building industry, beside structural design, concreting is one vital

aspect that needs technical knowledge and competence in construction.

The encyclopedia Britannica (1969) defined concrete as a structural material consisting

of a hard chemical inert particle substance known as aggregate (usually sand and gravel) that is

bounded together by cement and water, nevertheless concrete consist of various functional

properties and these properties are as follows:

2.1 Workability of concrete

The strength of concrete of a given mix proportion is affected to a large extent by the

degree of its compaction, it is vital therefore, that the consistency of the mix be such that the

concrete can be transported, placed and finished sufficiently, easily and without segregation.

From definition concrete satisfying this condition is said to be workable. The encyclopedia

Americana in other word, see concrete as being workable when it is (encyclopedia Americana

vol 7 pp 507-512)

• Properly proportional for transport and placed without segregation ( uniform distribution

of particles of aggregate).

• Easily mould into desired shapes that completely fill space that it is to occupy

• Easily finished

21
But to say merely that workability determines the ease of placement and the resistance to

segregation is to lose a description of the vital property of concrete.

However, other terms used in describing workability are consistency, plasticity and mobility.

Consistency is the degree of wetness or slump of a concrete mix; it varies directly with the

amount of water in the mix. Plasticity is the ease with which fresh concrete can be molded or

formed without segregation. Mobility is the capacity of concrete for movement or flow,

particularly during vibration. Nevertheless, the need for sufficient workability cannot be

overemphasis as a property of fresh concrete.

The need for compaction becomes apparent from a study of relation between the degree

of compaction and the resulting strength.

It is convenient to express the former as a density ratio, i.e. a relation of the actual density of

the given concrete to the density of the same mix if fully compacted. Likewise the ratio of the

strength of the same mix when fully compacted can be called the strength ratio. Therefore,

workability is so important such that it help us to prevent voids in concrete because the

presence of voids in concrete greatly reduces its strength 5% void can lower the strength by

as much as thirty percent and even two percent voids can result in a drop strength of more

than 10%.

2.2 Factors affecting workability

Neville (1981) explain that the main factor that affects workability of a concrete is the

water cement content of the mix expressed in kilograms of water per cubic meter of concrete.

It is convenient; though approximate to assumed that for a given type and grading of

22
 aggregate and workability of concrete, the water cement is independent of the

aggregate/cement ratio.

On the basis of this assumption, the mix proportions of concrete of different richness can

be estimated. If the water content and other mix proportions are fixed workability is

governed by the minimum size of aggregate, its grading shape and texture.

2.2.1 Strength

The prime objective of a mix design is to obtain a workable concrete with the specified

compressive strength, measured in Newton per millimeter square (N/mm2). Many properties of

hardened concrete increases with age, compressive strength of 28days is conventionally specified

for design purposes.

However, concrete in structure is subjected to compressive, tensile, flexural and sharing

forces. And therefore the strength of concrete is the ability to resist the stresses caused by these

forces. This important property determines the load carrying capacity of concrete structures.

Many factors influence the strength or properties of concrete. The principal factor is the water

cement ratio used in the concrete mix. In general a low water cement ratio makes a high quality

Portland cement paste. Because the paste is the binder in concrete, it has the most important

influence and the properties of concrete. These properties include water tightness, abrasion

resistance, shrinkage, density, compressive strength and durability.

In mixes that have low water cement ratios, the strength of concrete can be increased

significantly by increasing the total surface area of the aggregate.

2.2.2 Water tightness

23
 Although concrete is used extensively in dams, water tanks aqueducts, and other

structures, it is not completely water tight, since the excess water used to obtain workability

mixes creates capillary voids in concrete are very small the resulting permeability of concrete is

not significant for most cases. However, the ingress of water into a porous or permeable concrete

can cause it to reach the critical saturation point for freezing and thawing actions that deteriorate

it. If the concrete is porous or permeable, harmful salts and acids may permeate the inner

structure of the concrete. There is also a slow weakening of concrete structure when pure water

from rain or snow slowly dissolves the soluble content of hydrated Portland cement. The water

tightness concrete can be improved by use of the minimum amount of mixing water that is

practical for placement of the concrete. Density increasing agents which permit a reduction of

the amount of mixing water are sometimes used for this purpose.

2.2.3 Durability

The durability of concrete is its ability to resist the forces of deterioration. The forces that

cause concrete to deterioration include freezing and thawing water. Saturated concrete expansion

caused by the reaction between soil and water sulphates and the hydrated Portland cement and

expansion and shrinkage caused by wetting and drying respectively

2.2.4 Chemical resistance

Because hydrated Portland cement is chemically a base, it will react with most acids, these

reaction causes concrete to disintegrate.

Magnesium fluorosilicate or zinc hardens the surface of concrete and chemical action and

makes it more impervious to chemical attack, sodium silicate, lin seed oil have also been used as

protective coatings for concrete.

24
2.2.5 Fire resistance

Concrete is used extremely to fire proof of steel beams because it has a low thermal

conductivity. The structure of hydrated Portland cement does not break down until a temperature

of 2000F (1092c) is reached and the point of fusion of most aggregates is reached only at very

high temperatures.

The kind of aggregate that is used affects the fire resistance of concrete. Limestone or other

calcium-bearing aggregates are least effective in their resistance to fire. The basalt and related

igneous rock are more resistance than limestone or are less resistant than granite and sandstone.

Aggregate made of quartz and quartzite’s have highest resistance to fire.

2.3 Aggregate

Jackson and Khir (1996): Explain that aggregate is a material in a granular or particle form

such as sand, gravel or crushed stone, which is added to the class of material known as binder of

cements, hydraulic limes, fine sand bitumen to produce a solid mass of hardening for general

binding purposes, a fine aggregate is one that will mainly pass 5mm square mesh (BS) sieve and

a coarse aggregate that has substantial amount of both fine and coarse particles is termed as all-

in-aggregate.

To the civil engineer, the physical properties requirements as well as knowing their

characteristic of strength, porosity, density etc, of the aggregate are chosen carefully. The type

and size of the aggregate mixture depends on the thickness and purpose of the final concrete

product. Relatively thin building sections call for small coarse aggregates, though aggregates up

to 150mm are being used in construction e.g large dams. In adding aggregate should be clean and

free from any matter that might affect the quality of the concrete.

25
2.3.1 Properties of aggregate

Aggregate improve the volume stability and durability of the resulting concrete. This

means that an aggregate does not act as inert filler in concrete.

An aggregate characteristics is based on the behavior with regard to the following;

strength deformation, durability, toughness, hardness, volume change, porosity, specific gravity

and chemical reactivity. The strength of an aggregate determines also the compressive strength

of a concrete. And the strength of concrete does not exceed 80N/mm2 and generally between 30-

50N/mm2 and of the three rocks (igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks) that are used as

aggregate. Igneous rock is the strongest.

2.3.2 Classification of aggregates

In terms of construction aggregate are of two types which are

•Natural

•Artificial

•Heavy weight aggregates

•Natural Aggregate: Sand and gravel are the cheapest and most commonly used aggregate

in this country and it consists of particles of broken stone deposited by the action of river

and streams or generally more satisfactory than glacial deposits because the former

comprises rounded particles in a wide range of sizes and weaker materials have been

eroded by the washing and abrasive action of water. Glacial deposit tends to have angular

particles of a wide variety of sizes poorly graded which adversely affects the workability

of a concrete in which they are used.

26
 Crushed rock aggregate are generally more expensive than sand and gravel, owing to

the cost of quarrying and crushing of stones. Provide the stone is hard inert and well

graded it serves as an admirable aggregate for concrete.

The term “granite aggregate” is used commercially to describe a wide range of

crushed natural stones some of which are not true igneous rocks.

Natural granite is hard and dense and serves as an excellent aggregate.

Hard sand stone and close grain crystalline lime stone when crushed and graded

commonly used as aggregate in areas where sand and gravel are not available.

•Artificial aggregates: An example of the artificial aggregate is the blast furnace slag which

is that by product of the conversion iron are to pig iron and consist of the non ferrous

constituent of iron ore. The molten slag is tapped from the blast furnace and is cooled and

crushed. In areas where there is plentiful supply of blast furnace slag, it is economical

and satisfactory aggregate for concrete. Clean broken brick used as an aggregate for

concrete required to have produced by this aggregate depends on the strength and density

of the brick from which the aggregate is produced.

Crushed engineering brick aggregate will produce a concrete of medium crushing

strength porous brick aggregate should not be used for reinforced concrete work in exposed

position as the aggregate will absorbed moisture and encourage corrosion of the reinforcement.

a. Heavy weight aggregate: This has a specific gravity of about 4.0 or more example of is

as follows;

27
 i. Magnetic: This is a natural iron ore oxide (fe3o3) it can be used as a coarse or fine

aggregate and concrete mixes. It has high water absorption and a tendency to rust.

Concrete with densities 3000-3900kg/m3 can be readily obtained.

ii. Barytes(BaSO4): Barium ore has a specific gravity of 4.1 the density of the concrete

varies with different proportions, a value of 3700kg/m3 can be found.

2.3.3 Crushed Aggregate

Crushed aggregates are materials that form part of concrete, mortar or asphalt when mixed with

appropriate portions of water and a building agent like bitumen and cement. Crushed aggregate

are the granular filler material such as sand, stone dust, gravel, crushed stone, crushed blast-

furnace slag, etc. that are used with binder such as Portland cement to produce concrete or

mortar.

Comparison between hand crushed and machine crushed aggregates

Crushing of stones can be done in two ways; by machine and by hand. One of the main reasons

for using a machine to crush aggregate is that it requires less time than crushing manually.

Therefore, when time is a constraint and labour cost not significant issue, the developers often

opt for machine crushed aggregates for concrete construction.

However, such a choice made during the production of concrete does not always take account of

the fact whether machine crushed aggregate provide the desired quality concrete over the

manually crushed ones. The properties of the aggregate obtained by manual crushing vary

significantly to that produced by machine and in turn, are expected to affect the properties of

28
concrete. There is hardly any literature that addressed this phenomenon enlightening the

comparison of the properties of the machine and hand crushed aggregates.

The choice of aggregate crushing method may vary on many factors such as labour cost, project

duration, availability, and affordability of the technology, and many more. However, in terms of

only concrete properties, it is important to carry out this comparative study to develop a plan that

dhelps to decide which method of crushing aggregate shall be followed during construction.

Sample description:

Sieve size mm min%passing max%passing

12.5 35 80

9.5 20 55

4.75 0 10

2.63 0 5

Machine

crushed

37.7 100 100

25 100 100
Hand crushed
19 90 100

29
 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

3.1 CRUSHED ROCK AGGREGATES:

Crushed aggregate is quarried or excavated stone that has been crushed and screened to the

desired standard particle size and distribution. The particles of crushed aggregate are completely

crushed, this gives the products good compaction and load bearing properties.

Crushed stone aggregate are particularly suitable for use in the courses of streets, roads and other

areas exposed to traffic.

3.2 GRADATION OF AGGREGATE:

Gradation describes the particle size distribution of the aggregate. The particle size distribution is

an important attribute of the aggregates. Large aggregates are economically advantageous in

Portland cement and asphalt concrete, as they have have less surface area and, therefore, require

less binder.

However, large aggregate mixes, whether asphalt or Portland cement concrete, are harsher and

more difficult to work into place. Hence, construction considerations, such as equipment

capability, dimensions of construction members, clearance between reinforcing steel, and layer

thickness, limit the maxium aggregate size.

3.3 ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES:

Aggregate properties are defined by the characteristics of both the individual particles and the

characteristics of the combined material. Aggregate properties can be further described by their:

i. physical characteristcs

30
 i. Chemical characteristics

ii. Mechanical characteristics

Physical characteristics involves the particle shape; angularity, flakiness, elongation. Particle

size, particle surface texture, pore structure, soundness, volumetric stability etc.

Chemical characteristics involves solubility, surface charge, asphalt afinity, reactivity to

chemicals, volume stability etc.

Mechanical characteristics involves the compressive strength, toughness(impact resistance),

abrasion stability etc.

3.4 PARTICLE SHAPE AND SURFACE TEXTURE

The shape and texture of the individual aggregate particles determine how the material will

pack into a dense configuration and also determines the mobility of the stones within a mix.

 Aggregate shape- the particles can be classified as:

a) Rounded ; suitable to use in concrete because flaky and elongated particles

reduce workability, increase water demand and reduce strength.

b) Angular ; many specifications for coarse aggregates used in asphalt concrete

require a maximum percentage of aggregates with crushed faces as a surrogate

angularity and texture requirements.

c) Flaky ; flaky and elongated aggregates are undesireable for asphalt concrete,

since they are difficult to compact and are easy to break.

31
  Surface texture- particles are classified as:

a) Glassy; perfect for driveways, footpaths, borders and general landscaping etc.

b) Smooth; suitable to use so as to improve the workability of fresh concrete during

mixing

c) Granular ; used for production of glass and ceramics, and as raw material for the

manufacture of mortar.

d) Rough; desireable for asphalt concrete and base courses in order to increase the

stability of the materials.

3.5 Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) test

Determination of aggregate crushing value

3.5.1 Aim: To determine the aggregate crushing value of coarse aggregate

3.5.2 Principle: The aggregate crushing value gives a relative measure of the resistance of an

aggregate to crushing under a gradually applied compressive load. Crushing value is a measure

of the strength of the aggregate. The aggregates should therefore have a minimum crushing

value.

3.5.3 Apparatus: The apparatus of the aggregate crushing value test consists of

i. A 96mm diameter open ended steel cylinder with plunger and base plate

ii. A straight metal tamping rod of circular cross section 16mm diameter and 299mm long,
rounded at one end

iii. Weighing balance, readable and accurate up to 1g

32
 iv. A set of BS sieves of sizes 50, 19.1 and 2.0mm

v. A compression testing machine capable of applying a load of 40tonnes and which can be
operated to give a uniform rate of loading so that the maximum load is reached in
10minutes

3.5.4 Procedure: the test sample consists of aggregate sized 45mm for hand crushed aggregate
and 19mm for machine crushed aggregate.

i. Sample of coarse aggregate that passed through the 50mm and 19.1mm sieve was
prepared and which was retained on the 40 and 10mm sieve

ii. Sufficient aggregate for two test was prepared in a clean and dry condition

iii. Empty cylinder with base plate was weighed at 12.2kg

iv. The cylinder of the test was positioned on the base plate and the test samples added in
thirds, each layer being subjected to 25 strokes with the tamping rod

v. The surface of the aggregate was carefully levelled and weighed at 15.50kg for hand
crushed aggregate and 15.60kg for machine crushed aggregate

vi. Plunger was inserted so that it rests horizontally on the surface, care being taken to ensure
that the plunger does not jam in the cylinder

vii. The apparatus, with the test sample and plunger in position, were then placed between the
plates of the testing machine

viii. The load was applied at a uniform rate as possible so that the lod is reached in 10minutes

ix. The load was released and the whole of the material was removedfrom the cylinder and
sieved on 2.0mm BS sieve

x. The fraction passing the sieve was weighed and recorded.

3.6

33
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) Calculation and Result

AIV is the ratio of the mass of material passing 2.36mm sieve to the total mass of the sample.

First sample test result, machine crushed aggregate

Mass of material passing 2.36mm = 12.8g

Total mass of the sample 68.0kg

Therefore AIV = 12.8/68.0 x 100 = 18.8%

Second sample test result; hand crushed aggregate

Mass of material passing 2.36mm = 14.2g

Total mass of the sample = 66kg

Therefore AIV = 14.2/66 x 100 = 21.5%

34
The first result was okay because it fall within the ranges of 17 – 21% which is the standard

range for granite rock type. While the second result exceeded 21 with point 5 which shows that

the result is partially okay.

4.2 Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV); Calculation and Result

ACV is the ratio of the mass of material passing 3.36mm sieve

First sample test result; machine crushed aggregate

Mass of material passing sieve 3.38mm = 978.3g

Total mass of the sample = 3546.6g

Therefore ACV = 978.3/35466 x 100 = 27.6%

The result is okay provided it does not exceed the standard range of 23 – 30% (for granite rock

type)

Second sample test result; hand crushed aggregate

Mass of material passing sieve 3.36mm = 1226.7g

Total mass of the sample 3532.9g

Therefore ACV = 1226.7/3532.9 x 100 = 34.7%

The result is partially okay it exceed the standard range

4.3 Slump Test Result

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The slump test for mixing with ½ and ¾ machine crushed aggregate has a height of 27mm while

those of hand crushed aggregate has a height of 28.5mm which implies that the concrete is

workable. This falls under the range of height concrete reinforcement (25mm – 50mm).

4.4 Compaction Factor Test

First compacting factor test ½ machine crushed aggregate from the test carry out the compacting

factor was found to be calculated as follows:

Weight of partially compacted = 8.5kg

Weight of fully compacted = 10kg

Compacting factor = 8.5/10 = 0.85

Second compacting factor test ¾ machine crushed aggregate

Weight of partially compacted = 9.1kg

Weight of fully compacted = 10.3kg

Compacting factor = 9.1/10.3 = 6.88

First compacting factor test hand crushed ½

Weight of partially compacted = 8.49kg

Weight of fully compacted = 9.8kg

Compacting factor = 8.49/9.80 = 0.87kg

Second compacting factor test hand crushed ¾

36
Weight of partially compacted = 8.6kg

Weight of fully compacted = 11kg

Compacting factor = 8.6/11 = 0.78kg

4.5 Compressive Strength Calculations, Results and Graphs

4.5.1 Calculations

Mix ratio used is 1:2:4

Density of concrete = 2400kg/m3

Volume of cube = (150 x 150 x 150) 10-9m3

3.375 x 10-3m3

But

Density = mass/volume

Let M = mass of cube and

V = volume of cube

M/V

37
M=

2400 x 3.375 x 10-3

8.10kg

Let Mc = Mass of cement in a cube

But total ratio 1 + 2 + 4 = 7

M = 1/7 x 8.10 = 1.157kg

Let Mc = Mass of coarse aggregate in a cube

Mca = 4/7 x 8.10 = 4.629kg

Let Mfa = 2/7 x 8.10 = 2.314kg

Water/cement ratio = 0.6 x 1.157 = 0.96kg

4.5.2 Calculations

For beams

Volume of beam = (100 x 100 x 500) mm x 10-9

5 x 10-3m3

Density = mass/volume

Mass = 2400 x 5 x 10-3 = 12kg

Mass of cement in a beam = 1/7 x 12 = 1.7kg

38
Mass of fine aggregate in a beam

2/7 x 12 = 3.4kg

Mass of coarse aggregate in a beam

4/7 x 12 = 6.9kg

w/c = 0.6 x 1.7 = 1.02kg

Calculations

Pressure = force/area

Where area is the area of the cube

(150 x 150) mm2

22500mm2

Since the area of the cube are constant then,

The compressive strength of the cube for sample machine crushed of ½

For 7 days strength.

Crushing load of each cube

Cube 1 = 320kg

Cube 2 = 250kg

Cube 3 = 230kg

39
Total = 800kg

Average crushing load = 800/3 = 266.6kg

Mean compressive strength = average crushing load/22500

= 2266.67 x 103/22500 = 11.85N/mm2

For 21 days strength

Crushing load of each cube

Cube 1 = 370kg

Cube 2 = 350kg

Cube 3 = 330kg

Total = 1100kg

Average crushing load = 1100/3 = 366.67kg

Mean compressive strength = 366.67 x 103/22500 = 16.30N/mm2

For 28 days

Crushing load of each cube

Cube 1 = 470kg

Cube 2 = 410kg

Cube 3 = 460kg

40
Total = 1340kg

Average crushing load = 1340/3 = 446.67KN

Mean compressive strength = 446.67 x 102/22500 = 19.85N/mm2

The compressive strength of the cube for ¾ inch machine crushed

For 7 days strength

Crushing load of each cube

Cube 1 = 320

Cube 2 = 345

Cube 3 = 310

Total = 975

Average compressive strength = 975/3 = 325KN

Mean compressive strength 325 x 102/22500 = 14.44N/mm2

For 21 days

Crushing load of each cube

Cube 1 = 415

Cube 2 = 460

Cube 3 = 480

41
Total = 1355

Average compressive strength = 1355/3 = 451.67KN

Mean compressive strength 451.67 x 103/22500 = 20.07N/mm2

The compressive strength of the cube for ½ inch hard crushed for 7 days strength

Crushing load of each cube

Cube 1 = 155

Cube 2 = 100

Cube 3 = 85

Total = 340

Average compressive strength = 340/3 = 113.33

Mean compressive strength 113.33 x 102/22500 = 5.04N/mm2

For 21 days

Cube 1 = 260

Cube 2 = 290

Cube 3 = 300

Total = 850

Average crushing load = 850/3 = 283.33KN

42
Mean compressive strength 283.33 x 103/22500 = 12.59N/mm2

For 28 days

Cube 1 = 380

Cube 2 = 330

Cube 3 = 350

Total = 1060

Average crushing load = 1060/3 = 353.33KN

Mean compressive strength = 353.33 x 103/22500 = 15.70N/mm2

The compressive strength test for ¾ inch hand crushed for 7 days strength

Curing load for each cube

Cube 1 = 264

Cube 2 = 265

Cube 3 = 300

Total = 829

Average crushing load = 829/3 = 276.33KN

Mean compressive strength = 276.33 x 103/22500 = 12.28N/mm2

For 21 days

43
Cube 1 = 370

Cube 2 = 40

Cube 3 = 405

Total = 1175

Average crushing load = 1175/3 = 391.67KN

Mean compressive strength = 391.67 x 103/22500 = 17.41N/mm2

Modulus of rapture = PL/bd2

The flexural strength for machine aggregate ½ inch for 28 days

Beam 1 = 20.1

Beam 2 = 21.3

Beam 3 = 22.0

Total = 63.3

Average load = 63.3/3 = 21.1

fb = 21.1 x 102 x 500/100 x 1002 = 10.6N/mm2

The flexural strength for machine aggregate ¾ inch for 28 days

Beam 1 = 25

Beam 2 = 21

44
Beam 3 = 21

Total = 69

Average load = 69/3 = 32KN

fb = 23 x 102 x 500/100 x 1002 = 11.5N/mm2

The flexural strength for hand aggregate ½ inch for 28 days

Beam 1 = 14.1

Beam 2 = 14.8

Beam 3 = 15.0

Total = 43.9

Average load = 43.9/3 = 14.6KN

fb = 14.6 x 103 x 500/100 x 1002 = 7.3N/mm2

For ¾ inch

Beam 1 = 16.6

Beam 2 = 18.0

Beam 3 = 17.3

Total = 51.9

Average load = 52.9/3 = 17.3KN

45
fb = 17.3 x 113 x 500/100 x 1002 = 8.05N/mm2

Result of compressive strength test for ½ in (12.4mm) coarse aggregate concrete cubes (machine

crushed aggregate)

Table 4.1: Result of compressive strength test for ½ in (12.4mm) coarse aggregate concrete cubes

(machine crushed aggregate)

Cube Cube Cube mass Cube density Compressive Average compressive

No (days) kg kg/m3 strength N/mm2 N/mm2

A1 7 8.5 2519 320
A1 7 8.30 2459 250 11.85
A1 7 8.4 2489 230
B1 21 8.0 2370 370
B1 21 8.3 2459 350 16.30
B1 21 8.0 2370 380
C1 28 8.3 2459 470
C2 28 3.1 2400 410 19.85
C3 28 8.1 2400 460

Table 4.2: Result of compressive strength test for ¾ in coarse machine crushing aggregate concrete

cubes

Cube Cube Cube mass Cube density Compressive Average compressive

No (days) kg kg/m3 strength N/mm2 N/mm2

A1 7 8.0 2370 320
A1 7 8.2 2430 345 14.44
A1 7 8.1 2400 310
B1 21 7.9 2341 415
B1 21 8.2 2430 460 20.07
B1 21 8.0 2370 480
C1 28 8.0 2370 480
C2 28 7.9 2341 490 23.56
C3 28 8.1 2400 540
Table 4.3: Result of compressive strength test for ½ inch hand crushed concrete cubes

46
 Cube Cube Cube mass Cube density Compressive Average compressive

No (days) kg kg/m3 strength N/mm2 N/mm2

A1 7 8.4 2489 155
A1 7 8.1 2400 100 5.04
A1 7 8.0 2370 85
B1 21 8.2 2430 260
B1 21 8.0 2370 290 12.59
B1 21 7.9 2341 300
C1 28 8.4 2489 380
C2 28 8.1 2400 330 15.70
C3 28 8.3 2459 350

Table 4.4: Result of compressive strength test for ¾ inch hand crushed concrete cubes

Cube Cube Cube mass Cube density Compressive Average compressive

No (days) kg kg/m3 strength N/mm2 N/mm2

A1 7 7.9 2341 264
A1 7 8.0 2370 265 12.28
A1 7 8.1 2400 300
B1 21 7.1 2341 370
B1 21 8.0 2370 400 17.41
B1 21 8.3 2459 405
C1 28 8.2 2430 375
C2 28 8.3 2459 400 18.89
C3 28 8.2 2430 500

Table 4.5: Results of flexural strength test

Machine Aggregate ½ inch

Cube Cube Cube mass Force load KN Average load Modules of

No (days) kg KN rapture N/mm2

A1 28 11.6 20.1
A2 28 11.9 21.3 21.1 10.6
A3 28 11.0 22.0
Machine Aggregate ¾ inch

47
B1 28 11.2 25
B2 28 12.0 23 23.0 11.5
B3 28 12.1 21
Hand Aggregate ½ inch
C1 28 11.8 14.1
C2 28 11.8 14.8 14.6 7.3
C3 28 11.7 15.0
Hand Aggregate ¾ inch
D1 28 12.1 16.6
D2 28 12.0 18.0 17.3 8.65
D3 28 11.8 17.3

48
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 SUMMARY

In general the strength and elasticity of aggregate depends on the composition, texture and

structure of the aggregate. The effect of size decrease the water requirement and is dominant for

larger sizes the balance of the two effects depends on richness of the mix and therefore the use of

larger aggregate in construction of structures would require the hardly of a separate stock pile

and might increase the risk of segregation.

In general terms however concrete cast in summer can be expected to have a lower strength than

a similar mix cast in winter.

The compressive strength as shown in table 4.1 – 4.4 and the flexural strength as shown in table

4.5. The compressive values increase with increase in age.

The 28 days average compressive strength for 12.7mm (1/2 inch), 19.65mm (3/4 inch) of

machine aggregate are 19.85N/mm3 and 23.56N/mm2 while that of hand aggregate are

15.70N/mm2 and 18.89N/mm2 respectively while the flexural strength are 10.6N/mm 2 and

11.5N/mm2 while for hard aggregate they are 7.3N/mm2 and 8.65N/mm2.

49
However, it is observed that the values obtained from machine aggregate 28days are the highest.

This indicate that the machine aggregates are stronger than hand aggregate this is because the

hand aggregate has been expose to heal condition for easy breaking down to other require sizes.

CONCLUSION

Aggregate type has effect on the compressive strength of normal concrete, highest compressive

strength was achieved from concrete made with machine crushed aggregate. Concrete containing

hand crushed aggregate was weaker in strength, it is suggested that the machine crushed

aggregate may be employed for concrete work in places where concrete practitioners have both

options to choose from.

50
RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the practical conducted the following recommendations are made:-

I. Machine crushed aggregate are stronger than hand crushed and the highest the

size of the aggregate the stronger the aggregate.

II. All the values fall within the range of normal weight concrete density 2200kg/m3.

III. Machine crushed aggregate could be used for concrete used for wearing surfaces

such as roads and airfield points while hand crushed can be used for concreting

works.

IV. The curing strength development depends on both time and temperature.

V. Construction company should adopt the method of measuring materials by

batching by weight because it facilitates accuracy, simplicity and flexibility.

VI. Lack of adequate quality control in concrete mix and production results in low

strength of the hardened concrete.

VII. The use of high weight aggregate reduces the dead weight of a structure allowing

the uses of smaller supporting members and foundation at reduced cost.

51
 REFERENCE

ACI Committee 211.1-91 (1991), Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for

Normal, Heavyweight and Mass Concrete. Detroit, American

Concrete Institute.

Beshr, H., Almusallam, A.A., and Maslehuddin, M., (2003), Effect of Coarse

Aggregate Quality on the Mechanical Properties of High Strength

Concrete, Construction and Building Materials, 17(2), pp

97-103.

Bloem, D.L (1989) Effect of Maximum size of aggregate on strength of concrete,

National Sand & Gravel, Washington Circular No 74

British Code of practice CP 110, (1972): The structural use of concrete.

British standard institution BS 1881 (1970), Method of testing concrete for strength

part 3 & 4.

52
British standard institution BS 882 (1973) specification for aggregate from Natural

Sources for concrete: part 2.

Encyclopedia America vol.7, Pp, 507-512

Ferguson, P.M.(1981); Reinforced Concrete fundamentals, forth edition, Texas John

Wiley & Sons Pp.5 & 6.

Jackson, Neil & Dhir, Ravindra K. Edited (1996) Civil Engineering Materials 5th

Edition, Palgrave CO. China.

M.S, Shetty (2009), Concrete Technology, Theory & Practice, Multicolour Edition,

S.Chand & Company Ltd Pp. 311 & Pp 74-75, Pp.219-221, Pp.311

& Pp.458-460

National Ready Mixed Concrete Association, Aggregate Degradation during mixing,

Technical information Letter, Marry land No. 341 Pp.8

Neville; A.M (1981) Properties of Concrete; Pitman Published London, Third Edition

Pp 165-166, Pp. 196-197, Pp. 274-290.

Steven H . Kosmatka, et al (2002); Design & Control of concrete mixtures, EB101,

7th Edition, Cement Association of Canada Pp.79-87, Pp.173-178.

53