CHAPTER 2: DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

Introduction

This chapter is essential in a daily practice of physics. A verification of the homogeneity of the
results obtained often makes it possible to detect errors.

To have a precise approach to a physical phenomenon, one must be able to describe it

quantitatively. For this, it is necessary to be able to measure the physical quantities involved. These
measured physical quantities verify laws that link them together by mathematical formulas. So
we're going define what a measurable physical quantity is and come back to the notion of unit
system.

I. Physical quantities and systems of units

1. Definition

Physics quantity:

A physical quantity is the property of a phenomenon, a body or a substance, which can be

expressed quantitatively in the form of a number and a reference called unit.

The measurement of a physical quantity X can therefore always be written in the form:

X= x unit

with x been a real value, unit: the unit chosen to evaluate the quantity X.

2. Rules for giving the numerical expression of a physical quantity

The numerical expression of a physical quantity must always be done according to the following
rules.

Rule 1: it is imperative to specify the unit of a physical quantity.

Rule 2: The result of a numerical calculation must agree with the accuracy of the data used to carry
out this calculation, it is necessary to respect the rules with the significant figures.

- If the uncertainty on the quantity is known: the result is given with the same number of decimal
places (figures after the comma) as that of the uncertainty (to condition of having the same
scientific writing of uncertainty and magnitude).

Otherwise, we will retain the rules to use: In the case of multiplications or divisions: the result is
given with the same number of significant digits as the data least precise, using scientific notation.
In the case of additions or subtractions: the result is given with the same number of decimal places
(digits after the comma) than that of the least precise data (provided that the same power of 10 is
kept).

3. Units of the international system (I.S.)

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To measure a physical quantity is to determine the relationship between this quantity and another
quantity of the same nature chosen as unit. To build a "coherent" system it was necessary to:

 choose a minimum number of independent quantities allowing the description of all

physical sciences: these quantities are associated with the base units,
 choose the nature of these quantities, the aim being that the base units are defined with
the best possible precision: the base units are defined from fundamental standards.
 choose definition relations of derived quantities (or relative quantities)

Until the 18th century there was no unified measurement system. In 1795, there were more than
seven hundred different units of measurement in France. These units were not fixed: they varied
from town to town, from corporation to the other, but also according to the nature of the measured
object. Volume measurements and those in length had no connection between them. For each unit
of measurement, the multiples and submultiples were staggered randomly, making everything
extremely laborious for calculation.

Consequently, there were source of errors and fraud during commercial transactions. This situation
was also detrimental to the development of science. As industry and trade were gaining
momentum, the need for harmonization was becoming more and more pressing. First, the
measurement of lengths was unified thanks to the metric system: the meter was born in 1791. And
it was only in 1960 that an international system was officially born, defining the 7 basic units for
describing all of the physical sciences. Since the most universal physical constants are given in
units of the international system.

Physical Quantities Name of Unit Symbols

Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Electrical Current Intensity Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Light Intensity Candela Cd
Quantity of Matter Mole mol

To these units, we can add a so-called complementary unit: although the angles are quantities
without units, to avoid confusion (between degrees and radians for example) a plane angle is
assigned the complementary unit radian. The figure below recalls the definition of a plane angle
in radians.

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 4. Derived units

The derived units are numerous and complement the base units. They can have special names but
can still be expressed from base units.

Magnitude: relation of definition Expression in SI Possible name and

base units symbol
Length L m
Surface S = L2 m2
volume V = L3 m3
Time T s
Speed v = L/T m.s-1
Acceleration a = v/T m.s-2
Frequency f = 1/T s-1 Hertz (Hz)
pulsation ω = angle/T rad.s-1
Mass M kg
Volumic mass ρ = M/V kg.m-3
Force F = Ma kg.m.s-2 Newton (N)
Work, energy E or Q or W = kg.m2.s-2 Joule (J)
Power FL kg.m2.s-3 Watt (W)
pressure P = W/T kg.m-1.s-2 Pascal (Pa)
p = F/s
Current I A
Charge q = IT As Coulomb (C)
Potential difference, e or U = P/I kg.m2.s-3.A-1 Volt (V)
emf R = U/I kg.m2.s-3.A-2 Ohm (Ω)
Resistance G = 1/R kg-1.m-2.s3.A2 Siemens (S)
Conductance C = q/U kg-1.m-2.s4.A2 Farad (F)
capacity

Finally, each quantity may have to cover a wide range of values. To avoid having to use
multiplicative factors or values with large number of zeros, we use prefixes. These will cover a
range from 1024 to 10-24 times unity. Let us recall the most used multiples.

Multiple 10-15 10-12 10-9 10-6 10-3 10-2 10-1 101 102 103 106 109 1012 1015
Prefix femto pico nano micro milli centi deci deca hecto kilo mega giga tera peta
Symbol f p n µ m c d da h k M G T P

5. Some units not belonging to the international system

Magnitude Name Value in I.S.

Length Miles 1852m
Surface Are 1a = 100 m2
volume Liter 1L = 10-3m3
Astronomical unit 1ua ≈ 1,50×1011 m
Light year 1 al = 9,461×1015 m

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 Angle Tour 1 tr = 2π rad
Degree 10 = π/180 rad
Mass Gramm 1g = 10-3 kg
Energy Tonne 1 t = 103 kg
Pressure Atomic mass unit 1 u = 1.66×10-27 kg
Electron-volt 1 Wh = 3600 j
Calorie 1 eV = 1.6×10-19 j
Bar 1 cal = 4.8j
Tor (or mm of mercury) 1 bar = 105 Pa
atmosphere 1 mmHg = 133,322 Pa
1 atm = 760 mmHg = 1.013×105 Pa
Time Minute 1 min = 60 s
Speed Hour 1 h = 3600 s
Angular speed Day 1 d = 86400 s
Kilometer per hour 1/3.6 m.s-1
Node 1852/3600 m.s-1
Tour per second 1 tr.s-1 = 2π rad.s-1
Temperature Degree Celsius T/ C = T/K – 273.15
0

II. Dimensions of physical quantities and homogeneity of an equation

1. Dimension of a quantity

The dimension of a quantity corresponds to what this quantity represents, it informs on its nature.
It is a more general characteristic than its unit, the choice of which is adapted to the scale of the
phenomenon studied.

Although the two are related, it is important to distinguish between physical quantity and its unit:

Two quantities of the same dimension can be given in different units.

However, the analysis of the unit of a quantity makes it possible to find its dimension (and vice
versa).

By convention, the dimension of a quantity will be given as a function of seven fundamental

dimensions (there are as many fundamental quantities as there are units of base). The dimension
of a quantity G is expressed in the form:

dim G = Mx Ly Tz θa Ib Nc Jd ,

with real numbers as dimensional exponents (positive or negative).

Fundamental mass length time Electric temperature Light Quantity

dimension current intensity of
matter
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 Unit (I.S.) kg m s A K cd Mol
Dimensional M L T I θ J N
symbol

Some physical quantities can be dimensionless:

A purely numerical quantity is said to be dimensionless. This is the case for all quantities defined
as the ratio of two quantities of the same dimension.

2. Homogeneity of an equation

The mathematical relations translating the physical laws must be homogeneous: this requires that
both members have the same dimension (i.e. represent the same magnitude).

Checking the homogeneity of an equation constitutes a dimensional analysis. This can be done
only if the expression is literal, i.e. no quantity has been replaced by its numerical value
(verification of homogeneity must be independent of the choice of units). For an equation to be
homogeneous, the following rules must be verified:

 You can only add or subtract quantities of the same dimension

 The two members of an equality or an inequality must have the same dimension:

If A= B+C, then dim(A)= dim(B)= dim(C), but dim(A) ≠ dim(B) +dim(C), indeed the dimensions
do not add up, so it is not correct to write dim(B) + dim(C)

Example: a mass of 5 kg added to a mass of 2 kg is always a mass and not a "double mass"

Consider three quantities A, B and C

- If A = B x C then dim(A) = dim(B) x dim(C)

- If A = Bx × Cy then dim(A) = dim(B)x × dim(C)y

-A real number is dimensionless.

- The arguments of mathematical functions (cosine, exponential, logarithm, etc.) are

dimensionless.

3. Determination of units by dimensional analysis

Dimensional analysis can also help to find the dimension and unity of a quantity if we know an
equation linking this quantity to others of known size.

For certain quantities, it is absolutely necessary to know some equations by heart in order to
quickly find their dimension and their unit.

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4. Prediction of a physical law by dimensional analysis and Order of magnitude concept

Dimensional analysis can predict the shape of a physical law in order to find the solution to certain
problems without having to solve an equation: for many studied physical phenomena we can
express a magnitude characteristic of the phenomenon (denoted G) according to the parameters
influencing the phenomenon (noted pi) in the form:

G = k × p1a × p2b × ….

with : a , b… dimensionless constants that can be determined using the dimensional analysis, k is
a dimensionless constant that cannot be determined using dimensional analysis.

Method:

1. List all the parameters (independent of each other) that can depend on the characteristic
magnitude of the phenomenon: p1, p2 , …

2. Write the physical law in the form: G = k × p1a × p2b × …

3. Write the corresponding dimensional equation: then define the dimensions of each quantity
using the fundamental dimensions M, L, T, N,… (the constant is dimensionless, so it does not
appear in the dimensional equation.)

4. The two terms must be of the same dimension so the exponent of each fundamental dimension
must be identical on both sides of the equality. We deduce as many equations as there are
dimensions.

5. We solve the system of equations which unknowns are the dimensional exponents.

This method does not make possible the determination of the exact law because it does not make
it possible to determine the dimensionless constant k. But experiment proves that this constant
often remains of the order of magnitude of unity (generally understood between 0.1 and 10, it often
shows a multiple of π). So, we can determine an order of magnitude of the value of G, knowing
the values of numerical parameters influencing the phenomenon.

An order of magnitude is a range of values. This will, commonly go from one tenth to ten times
the given order of magnitude. Thus, if we say that "the order of size is one meter" it means that the
length of the object is between 10 cm and 10m. Giving an order of magnitude therefore means
giving a power of 10.

5. A few orders of magnitude

Before starting a calculation or solving a problem, it is important to have in mind an idea of an

approximated value of the result. Thus we can check the consistency of the numerical result
obtained at the end of the reasoning, comparing with known orders of magnitude. Here are a few

Orders of magnitude of length: in meters

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Orders of magnitude of mass: in kg

Orders of magnitude of volumic mass:

Volumic mass of a solid: 103 kg.m-3

Volumic mass of an atmospheric pressure gas at room temperature: 1 kg.m -3

Orders of magnitude of pressure:

Atmospheric pressure: 105 Pa
Pressure in space: 10-8 - 10-11 Pa
Pressure at oceans holes: 108 Pa

Orders of magnitude of time:

Life span of some particles: 10-24 s
Period of a light wave in the visible spectrum: 10 -15 s
Period of a sound wave: 10-3 s
Light Travel time of sun to earth: 103 s
School year: 107 s
Human life: 109 s
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Age (supposed) of the universe: 1018 s

6. A bit of history

The establishment of a universal measurement system initially focused on the unit of length
measurement. The idea of politicians and scientists of the 18 th century was to ensure the
invariability of measurements by relating them to a standard borrowed from a natural phenomenon,
a universal standard which would not be based on no national vanity, allowing the membership of
all foreign nations.

Several references were considered, but it was the length of the quarter of the meridian which was
chosen by a commission constituted by the French Academy of sciences of renowned scholars
(Borda, Condorcet, Lagrange, Lavoisier, Monge). In March 25, 1791 was born the meter (from the
Greek "metron" meaning measure), whose length was established as equal to the ten millionth part
of a quarter of the terrestrial meridian, meridian measured at the time in fathoms by two
astronomers: J.-B. Delambre and P. Mechain. Thus, in 1799, a meter- platinum standard.

The basic unit of measurement having been determined, it was now "sufficient" to establish all the
other units of measurement that resulted from it: the square meter and the meter cube, liter, gram
.... The decimal metric system is then instituted on April 7, 1795 by the law “relative to weights
and measures”. This is a major upheaval human practice. Decimalization introduced a real
revolution in the calculation of surfaces and volumes. Any transition from a multiple surface to a
sub-multiple, takes place by simply sliding the decimal point by two places, three ranks in the case
of volume.

Similarly, a commission is responsible for determining a standard for the unit of mass, which will
be defined as the mass of one cubic decimeter of water at the melting temperature of ice. A
platinum standard will also be deposited in the Archives of France (now kept at the Pavillon de
Breteuil in Sèvres). The metric system is then spread outside France and the International Bureau
of Weights and Measures (BIPM installed in the Breteuil pavilion) was created in 1875, during an
international diplomacy conference resulting in the signing of the “meter convention” by 17 states.
Since then, a conference regularly brings together delegates from member states (the General
Conference on Weights and Measures CGPM) in order to make metrology decisions. It is also the
11th general conference on weights and measures, in 1960, which will define the current
international system of units (SI).

The definitions of the base units of the I.S. have evolved throughout history as soon as precision
needs were no longer met. Measurement methods and standards themselves are constantly
progressing and renewing themselves. The works concerning the fundamental standards, carried
out in particular by the laboratories of Metrology Institutes and by the BIPM, will probably never
end.

Here are some information on the current standards of the seven base units of the I.S.

Fundamental standards (I.S. revised in November 2018):

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  A meter is the length of the path traveled in vacuum by light in 1/299,792,458 second.

 A second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of radiation corresponding to the

transition between two hyperfine levels of the fundamental state of the cesium 133 atom.

 A kilogram was the mass of the platinum-iridium prototype deposited at the Pavillon de
Breteuil in Sèvres, but since November 16, 2018 it is defined from Planck's constant.

 The ampere was defined as the intensity of a constant electric current which, maintained
in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length of negligible circular section, and
placed at a distance of 1 m from each other in vacuum, would produce between these
conductors a force of 2.10-7 Newton per meter length. It is now defined by setting the
numeric value of the elementary charge.

 kelvin was defined as the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamics temperature of the triple
point of water. The new definition of 2018 aims to respect this value, but anchoring it on a
fixed value of the Boltzmann constant

 The mole was defined as the quantity of matter containing as many elementary entities that
there are atoms in 12g of carbon 12. It is now defined as the amount of matter in a system
containing exactly 6.02214076.1023 elementary entities (atoms, ions, molecules, etc.)

 The candela is the luminous intensity of the monochromatic radiation of frequency

540.1012 hertz, corresponding to an energy intensity of 683 watts in a direction defined by
a solid angle of 1 steradian.

The revision of the SI system adopted at the 26th General Conference of Weights and measures on
November 2018 was intended to redefine certain units based on the constants of nature.

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