NAMA : YUDHA SEPTA DIAS P

NIM : 12203193120

MATA KULIAH : ENGLISH PHONOLOGY

KELAS : TBI 1B
C. Classification of Consonant
1. Voiced or Voiceless
A major division among speech sounds which is relevant for all languages is the dichotomy
of voiced and voiceless. If you put your fingers on your ‘Adam’s apple’ or ‘voicebox’
(technically the larynx), and produce a very long [zzzzzzz], you should feel vibration; this shows
that [z] is a voiced sound. On the other hand, if you make a very long [sssssss], you will not feel
the same sort of activity: [s] is a voiceless sound. This phonetic property distinguishes the words
in pairs like the following .

Example : Rope/Robe , Fate/Fade Rack/Rag wreath/wreathe

[Rop]/[Rob] [Fet]/[Fed] [ræk]/[ræg] [riθ]/[rið]

The first word of each pair ends with a voiceless sound and the second word with a voiced
sound. All other aspects of the sounds in each word pair are identical; the position of the lips and
tongue is the same. The voiced/ voiceless distinction also occurs in the following pairs, where in
each case the first word begins with a voiceless sound and the second with a voiced sound:

fine/vine seal/zeal choke/joke

[faɪn]/[vaɪn] [sil/zil] [ʧok]/[ʤok]
peat/beat tote/dote kale/gale
[pit]/[bit] [tot]/[dot] [kel]/[gel]

2. Oral or Nasal

For most sounds, air passes from the lungs, up through a long tube composed of the
trachea, or windpipe; the larynx; and the pharynx, which opens out into the back of the oral
cavity. The air passes the various articulators in the mouth, and exits at the lips; The key to
whether air can flow through the nose is the velum, or soft palate, which you can identify by
curling the tip of your tongue up and running it back along the roof of your mouth until you feel
the hard, bony palate giving way to something squashier.

For oral sounds, the velum is raised and pushed against the back wall of the pharynx,
cutting off access to the nose. However, for [m], [n] and [ŋ] in ram, ran and rang, the velum is
lowered, so that air moving up from the lungs must flow through the nose. If you produce a long
[s], you will be able to feel that air is passing only through your mouth; conversely, if you hum a
long [m], you will notice that air continues to flow through your nose while your lips are pressed
together, with that closure being released only at the end of the [m].
 Nasal sounds, like [m] and [n], are produced with air only passing through the nasal
cavity for at least part of their production. On the other hand, nasalized sounds, like the vowel in
can, preceding a nasal consonant, as opposed to the vowel in cat, which precedes an oral one, are
characterized by airflow through both nose and mouth simultaneously

3. Manner of Articulation

a. Stops : If the active and passive articulators actually touch, stopping airflow through the oral
cavity completely for a brief period, the sound articulated is a stop. Stops are consonants in
which the airstream is completely blocked in the oral cavity for a short period (tens of
milliseconds).
• [p], [b], and [m] are bilabial stops, with the airstream stopped at the mouth by the complete
closure of the lips.

• [t], [d], and [n] are alveolar stops; the airstream is stopped by the tongue, making a complete
closure at the alveolar ridge.

• [k], [g], and [ŋ] are velar stops, with the complete closure at the velum.

• [ʧ] and [ʤ] are palatal affricates with complete stop closures.

English [m], [n] and [ŋ] are therefore nasal stops, although they are typically referred to
simply as nasals, as there are no distinctive English nasals involving other manners of
articulation. All these nasals are also voiced. Finally, some varieties of English also have
subtypes of stops known as taps or trills. While a plosive is characterised by a complete
obstruction of oral airflow, followed generally by release of that airflow, a tap is a very quick,
ballistic movement where the active articulator strikes a glancing blow against the passive one;
interruption of the airstream is real, but extremely brief. Many Scots speakers have a tapped
allophone [ɾ] of the phoneme /r/ between vowels, as in arrow, very; many American speakers
have a similar tap as a realisation of /t/ in butter, water. Trills are repeated taps, where the active
articulator vibrates against the passive one. Trilled [r] is now rather uncommon for speakers of
English, although attempts at imitating Scots often involve furious rolling of [r]s.

b. Fricative : During the production of a fricative, the active and passive articulators are brought
close together, but not near enough to totally block the oral cavity. This close approximation of
the articulators means the air coming from the lungs has to squeeze through a narrow gap at high
speed, creating turbulence, or local audible friction, which is heard as hissing for a voiceless
fricative, and buzzing for a voiced one. English [f] five and [s] size are\ voiceless fricatives,
while [v] five and [z] size are voiced. The subclass of affricates consists of sounds which start as
stops and end up as fricatives; but as we shall see in Chapter 5, they behave as single, complex
sounds rather than sequences. Stops generally involve quick release of their complete
articulatory closure; but if this release is Introduction to English Phonology slow, or delayed, the
articulators will pass through a stage of close approximation appropriate for a fricative. The two
relevant sounds for English are [tʃ], at the beginning and end of church, and its voiced equivalent
[d], found at the beginning and end of judge. If you pronounce these words extremely slowly,
you should be able to identify the stop and fricative phases.

Fricatives [f] [v] [θ] [ð] [s] [z] [ʃ] [ӡ] [x] [ɣ] [h] . The first of each the following pairs of
fricatives is voiceless; the second voiced.

• [f] and [v] are labiodental fricatives; the friction is

created at the lips and teeth, where a narrow passage permits the air to escape.

• [θ] and [ð] are interdental fricatives, represented by

th in thin and then. The friction occurs at the opening between the tongue and teeth.

• [s] and [z] are alveolar fricatives, with the friction created at the alveolar ridge.

• [ʃ] and [ӡ] are palatal fricatives, and contrast in such pairs as mission [mɪʃən] and measure
[mɛӡər].

• [x] and [ɣ] denote velar fricatives. They are produced by raising the back of the tongue toward,
but not quite touching, the velum.

• [h] is a glottal fricative. Its relatively weak sound comes from air passing through the open
glottis and pharynx.

All fricatives are continuants. Although the airstream is obstructed as it passes through the oral
cavity, it is not completely stopped.

c. Approximants

It is relatively easy to recognise a stop or fricative, and to diagnose the articulators involved,
since these are either touching or so close that their location can be felt. In approximants, on the
other hand, the active and passive articulator never become sufficiently close to create audible
friction. Instead, the open approximation of the articulators alters the shape of the oral cavity,
and leads to the production of a particular sound quality.

There are four approximant consonant phonemes in English:

/j/ yes, /w/ wet, /r/ red (although as we have seen, /r/ may have a tapped allophone for some
speakers) and /l/ let. All these approximants are voiced. The first three are central approximants,
whereas [l] is a lateral approximant. Although in this chapter we focus on the sounds of English,
the IPA has symbols and classifications for all the sounds of the world’s languages.

d. Affricates [ʧ] [ʤ]

These sounds are produced by a stop closure followed immediately by a gradual release
of the closure that produces an effect characteristic of a fricative. The palatal sounds that begin
and end the words church and judge are voiceless and voiced affricates, respectively. Affricates
are not continuants because of the initial stop closure

c. liquids

in the production of the sound and, there is some obstruction of the airstream in the
mouth, but not enought to couse any real constriction or friction.

 Lateral liquid
A lateral liquid is a sound in which the flow of air out ofthe body is redirected around
the tongue and toward the sides of mouth before exiting through the lipd .engglish has two
lateral liquid ,the alveolar lateral appromate in which the tongue is brought near ,the alveolar
ridge ,forcing the air around the tongue toward the sides of the mouth before being allowed
to exit. occur in syllable initial position for example like ,melon ,and hello .the syllablefinal
sound is referred to as velarized alveolar laterral approximate , meaning that in addition to
the tip of the tongue being brought near the alveolar ridge ,the back of the tongue is raised
toward the velum as well. occurs in syllable final position for example full ,little ,and
belfry.as with nasals ,the order of articulation is reversed between syllable initial and
syllable final lateral.
 Non lateral liquids
A non lateral liquid is a sound in which the flow of air out of the body is altered by the
shape of the tongue ,ussualy flowing over the tongue resonating near the roof of the mouth
before exiting through the lips.
f. glides

the sound j and w , the initial sound of you and we, are produced with little obstruction of
the airstream. They are always followed directly by a vowel and do not occur at the ends of
word [ dont be fooled by spelling words ending in y or w like say and sow end in a vowel
sound] after articulating j or w ,the tongue glides quickly into place for pronouncing the
next vowel, hence the term glide.

g. trills and flaps

the r-sound of many languages may be different from the english [r]. A trilled r is
produced by rapid vibration of an articulator.

Another r sound is called a flap and is produced by a flick of the tongue against the
alveolar ridge .it sounds like a very fast d. It occurs in spanish in word like pero meaning
’but’.it may also occur in british english in words such as very.

h.clicks

these ’’exotic’’ sounds are made by moving air in the mouth between various
articulators .the sound of disapproval often spelled tsk is an alveolar click that occurs in
several languages of southern africa such as zulu. A lateral click , which is like the sound
one makes to encourage a horse.

i.t-sound

the articulator of T are the tip of tongue and the alveolar ridge .

there are three kind of T sound ;

a) True T;
When T at the beginning of a word ,ex; in the TR cluster[train ,try]
T it can be CH in the words to, today, tomorrow, tomato.
b) Flap T;
When T between two vowels or diphtong [beautiful,city]
When T after an R before a vowels or diphtong [party,dirty]
c) Stop T
When T is followed by a consonant sound [definetly,bluently]
When the T is the lastr sound [fact,best]

j. Tap..Tap..tap

tap is a regular prounounciation of/t,n,d/in word latter, ladder, tanner. The articulator is
the tip of the tongue contact the dental or alveolar , roof and floor of mouth then up and
down

k.sibilance
 sibilance is a literary device where strongly stressed consonant are created deliberately by
producing air from vocal tracts through the use of lips and topngue . such consonant produce
hissing sound

there are six sound os sibilance.

 /s/ - ’’suit ’’ and ’’bus ’’ – air is forced through tongue and alveolar ridge [ alveolar ]
 /z/ - ’’zit’’ and ’’jazz’’ – air is forced through tongue and alveolar riodge [alveolar]
 Shot and brash – air is forced through the tongue and point just beyond alveolar ridge
[ pastalveolar]
 Vision and measure – air is forced through the tongue and point just beyond alveolar ridge
[post-alveolar]
 Chick and match – air is blocked with tongue just beyond the alveolar ridge [ post-alveolar
], then released as a fricative.
 Jam and badge – air is blocked with tongue just beyond the alveolar ridge [ post-alveolar]

l. lateral

the key feature of lateral is that the airflow passes to the sides [of the tongue ,usually]
when prounouncing them. Ex; lake , bell

m. Nasal

nasal is the sounds prodused with articulated are completely obtrcting the mouth
passage . but allowing the air to pass out through the nose .

the basic characteristics of a nasal consonant is that the air escapes through the nose , in
the case off all the other consonant and vowel , the soft palate is raised and air cannot pass
through the nose . in nasal consonants , however ,the air does not passs through the mouth ;it
is prevented by a complete closure in the mouth at some point .

the types of nasal

A. Bilabial ; total closure is made by both lips .for a bilabial sound ,the active
articulator is the bottom lip , and the pasive articulator is the top lip
B. Alveolar ; alveolar sound are produced by the tip of the tongue moving up
towards the pa;ate of the rough part
C. Velar ;the back part of the tongue to touched against the soft palate, the back part
roof of the mouth .for velar sounds ,the active articulator is the back of he tongue
and the passive articulator is the velum or soft palate .

4. the airflow

Essentially , speaking is modified breathing ; it makes use of the resources involved in

normal respiration ,but in a more controlled way. Whenwe are simply breeathing quietly,the
phases of breathing in and last approximately the same time , and expiration is not under our
 phisical control;it simply occurs as an automatic consequence of having breathed
in.however, when we are speaking, the phase of breathing out is significantly longer,
depending on the length of the utterance wwe want to produce .

All the sounds of english , both consonants and vowels, are produced on this pulmonic
egressive airstream ,where the initiator is the lungs and the rest of the respiratory system
,and the direction of airflow is outwards; this is overwhelmingly the most common airstream
mechanism in every language of the world ,it can generally be taken for granted that the
sound under discussion bellow are pulmonic egressive, but you should remember to give
that information in a complete description ; so the labial nasal [m] [which , as we shall see ,
is produced using the lips – hence labialand with airflow through the nose – hence nasal] ,is
strictly a pulmonic egressive labial nasal.

1. Place of Articulation

As we have seen, the location of the active and passive articulators determines the place of
articulation for a consonant. In English, consonants are produced at eight places of articulation.
Since we have now covered all the other articulatory parameters required to describe
consonants, introducing and defining these places will allow us to build up a complete
consonant phoneme system for English. In the tables below, the phoneme or allophone in
question is initial in the example word, unless another part of that word is bold-face

a. Bilabial
For a bilabial sound, the active articulator is the bottom lip, and the passive
articulator is the top lip.
/p/ pie voiceless bilabial plosive
/b/ by voiced bilabial plosive
/m/ my voiced bilabial nasal
There is at least one further English phoneme which to an extent fits under this
heading: this is the approximant /w/ in wet. In producing [w], the lips are certainly
approximated, though not enough to cause friction or obstruct the airflow; but you
should be able to feel that the back of your tongue is also bunched up. This additional
articulation takes place at the velum, so that [w] is not simply a labial sound, but a labial-
velar one. In some accents of English, notably those spoken in Scotland and New
Zealand, this /w/ contrasts with / ʍ /, the voiceless labial-velar fricative, which tends to
occur in words spelled <wh->. If you have the same pronunciation for witch and which,
or Wales and whales, then you have only /w/; if these are consistently different for you,
then these minimal pairs establish a contrast of /w/ and /ʍ/. /w/ witch voiced labial-
velar approximant /ʍ/ which voiceless labial-velar fricative
b. Labio-Dental

For labio-dental sounds, the active articulator is again the bottom lip, but this time
it moves up to the top front teeth. Note that these sounds are labio-dental, while /w/
and // are labial-velar, because in the first case, articulation takes place only at a single
location, while in the second, there are two separate, simultaneous articulations. 91 /f/
fat voiceless labio-dental fricative
 /v/ vat voiced labio-dental fricative
c. Dental

In most English sounds, and most speech sounds in general, the active articulator
is part of the tongue; to avoid confusion, places of articulation where the tongue is
involved are therefore generally called after the passive articulator. For the two dental
fricatives, it follows that the passive articulator is the top front teeth; the active
articulator is the tip of the tongue. The tongue itself is conventionally divided into the tip
(the very front); the blade (just behind the blade, and lying opposite the alveolar ridge);
the front (just behind the blade, and lying opposite the hard palate); the back (behind
the front, and lying opposite the velum); and the root (right at the base, lying opposite
the wall of the pharynx). [θ] thigh voiceless dental fricative [ð] thy voiced dental
fricative
d. Alveolar

Alveolar sounds are produced by the tip or blade of the tongue moving up towards
the alveolar ridge, the bony protrusion you can feel if you curl your tongue back just
behind your top front teeth.
/t/ tie voiceless alveolar plosive /d/ die voiced alveolar plosive /n/ nigh voiced
alveolar nasal /s/ sip voiceless alveolar fricative /z/ zip voiced alveolar fricative /r/
rip voiced alveolar central approximant /l/ lip voiced alveolar lateral approximant
The symbol /r/ is used for the phoneme here 92 and throughout the book,
primarily because it is typographically convenient; but different realisations of /r/ are
found throughout the English-speaking world, and as we have seen, [r] itself, the voiced
alveolar trill, is rather rare. The tapped realisation, [ɾ], is also alveolar; but another even
more common pronunciation is not. This is the voiced retroflex approximant, [ɹ], which
is produced with the tip of the tongue curled back slightly behind the alveolar ridge; this
is the most common realisation of /r/ for speakers of Southern Standard British English
and General American.

e. Post-alveolar
If you move your tongue tip back behind the alveolar ridge, you will feel the hard
palate, which then, moving further back again, becomes the soft palate, or velum. Post-
alveolar sounds are produced with the blade of the tongue as the active articulator, and
the adjoining parts of the alveolar ridge and the hard palate as the passive one. They
include two fricatives, and the affricates introduced in the last section.
/ʃ/ ship voiceless postalveolar fricative /ӡ/ beige voiced postalveolar fricative /tʃ/
chunk voiceless postalveolar affricate /dӡ/ junk voiced postalveolar affricate
f. Palatal

Palatals are produced by the front of the tongue, which moves up towards the hard
palate. We have so far encountered two palatal sounds: the approximant /j/ in yes, and
the voiceless palatal stop [c] in kitchen. Recall, however, that [c] is the allophone of /k/
found before certain vowels; velar [k] appears elsewhere. There is a similar pattern
for /g/, which has as allophones velar [ɡ] 93 in garden and palatal [ɟ] give. Since we are
constructing a phoneme system here, these allophones are not included in the list.
/j/ yes voiced palatal approximant
g. Velar
 For velar sounds, the active articulator is the back of the tongue, and the passive
articulator is the velum, or soft palate. The labial-velar approximant and fricative /w/
and /ʍ/ are not included here, as they were discussed above with the bilabials;
however, it should be remembered that these doubly-articulated sounds strictly belong
under both headings. Similarly, although the ‘dark l’ realisation, [ɫ], is also velar, it does
not appear in the list below as it is an allophone of /l/. There is a further accent
difference involving velar sounds: in some varieties of English, notably Scottish ones,
there is a voiceless velar fricative, /x/: this is the sound at the end of Scots loch, which
speakers of other accents typically replace with a [k].
/k/ cot voiceless velar plosive /ɡ/ got voiced velar plosive /ŋ/ rang voiced velar
nasal /x/ loch voiceless velar fricative
h. Glottal

Glottal sounds are in the minority in articulatory terms, since they do not involve
the tongue: instead, the articulators are the vocal folds, which constitute a place of
articulation as well as having a crucial role in voicing. English has two glottal sounds.
The first is allophonic, namely the glottal stop, [ʔ], which appears as an intervocalic
realisation of /t/ in many accents, as in butter. The glottal stop is technically voiceless,
though 94 in fact it could hardly be anything else, since when the vocal folds are pressed
together to completely obstruct the airstream, as must be the case for a stop sound, air
cannot simultaneously be passing through to cause vibration. The second, the voiceless
glottal fricative [h], is a phoneme in its own right. /h/ high voiceless glottal fricative.
EXERCISE

 KHALIDA KIRANA
1. How many manners articulation? Mention it!
2. Where the alveolar sound is produced?
 CANDRA