Phonetics

Bouchaib Benzehaf
Applied language and culture studies lab
Chouaib Doukkali University
Spoken English VS Written English
▪ Do the sounds of spoken English always match up with letters of
written English? Can we use the letters of the alphabet in a consistent
way to represent the sounds we make?
▪ If no, how do we go about describing the sounds of a language like
English?
▪ A separate alphabet with symbols that represent sounds. Such a set of
symbols does exist and is called the phonetic alphabet.
 Voiced and voiceless sounds
The vocal folds/cords are inside the larynx. They take two basic
positions:
▪ When they are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between
them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as
voiceless.
▪ When the vocal folds are drawn together, the air from the lungs
repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration
effect. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced.
 Place of articulation
To describe the place of articulation of most consonant sounds, we can
start at the front of the mouth and work back. We can also keep the
voiced–voiceless distinction in mind and begin using the symbols of the
phonetic alphabet for specific sounds. These symbols will be enclosed
within square brackets [ ].
Passive articulators
Active articulators
 Bilabials
These are sounds formed using both (= bi) upper and lower lips (=
labia). The initial sounds in the words pat, bat and mat are all bilabials.
They are represented by the symbols [p], which is voiceless, and [b] and
[m], which are voiced. We can also describe the [w] sound found at the
beginning of way, walk and world as a bilabial.
 Labiodentals
These are sounds formed with the upper teeth and the lower lip. The
initial sounds of the words fat and vat and the final sounds in the words
safe and save are labiodentals. They are represented by the symbols [f],
which is voiceless, and [v], which is voiced. Notice that the final sound
in the word cough, and the initial sound in photo, despite the spelling
differences, are both pronounced as [f].
 Dentals
These sounds are formed with the tongue tip behind the upper front
teeth. The initial sound of thin and the final sound of bath are
both voiceless dentals. The symbol used for this sound is [θ]
The voiced dental is represented by the symbol [ð]. This sound is
found in the pronunciation of the initial sound of common words
like the, there, then and thus.
The term “interdentals” is sometimes used for these consonants
when they are pronounced with the tongue tip between (= inter)
the upper and lower teeth.
 Alveolars
These are sounds formed with the front part of the tongue on the
alveolar ridge, which is the rough, bony ridge immediately behind and
above the upper teeth. The initial sounds in top, dip, sit, zoo and nut are
all alveolars. The symbols for these sounds are easy to remember – [t],
[d], [s], [z], [n]. Of these, [t] and [s] are voiceless whereas [d], [z] and
[n] are voiced.
Other alveolars are the [l] sound found at the beginning of words such
as lap and lit, and the [r] sound at the beginning of right and write.
 Palatals
Sounds produced with the tongue and the palate (just behind the alveolar
ridge) are called palatals (or alveo-palatals). Examples of palatals are the
initial sounds in the words shout and child, which are both voiceless. The
“sh” sound is represented as [ʃ] and the “ch” sound is represented as [ʧ].
One of the voiced palatals, represented by the symbol [ʒ], is not very
common in English, but can be found as the middle consonant sound in words
like treasure and pleasure, or the final sound in rouge. The other voiced
palatal is [ʤ], which is the initial sound in words like joke and gem.
One other voiced palatal is the [j] sound used at the beginning of words like
you and yet.
 Velars
Even further back in the roof of the mouth, beyond the hard palate, you will
find a soft area, which is called the soft palate, or the velum. Sounds produced
with the back of the tongue against the velum are called velars. There is a
voiceless velar sound, represented by the symbol [k], which occurs not only
in kid and kill, but is also the initial sound in car and cold.
The voiced velar sound heard at the beginning of words like go, gun and give
is represented by [ɡ].
The velum can be lowered to allow air to flow through the nasal cavity and
thereby produce another voiced velar, represented by the symbol [ŋ] which
can be found at the end of sing, sang and tongue. It occurs twice in the form
ringing.
 Glottals
There is one sound that is produced without the active use of the tongue
and other parts of the mouth. It is the sound [h] which occurs at the
beginning of have and house and, for most speakers, as the first sound in
who and whose. This sound is usually described as a voiceless glottal.
The “glottis” is the space between the vocal folds in the larynx. When
the glottis is open, as in the production of other voiceless sounds, and
there is no manipulation of the air passing out of the mouth, the sound
produced is that represented by [h].
Consonant sounds
 Limitations of the chart
There are many other consonant sounds in the languages of the world.

There are several differences between this basic set of symbols and the
much more comprehensive chart produced by the International Phonetic
Association (IPA).
Sounds of Arabic
THE INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET
 Manner of articulation
So far, we have concentrated on describing consonant sounds in terms
of where they are articulated.
We can also describe the same sounds in terms of how they are
articulated.
Such a description is necessary if we want to be able to differentiate
between some sounds which are placed in the same category.
For example, [t] and [s] are both voiceless alveolar sounds. How do
they differ?
They differ in their manner of articulation, that is, in the way they are
pronounced. [t] is called a stop and [s] is called fricative.
 Manner of articulation
One parameter of manner is stricture, that is, how closely the speech
organs approach one another. Parameters other than stricture are those
involved in the r-like sounds (taps and trills), and the sibilancy of
fricatives.
Often nasality and laterality are included in manner, but phoneticians
such as Peter Ladefoged consider them to be independent.
Stricture types
 Stops
Stops (or plosives) result from a blocking or stopping effect on the air
stream. A full description of the [t] sound at the beginning of a word like
ten is as a voiceless alveolar stop.

[p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [ɡ] are stops. They are all produced by some form
of “stopping” of the air stream (very briefly) then letting it go abruptly.
 Fricatives
These involve almost blocking the air stream and having the air push
through the very narrow opening. As the air is pushed through, a type of
friction is produced and the resulting sounds are called fricatives.

The set of sounds [f], [v], [θ], [ð], [s], [z], [ʃ], [ʒ] are fricatives.

The sound [h], as in Hi or Hello, is voiceless and also usually included

These are called affricates and occur at the beginning of the words
cheap and jeep. In the first of these, there is a voiceless affricate [ʧ], and
in the second, a voiced affricate [ʤ].
 Nasals
When the velum is lowered and the air stream is allowed to flow out
through the nose to produce [m], [n] and [ŋ], the sounds are described
as nasals. These three sounds are all voiced. The words morning,
knitting and name begin and end with nasals.
 Liquids
The initial sounds in led and red are described as liquids. They are both
voiced.
The [l] sound is called a lateral liquid and is formed by letting the air
stream flow around the sides of the tongue as the tip of the tongue
makes contact with the middle of the alveolar ridge.
The [r] sound at the beginning of red is formed with the tongue tip
raised and curled back near the alveolar ridge.
 Glides
These sounds are typically produced with the tongue in motion (or
“gliding”) to or from the position of a vowel and are sometimes called
semi-vowels.

The sounds [w] and [j] are described as glides. They are both voiced
and occur at the beginning of we, wet, you and yes.

In some approaches, the liquids [l], [r] and glides [w], [j] are combined
in one category called “approximants.”
 Glottal stops and flaps
The glottal stop, represented by the symbol [ʔ], occurs when the space
between the vocal folds (the glottis) is closed completely (very briefly),
then released.
A flap is represented by [D] or sometimes [ɾ]. This sound is produced
by the tongue tip tapping the alveolar ridge briefly.
Many American English speakers have a tendency to “flap” the [t] and
[d] consonants between vowels so that, in casual speech, the pairs latter
and ladder do not have distinct middle consonants. Nor do writer and
rider, metal and medal. They all have flaps.
Consonant sounds
Exercise
 Exercise
Write definitions for the sounds: f, v, s, ŋ, ð

What are
Voiceless glottal fricative
Voiced velar stop
Voiced alveolar liquid
Exercise
Exercise
Exercise
 Vowels
▪ While the consonant sounds are mostly articulated via closure or
obstruction in the vocal tract, vowel sounds are produced with a
relatively free flow of air (no closure or obstruction of the air stream).
They are all typically voiced because a main mechanism of vowel
production is vibrating vocal folds.
▪ The differences between various vowel sounds depend on which
cavity (oral, nasal, or pharyngeal) is employed and on what shape is
formed in that resonance chamber. The shape of the oral cavity is
primarily affected by the position of the lips and the placement of the
tongue.
 The Oral and Nasal Cavities
Vowels are divided into oral vowels and nasalized vowels. Oral vowels
occur when the velum is raised, cutting off the entry of the airstream
into the nasal cavity. Nasalized vowels are created when the velum
lowers, permitting the airstream to flow through both the oral and nasal
cavities. In English, vowels are almost always oral.
 The Oral and Nasal Cavities
Nasalization of vowels occurs before nasal consonants. Consider the
difference in the vowel sound (phonetically symbolized as [æ]) in hat
[hæt] and ham [hæ̃m]. The [æ̃] in ham employs the nasal cavity in its
production. Same contrast is observed in the vowels in seat [sit] and
seam [sım].
̃ The diacritic mark [ ]̃ indicates nasalization.
 Vowels: Height
• Heat
• Hate
• Hat
Vowels: Height
Vowels: Frontness
Vowels: Frontness
Vowels: Roundedness
Vowels: Tenseness
Vowels: Tenseness
 Transcribe the words
• Eye
• My
• Doubt
• Boy
• Noise
• Late
• Boat
• Great
 Diphthongs
• Diphthongs are sounds that consist of a combination of two vowel
sounds.
• When we produce diphthongs, our vocal organs move from one
vocalic position [a] to another [ɪ] as we produce the sound [aɪ], as in
Hi or Bye. The movement in this diphthong is from low towards high
front. Alternatively, we can use movement from low towards high
back, combining [a] and [ʊ] to produce the sound [aʊ].
• In some descriptions, the movement is interpreted as involving a glide
such as [j] or [w], so that the diphthongs we are representing as [aɪ]
and [aʊ] may sometimes be seen as [aj] or [aw].
How diphthongs are produced
 Variations
Vowel sounds are notorious for varying between one variety of English
and the next, often being a key element in what we recognize as
different accents. So, you may feel that some of the words offered in the
earlier lists as examples don’t seem to be pronounced with the vowel
sounds exactly as listed.
 Exercise
Write definitions for the vowels
•[ə]
•[i]
•[e]
What is
low front unrounded
high back rounded
mid back rounded
 Exercise
What is
a. The highest front vowel
b. The most central vowel
c. The lowest back vowel
d. The lowest front vowel
e. Vowels that are never rounded in English
Exercise
Exercise
Exercise
More exercises on page 74 (A concise introduction to linguistics)
Dealing with an unknown language
Approach the phoneme inventory in this way:
• Consider the sounds
• Look at their distribution
• Find out if or not they can make differences in meaning
• Group them together as representing the same phoneme.
THANK YOU