Distribution System Planning

Distribution System Planning
EE24564
Power Transmission and Distribution
EE24564 Power Transmission and Distribution 1
Distribution System
• Distribution system links the transmission system to loads
• It begins at 3-phase medium voltage level (up to 60 kV) and
terminates at customers with 3-phase or single phase low voltage
(typically below 1 kV)
• The system is designed to provide a reliable service with certain
requirements such as peak load, voltage regulation, power quality,
distance to customers, geographical conditions (terrain), load density
..etc.

• System planning is essential to assure that the growing demand for
electricity can be satisfied by distribution system additions that are
both technically adequate and reasonably economical.
• Even though considerable work has been done in the past on the
application of some types of systematic approach to generation and
transmission system planning, its application to distribution system
planning has unfortunately been somewhat neglected
• A fast and economical planning tool to evaluate the consequences of
different proposed alternatives and their impact on the rest of the
system is needed.

• The objective of distribution system planning is to assure that the
growing demand for electricity, in terms of increasing growth rates
and high load densities, can be satisfied in an optimum way.
• Distribution system planners must determine the load magnitude and
its geographic location. Then the distribution substations must be
placed and sized in such a way as to serve the load at maximum cost
effectiveness by minimizing feeder losses and construction costs,
while considering the constraints of service reliability

Importance of Distribution System
• The distribution system is particularly important to an electrical utility
for two reasons:
1. Its close proximity to the ultimate customer
2. Its high investment cost.
• Since the distribution system of a power supply system is the closest
one to the customer, its failures affect customer service more directly
than, for example, failures on the transmission and generating
systems, which usually do not cause customer service interruptions

Simplified Distribution System Planning Steps
• Distribution system planning starts at the customer level. The demand, type, load
factor, and other customer load characteristics dictate the type of distribution
system required.
• Once the customer loads are determined, they are grouped for service from
secondary lines connected to distribution transformers that step down from
primary voltage
• The distribution transformer loads are then combined to determine the demands
on the primary distribution system.
• The primary distribution system loads are then assigned to substations that step
down from transmission voltage
• The distribution system loads, in turn, determine the size and location,
• or siting, of the substations as well as the routing and capacity of the associated
transmission lines

Distribution System Planning Problem Solving
• The distribution system planner partitions the total distribution system planning
problem into a set of subproblems that can be handled by using available, usually
ad hoc, methods and techniques.
• The planner, in the absence of accepted planning techniques, may restate the
problem as an attempt to minimize the cost of subtransmission, substations,
feeders, laterals, etc., and the cost of losses here the planner is restricted by
permissible voltage values, voltage dips, flicker, etc., as well as service continuity
and reliability.
• In pursuing these objectives, the planner ultimately has a significant influence on
additions to and/or modifications of the subtransmission network, locations and
sizes of substations, service areas of substations, location of breakers and
switches, sizes of feeders and laterals, voltage levels and voltage drops in the
system, the location of capacitors and voltage regulators, and the loading of
transformers and feeders

Factors Affecting System Planning
• The number and complexity of the considerations affecting system
planning appear initially to be staggering.
• Demands for ever-increasing power capacity, higher distribution
voltages, more automation, and greater control sophistication
constitute only the beginning of a list of such factors.
• The constraints that limit the designer have also become more
burdensome. These include a scarcity of available land in urban areas,
ecological considerations, limitations on fuel choices, the
undesirability of rate increases, and the necessity to minimize
investments, carrying charges, and production charges.

1. Load Forecasting (1/3)
• The load growth of the geographic area served by a utility company is
the most important factor influencing the expansion of the
distribution system. Therefore, forecasting of load increases and
system reaction to these increases is essential to the planning process
There are two common time scales of importance to load forecasting:
1. Long range, with time horizons on the order of 15 or 20 years
2. Short range, with time horizons of up to 5 years

Factors affecting load forecast

• Input to the forecast procedure is : economic indicators, demographic
data, and official land use plans.
• Output from the forecast is in the form of load densities
(kilovoltamperes per unit area) for longrange forecasts. Short-range
forecasts may require greater detail
• Densities are associated with a coordinate grid for the area of
interest. The master grid presents the load forecasting data, and it
provides a useful planning tool for checking all geographic locations
and taking the necessary actions to accommodate the system
expansion patterns

2. Substation Expansion
• The planner
makes a
decision based
on tangible or
intangible
information

3. Substation Site Selection

Other fracots
There are factors over which the distribution system planner has no influence but which,
nevertheless, have to be considered in good long-range distribution system planning, for example:
1. The timing and location of energy demands
2. The duration and frequency of outages
3. The cost of equipment, labor, and money; increasing fuel costs; increasing or decreasing prices
of alternative energy sources; changing socioeconomic conditions and trends such as the
growing demand for goods and services
4. Unexpected local population growth or decline
5. Changing public behavior as a result of technological changes (e.g., adaptation of EV in Jordan)
6. Energy conservation and changing environmental concerns of the public
7. Changing economic conditions such as a decrease or increase in gross national product (GNP)
projections, inflation, and/or recession
8. Change in regulations of federal, state, and local governments

Techniques
• System planners utilize computer programs,
usually based on ad hoc techniques, such as
load flow programs, radial or loop load flow
programs, short-circuit and fault-current
calculation program..etc. to perform studies.
• Nevertheless, engineering judgment based
on adequate planning at every stage of the
development of power systems is essential.

Impact of Dispersed Storage and Generation
• Following the rising prices of oil and increased environmental
awareness the efforts toward the development of alternative energy
sources (preferably renewable resources) for generating electric
energy have been increased. Furthermore, opportunities for small
power producers and cogenerators have been enhanced by recent
legislative initiatives. Moreover, renewable resources are becoming
more economical that traditional fossil fuel
• Power distribution systems become increasingly complex due to the
fact that they have more DSG systems distribution automation will be
indispensable for maintaining a reliable electric supply and for cutting
down operating costs based generation.

In the future,
small dispersed-
energy-storage-
and-generation
units attached to
a customer’s
home, a power
distribution
feeder, or a
substation would
require an
increasing
amount of
automation and
control (1982
IEEE)
Distribution Automation and Control (DAC)
• The distribution automation and control (DAC) system oversees the
distribution system, including connected load. Automatic monitoring and
control features have long been a part of the SCADA system
• More recently, automation has become a part of the overall energy
management (EMS), including the distribution system.
• The objectives of the DAC system are :
1. Improved overall system efficiency in the use of both capital and energy
Increased market penetration of coal, nuclear, and renewable domestic
energy sources
2. Reduced reserve requirements in both transmission and generation
3. Increased reliability of service to essential loads

Monitoring And Controlling Of An Electric Power
System

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Load Characteristics
EE24564
• To begin the electrical design of distribution systems, it is necessary to
know the characteristics of the building blocks upon which the design
of the systems is predicated; that is, the consumer to be served
• Demand: The demand of an installation or system is the load at the
receiving terminals averaged over a specified interval of time. the
load may be given in kilowatts, kilovars, kilovoltamperes, kiloamperes,
or amperes.
• Demand interval: It is the period over which the load is averaged. This
selected Δt period may be 15 min, 30 min, 1 h, or even longer

Note :
• The load is expressed
in per unit (pu) of
peak load of the
system
• The selection of Δt is
arbitrary
• the maximum of 15-
min demands is
0.940 pu, and the
maximum of 1-h
demands is 0.884,
whereas the average
daily demand of the
system is 0.254
A daily demand variation curve
Load Duration Curve
• Note :
the time is given
in per unit of the
total time

Load Duration Curve
• The curve is constructed by selecting the maximum peak points and
connecting them by a curve. This curve is called the load duration
curve
• The load duration curves can be daily, weekly, monthly, or annual. For
example, if the curve is a plot of all the 8760 hourly loads during the
year, it is called an annual load duration curve
• To calculate the average demand, the area under the curve has to be
determined
• Maximum demand: The maximum demand of an installation or
system is the greatest of all demands which have occurred during the
specified period of time (daily, weekly …etc.)
An idealized
daily load curve
for a given
hypothetical
primary feeder
in example 2.1

Diversified Demand
• Diversified demand (or coincident demand): It is the demand of the
composite group, as a whole, of somewhat unrelated loads over a
specified period of time. Here, the maximum diversified demand has
an importance. It is the maximum sum of the contributions of the
individual demands to the diversified demand over a specific time
interval
• Example : if the test locations can be considered statistically
representative of the residential customers as a whole, a load curve
for the entire residential class of customers can be prepared. If this
same technique is used for other classes of customers, similar load
curve can be prepared

Diversified Demand: Development of
aggregate load curves
+ + +
+ + =

Demand Factor
• Demand Factor is the ration between the maximum demand of a
system to the connected load of the system
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
• DF ≡ , dimentionless
𝑇𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
• DF can be found for a part of the system too.

• Connected load : is the sum continuous rating of the load-consuming
apparatus connected to the system or any part of it.

Utilization Factor
• Utilization factor: It is “the ratio of the maximum demand of a system
to the rated capacity of the system” . Therefore, the utilization factor
(Fu) is
• The utilization factor can also be found for a part of the system. The
rated system capacity may be selected to be the smaller of thermal-
or voltage-drop capacity

Plant (Unit ) Factor
• Plant factor: It is the ratio of the total actual energy produced or
served over a designated period of time to the energy that would
have been produced or served if the plant (or unit) had operated
continuously at maximum rating . It is also known as the capacity
factor

Load Factor
• Load factor: It is “the ratio of the average load over a designated
period of time to the peak load occurring on that period”.
• where T is the time, in days, weeks, months, or years. The longer the
period T, the smaller the resultant factor. The reason for this is that
for the same maximum demand, the energy consumption overs a
larger time period and results in a smaller average load. when time T
is selected to be in days, weeks, months, or years it is less than or
equal to 1.0.

Diversity Factor
• It is the ratio of the sum of the individual maximum demands of the
various subdivisions of a system to the maximum demand of the
whole system
• The diversity factor can be equal to or greater than 1.0.

Diversity Factor in terms of DF
• Recall
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
• DF =
𝑇𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
• or Maximum demand=DF× Toatl connectded demand
• We can write the diversity factor :
• TCDi is the total connected demand of group, or class, i load

• DFi is the demand factor of group, or class, i load
Coincidence Factor
• Coincidence factor: It is “the ratio of the maximum coincident total
demand of a group of consumers to the sum of the maximum power
demands of individual consumers comprising the group both taken at
the same point of supply for the same time
• These ideas on the diversity and coincidence are the basis for the
theory and practice of north-to-south and east-to-west
interconnections among the power pools.

Load Diversity
• Load diversity: It is “the difference between the sum of the peaks of
two or more individual loads and the peak of the combined load

Contribution Factor
• Contribution factor: ci is the contribution factor of the ith load to the
group maximum demand. It is given in per unit of the individual
maximum demand of the ith load.
• Coincidence factor can be written as

Coincidence Factor: Special cases
• Case 1: when D1 = D2 = D3 = … = Dn = D. the coincidence factor is
equal to the average contribution factor
• Case 2: c1 = c2 = c3 = … = cn = c; the coincidence factor is equal to the

contribution factor

Loss Factor
• Loss factor: It is the ratio of the average power loss to the peak-load
power loss during a specified period of time. applicable for the
copper losses of the system but not for the iron losses.

Relationship between the Load and Loss
Factors
• Although the loss factor cannot be determined from the load factor,
limiting values of the relationship can be found.
• Assume that the primary feeder shown below is connected to a
variable load

Assume that the off-peak loss
is PLS,1 at some off-peak load
P1 and that the peak loss is
PLS,2 at the peak load P2.
The load factor is

Relationship between the Load and Loss
Factors
• In a similar manner, the loss factor is
• the average power loss
• So, loss factor can be written as
• The copper losses are the function of the associated loads. Therefore,
the off-peak and peak loads can be expressed (using constant k),
respectively
Relationship between FLS & FLD
• Now the loss factor can be expressed as
• Or

CASE1 : FLS & FLD Relationship when Off-peak
Load is zero
• Here PLS,1 = 0 since P1 = 0
• In this case the load factor is equal to the loss factor:
• Both are equal to the t/T constant

CASE2 : FLS & FLD Relationship in Case of a
Very Short-lasting Peak.
• Here, t → 0
𝑇−𝑡
• So, → 1.0
𝑇
• Therefore,
• That is, the value of the loss factor approaches the value of the load
factor squared

CASE3 : FLS & FLD Relationship in Case of a
Steady Load.
• Since the load is steady t → T
• That is, the difference between the peak load and the off-peak load is
negligible
• In the case, the value of the loss factor approaches the value of the
load factor

FLS & FLD Relationship
• In general, the value of the loss factor
• Therefore, the loss factor cannot be determined directly from the

load factor. The reason is that the loss factor is determined from
losses as a function of time, which, in turn, are proportional to the
time function of the square load
• However, an approximate formula can be written as (both factors are
in p.u.)
• For rural areas and expressed as

FLS & FLD Approximate Relationship

Example 2.7
• The average load factor of a substation is 0.65. Determine the average
loss factor of its feeders, if the substation services
• A. An urban area:
• B. A rural area

Example 2.11
• Assume that one of the DTs of the Riverside substation supplies three
primary feeders. The 30 min annual maximum demands per feeder
are listed in the following table, together with the power factor (PF) at
the time of annual peak load.
• Assume a diversity factor of 1.15
among the three feeders for both real power (P)
and reactive power (Q)

Solution
1. Calculate the 30 min annual maximum demand on the substation
transformer in kilowatts and in kilovoltamperes

Part 1 cont’d
• To find power in kilovoltamperes, find the PF angles
• Thus, the diversified reactive power

Part 2
• 2. The load diversity in kW

Part 3
• 3. Select a suitable substation transformer size if zero load growth is
expected and if company policy permits as much as 25% short-time
overloads on the distribution substation transformers. Among the
standard three-phase (3ϕ) transformer sizes available are the
following:

Part 3
• than the maximum demand of 5793.60 kVA as found in part 1
• From the given transformer list, it is appropriate to choose the
transformer with the 3750/4687-kVA rating since with the 25% short-
time overload, it has a capacity of 4687 × 1.25 = 5858.8 kVA

Part 4
• Now assume that the substation load will increase at a constant
percentage rate per year and will double in 10 years. If the 7500/9375
kVA-rated transformer is installed, in how many years will it be loaded
to its fans-on rating?
• Note that the term fans-on rating means the forced-air-cooled rating.
To find the increase (g) per year
(present) = (past) * (1 + growth rate)n , n: # of years

Part 4
• The growth rats is
• After how many years n the load will reach transformer’s max. of 9375
kVA?
• Therefore, if the 7500/9375 kVA-rated transformer is installed, it will be

loaded to its fans-on rating in about 7 years

Maximum Diversified Demand
• Arvidson’s method takes into account the diversity between similar
loads and the noncoincidence of the peaks of different types of loads
by introducing the hourly variation factor.
• It is :the ratio of the demand of a particular type of load coincident
with the group maximum demand to the maximum demand of that
particular type of load
• An example of the hourly variation curves for various types of
household appliances is given below

Hourly Variation Factors

Maximum diversified 30 min demand
characteristics of various residential loads:
A, clothes dryer;
B, off-peak water heater, “off-peak” load;
C, water heater, uncontrolled, interlocked
elements;
D, range; E, lighting and miscellaneous appliances;
F, 0.5-hp room coolers;
G, off-peak water heater, “on-peak” load, upper
element uncontrolled;
H, oil burner;
I, home freezer;
J, refrigerator;
K, central air-conditioning, including heat-pump
cooling, 5-hp heat pump (4-ton air conditioner);
L, house heating
each curve represents a 100% saturation level for a

specific demand (no change after 100 ..)

Maximum Diversified Demand
• To apply Arvidson’s method to determine the maximum diversified demand
for a given saturation level and appliance, the following steps are
suggested [2]:
1. Determine the total number of appliances by multiplying the total number
of customers by the per-unit saturation.
2. Read the corresponding diversified demand per customer from the curve,
in Figure 2.13, for the given number of appliances.
3. Determine the maximum demand, multiplying the demand found in step 2
by the total number of appliances.
4. Finally, determine the contribution of that type load to the group
maximum demand by multiplying the resultant value from step 3 by the
corresponding hourly variation factor found from Diversified Demand Table .

Solution
• To determine the 30 min maximum diversified demand on the DT, the
average maximum diversified demand per customer is found from
Figure. Therefore, when the number of loads is six, the average
maximum diversified demands per customer are

• As in part (a), the average maximum diversified demand per customer
is found from Figure 2.13. Therefore, when the number of loads is 900
(note that, due to the given curve characteristics, the answers would
be the same as the ones for the number of loads of 100), then the
average maximum diversified demands per customer are

• Use the typical hourly variation factors given in Table 2.2 and
calculate the small portion of the daily demand curve on the DT, that
is, the total hourly diversified demands at 4, 5, and 6 PM, on the DT,
in kilowatts.
• Answer: From Table 2.2, the hourly variation factors can be found as
0.38, 0.24, 0.90, and 0.32 for dryer, range, refrigerator, and lighting
and miscellaneous appliances. Therefore, the total hourly diversified
demands on the DT can be calculated as given in the following table
in which

Distribution
Transformers
EE24564
Distribution Transformers
• distribution transformers are used to reduce primary system voltages
(2.4–34.5
• Secondary symbols
• letter Y, which indicates that the winding is connected or may be connected in
wye
• Gnd Y, which indicates that the winding has one end grounded to the tank or
brought out through a reduced insulation bushing.
• Windings that are delta connected or may be connected delta are designated
by the voltage of the winding only kV) to utilization voltages (120–600 V).

To designate a winding with
a mid-tap that will provide
half the full winding
kilovoltampere rating at half
the full-winding voltage, the
full-winding voltage is
written first, followed by a
slant, and then the mid-tap
voltage. For example,
240/120 is used for a three-
wire connection to designate
a 120 V mid-tap voltage with
a 240 V full-winding voltage

Types of Distribution Transformers
• Heat is a limiting factor in transformer loading. Removing the coil heat is an
important task.
• In liquid-filled types, the transformer coils are immersed in a smooth-surfaced,
oil-filled tank.
• Oil absorbs the coil heat and transfers it to the tank surface, which, in turn,
delivers it to the surrounding air.
• For transformers 25 kVA and larger, the size of the smooth tank surface required
to dissipate heat becomes larger than that required to enclose the coils.
Therefore, the transformer tank may be corrugated to add surface, or external
tubes may be welded to the tank.
• To further increase the heat-disposal capacity, air may be blown over the tube
surface. Such designs are known as forced aircooled, with respect to self-cooled
types.

Oil-Immersed Distribution Transformer with
Corrugated Fins

Types of Distribution Transformers
• Therefore, the distribution transformers can be classified as
• (1) dry type
• (2) liquid-filled type
• 1 oil filled and
• 2 Askarel ( under market names ; Inerteen, Pyroclor or Acrol ) filled.
• The dry-type distribution transformers are air-cooled and air-
insulated.
• The liquid-filled-type distribution transformers can further be
classified as (1) oil filled and (2) inerteen filled.

Transformer Regulation

Transformer Regulation
• To calculate the transformer regulation for a kilovoltampere load of
power factor cos θ, at rated voltage, (many formulas are there any
one can be used)
• The transformer should be designed so that the voltage regulation

shall not exceed 2.5 percent at full load and 0.8 power factor
• Note that the percent regulation at unity power factor is

Terminal or Lead Markings
• The terminals or leads of a transformer are the points to which
external electric circuits are connected.
• According to NEMA and ASA standards, the higher-voltage winding is
identified by HV or H, and the lower-voltage winding is identified by
LV or x.
• Transformers with more than two windings have the windings
identified as H, x, y, and z, in the order of decreasing voltage

• The terminal H1 is located on the right-
hand side when facing the HV side of
the transformer
• On single phase transformers, the
leads are numbered so that when H1 is
connected to x1, the voltage between
the highest-numbered H lead and the
highest-numbered x lead is less than
the voltage of the HV winding

• On three-phase transformers, the terminal H1 is on the right-hand
side when facing the HV winding, with the H2 and H3 terminals in
numerical sequence from right to left.
• The terminal x1 is on the left-hand side when facing the LV winding,
with the x2 and x3 terminals in numerical sequence from left to right.

Transformer Polarity
• Transformer-winding terminals are marked to show polarity, to
indicate the HV from the LV side.
• Primary and secondary are not identified as such because which is
which depends on input and output connections.
• Transformer polarity is an indication of the direction of current
flowing through the HV leads with respect to the direction of current
flow through the LV leads at any given instant.
• In other words, the transformer polarity simply refers to the relative
direction of induced voltages between the HV leads and the LV
terminals.
Transformer Polarity
• The polarity of a single-phase distribution
transformer additive or subtractive.
• With standard markings, the voltage from
H1 to H2 is always in the same direction or
in phase with the voltage from X1 to X2. In
a transformer where H1 and X1 terminals
are adjacent, as shown in Fig. a, the
transformer is said to have subtractive
polarity.
• On the other hand, when terminals H1 and
X1 are diagonally opposite, as shown in
Figure b, the transformer is said to have
additive polarity.
Distribution Transformer Connections
• Single-phase distribution
transformers are manufactured
with one or two primary
bushings. The single-primary-
bushing transformers can only
be used on grounded wye
systems. The two-primary-
bushing transformers can be
used on three-wire delta
systems or four-wire wye
systems if they are properly
connected Single-phase overhead or pole-type distribution transformer
connection for 120-volt two-wire secondary service.
Transformer
EE24564 Power Transmission secondary coils are connected in parallel.
and Distribution 14
• Proper connections for a single-
phase transformer to a three-
phase three-wire ungrounded
delta primary voltage system to
obtain 120/240-volt single-phase
three-wire service. Normally the
wire connected to the center
low-voltage bushing will be
connected to ground
Single-phase distribution transformer connected to give

120/240-volt three-wire single-phase service. Transformer
secondary
EE24564 Power Transmission and coils are connected in series
Distribution 15
• A single-phase distribution
transformer connections to a three-
phase four-wire wye grounded
neutral, primary system rated
4160Y/2400 volts to obtain 120/240V
single-phase secondary service.
• The three-phase four-wire wye
grounded neutral system has voltages
between phases equal to the phase or
line to neutral voltage multiplied by
1.73. The primary system line to
neutral voltage is 2400 volts, and the
voltage between phases is 1.73 2400,
or 4160 volts. This system is
designated as a 4160Y/2400-volt
system Single-phase distribution transformer connected to provide
120/240-volt three-wire single-phase service. Primary winding
is connected
EE24564 Power Transmission line to neutral or ground
and Distribution 16
Single-phase Δ-Δ Distribution Transformer
Connections

Cluster-mounted Bank of Transformers

Single-Phase Transformer Paralleling
• When greater capacity is required in emergency situations, two single-phase
transformers of the same or different kilovoltampere ratings can be connected in
parallel
• The single-phase transformers can be of either additive or subtractive polarity as
long as the following conditions are observed:
1. All transformers have the same turns ratio.
2. All transformers are connected to the same primary phase.
3. All transformers have identical frequency ratings.
4. All transformers have identical voltage ratings.
5. All transformers have identical tap settings.
6. Per unit impedance of one transformer is between 0.925 and 1.075 of the other in order to
maximize capability
• Paralleling two single-phase transformers is not economical since the total cost
and losses of two small transformers are much larger than one large transformer
with the same capacity. Therefore, it should be used only as a temporary solution
Single-Phase Transformer Paralleling

Three-phase Distribution Transformer
Connections
• Three single-phase
distribution transformers
connected wye-wye (Y-Y).
Proper voltage windings
would be used with other
primary voltages.
Secondary windings
constructed for 277 volts
would provide 480Y/277-
volt three-phase
secondary service.

Three-phase Distribution Transformer
Connections
• Three single-phase
distribution
transformers connected
delta-wye (∆-Y).
Windings must be rated
for the primary system
and the desired
secondary voltage

Distribution System Planning

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Distribution System Planning

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Factors affecting load forecast

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• DF can be found for a part of the system too.

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• The diversity factor can be equal to or greater than 1.0.

• TCDi is the total connected demand of group, or class, i load

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• Coincidence factor can be written as

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• Case 2: c1 = c2 = c3 = … = cn = c; the coincidence factor is equal to the

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• the average power loss

• So, loss factor can be written as

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• In this case the load factor is equal to the loss factor:

• Both are equal to the t/T constant

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• Therefore, the loss factor cannot be determined directly from the

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• Thus, the diversified reactive power

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