New Engineering Materials

5.
1 Magnetic Materials
Introduction
The materials which gets magnetised when placed in external magnetic field are
known as magnetic materials. These materials play a vital role in modern technol-
ogy. They are widely used in electrical machines, computers, television tube, trans-
ducers, audio devices, meters etc. These materials actually play an important role in
storage devices.
Among the many types of magnetic materials, diamagnetic, paramagnetic, fer-
romagnetic, antiferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic are the most important, from the
point of view of their applications. In order to understand the magnetic behaviour
of different materials mentioned above, a thorough knowledge of such materials is
very essential.
5.1.1 Terms and Definitions in magnetism

Magnetic poles
Two opposite ends of a bar magnet are known as magnetic poles. They are called as
north pole and south pole. The north and south poles are separated by a distance l
form a magnetic dipole.
Magnetic moment (M)
Magnetic moment of a bar magnet is defined as the product of its pole strength (m)
and length of the magnet (2l).
M = m × 2l (1)
unit of M is wb − m.
5.2 Applied Physics for Engineers
Magnetic field
The space (or) region around the magnet where the influence of magnetism is felt is
known as magnetic field.
Magnetic lines of force

It is a line along which a unit north pole (compass needle) is free to move. The
direction of magnetic field at any point is given by the tangent drawn at that point.
The existence of a unit north pole is imaginary.
A magnetic field is represented in picture by drawing number of lines of force
using a compass box. These lines are known as the lines of magnetic induction.
For a strong magnetic field, the lines of the force are close together and for a weak
magnetic field, the lines of forces are far apart.
For a magnet, the lines start from North pole and terminate or enter at the south
pole.
Magnetic flux (φ)

A collection of magnetic lines of force (or) lines of magnetic induction is known
magnetic flux and is represented by φ.
Unit of magnetic flux (φ) is weber (or) wb.
Magnetic induction (or) Magnetic flux density (B)

It is defined as the number of magnetic lines of force (flux) passing through unit area
of a material (or) medium kept perpendicular to the direction of lines of force.
Magnetic flux density (or)

Number of magnetic lines of force
Magnetic induction (B) =
Area of crosssection
φ
B= (2)
A
unit of B is wb/m2 (or) Tesla (T)
Hence Magnetic flux φ = BA (3)
Magnetic field intensity (H)

Magnetic field intensity at a point in a magnetic field (produced by a magnetic ma-
terial) is the force experienced by a unit north pole placed at that point. It is repre-
sented by H.
Unit of H is Ampere turns per meter (or) AT/m.
Material Science 5.3
But the existence of unit north pole is imaginary.
F Force experienced by unit north pole in magnetic field

H= =
m pole strength
(or) F = mH (4)
Magnetic permeability (µ)

It is a measure of the amount of magnetic lines penetrating through the material (or)
it is the easiness of a material (or) medium to allow the magnetic lines through it.
It is found that the magnetic flux density (B) is directly proportional to the field
strength (H) ie.,
B∝H
B =µH (5)
B
µ= (6)
H
where µ is a constant of proportionality and is known as the permeability (or)

absolute permeability of the medium.
Magnetic permeability (or) absolute permeability (µ) of a medium (or) a material
is defined as the ratio of magnetic induction (B) in the sample to the applied field
(H).
Unit of magnetic permeability (µ) is Henry/metre.
Magnetic permeability of free space (or) air (µ0 )

If the flux density (or) magnetic induction is established in air (or) in a non-magnetic
material by keeping it in a magnetizing field of strength H then
B0 = µ 0 H (7)
B0
µ0 = (8)
H
where B0 = magnetic induction (or) flux density in air (or)vacuum.

µ0 = permeability of free space (or) air.
Magnetic permeability of free space (µ0 ) is defined as the ratio of the magnetic
induction (B0 ) in air (or) free space to the magnetic field (H).
Unit of µ0 is Henry/metre.
Magnetic Relative permeability (µr )

It is defined as the ratio of the absolute permeability of a medium (µ) and the per-
meability of free space (µ0 ) that is
µ
µr = (9)
µ0
µr is a dimensionless quantity. It is only a ratio and has no unit.

Also
µ BH B
µr = = = (10)
µ0 B0 H B0
Hence relative permeability of a medium (µr ) can also be defined as the ratio of
magnetic flux density B established in the medium to the magnetic flux density B 0
established in air.
Intensity of magnetisation (I)

The term magnetisation represents the process of converting a non magnetic material
into a magnetic material. The intensity of magnetisation of a magnetic material is a
measure of degree of its magnetisation.
Intensity of magnetisation of a material is defined as the magnetic moment (in-
duced magnetisation) per unit volume. It is represented by I,
magnetic moment
I=
volume of the material
M
I= (11)
V
Unit of I is wb/m.
If A is the area of cross section, 2l is the length and m is the pole strength of a
magnet (magnetic material) then
M m × 2l
I= = sin M = m × 2l
V A × 2l
m
I= (12)
A
Hence the intensity of magnetisation of a material can also be defined as the ratio
between its pole strength and area of cross section per unit area kept right angles to
the direction of magnetisation.
Significance: when the same amount of magnetic field is applied to different

magnetic substances like iron, steel alloys etc, they get magnetised to different extent.
Hence the intensity of magnetisation is a measure (or) degree of magnetisation of a
specimen.
Magnetic susceptibility (χ)

This term represents the easiness with which a material gets magnetised. Actually it
represents the magnetic response of a magnetic material to get magnetised.
Ex: If χ is +ve, the material can be magnetised. If χ is −ve, the material cannot
be magnetised.
Definition: Magnetic susceptibility of a material is defined as the ratio of in-
tensity of magnetisation (I) to the magnetic field strength (H). It is represented by
χ
I
χ= (13)
H
χ is a dimensionless quantity. It has no unit (since I and H are having same
units).
Relation between µr and χ is
µr = 1 + χ (14)
5.2 Different Types of Magnetic Materials and their

Properties
Classification of magnetic materials
5.2.1 Introduction
All materials are made up of atoms. In an atom, the electrons are revolving round
the nucleus in various shells. Moving electron (moving charges) produces electric
current, which in turn produces a magnetic field. Electron has both orbital motion
around the nucleus and spin motion about its own axis. Orbital motion of electron
produces orbital magnetic moment. Similarly spin motion of electron produces spin
magnetic moment. Hence an atom of a material can be considered as atomic magnet
whose magnetic moment is given by the vector sum of orbital and spin magnetic
moments. The magnetic moment (or) magnetic dipole of the atoms in a material will
decide the nature of magnetism in that material.
5.2.2 Classification
Magnetic materials are broadly classified into two categories (types)
1. Magnetic materials not having any permanent magnetic moment.

Example: Diamagnetic materials.
2. Magnetic materials having permanent magnetic moment.

Examples:
(a) Paramagnetic materials.

(b) Ferromagnetic materials.
(c) Antiferromagnetic materials.
(d) Ferrimagnetic materials.
Let us now discuss briefly the five types of magnetic materials mentioned above.
Diamagnetic materials
These materials when placed in an external magnetic field get feebly magnetised
in a direction opposite to the external field. Because of this, when a diamagnetic
material is suspended in a uniform magnetic filed, they at once turns in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of external field (Resultant of external and internal
fields is in perpendicular direction).
Explanation
An electron moving round the nucleus produces a magnetic moment. Due to differ-
ent orientations of various orbits in an atom, the net magnetic moment of a diamag-
netic material is zero. When an external magnetic field is applied on these materials,
there is a change produced in the motion (speed of electrons) in the orbits which
produces an induced magnetic moment in a direction opposite to the external field.
That is why a suspended diamagnetic material turns perpendicular to external field.
Properties
1. Direction of alignment: (turning)
In a uniform external magnetic field: When a diamagnetic material is suspended
in a uniform magnetic field, it at once turns perpendicular to the direction of external
field.
In a non uniform field: It turns from a stronger field region to a weaker field re-
gion.
2. Effect on the magnetic lines of force

Diamagnetic materials repel the magnetic lines of force. Hence when they are brought
near an electromagnet, they are repelled.
B=0
Fig. 1 Magnetic lines are passing away from the diamagnetic material
3. Magnetic moment
There are no permanent dipoles. Hence the magnetic effects are small.
4. Magnetisation
Magnetisation in a diamagnetic material is directed opposite to the direction of ex-
ternal magnetic field.
5. Susceptibility (χ)
Diamagnetic materials have negative susceptibility. The absolute value of suscepti-
bility is of the order of 10−6 .
Eg: For Bismuth χ = −16.6 × 10−5
For Lead χ = −1.8 × 10−5
6. Dependence of susceptibility on temperature

The magnetic susceptibility of diamagnetic materials is independent of temperature.
7. Dependence of susceptibility on applied field

The susceptibility of diamagnetic materials is independent of strength of the applied
field. (Susceptibility value is a constant for a particular diamagnetic material and
will not vary with temperature and strength of the applied field).
8. Relative permeability (µr )

Relative permeability of diamagnetic materials is less than unity (µ r < 1).
a. The magnetisation in weak magnetic field

The magnetisation of diamagnetic material is a linear function of the magnetic field,
when the field is not so strong.
Examples of diamagnetic substances
Sb, Bi, Zn, Ag, Au, Pb, Al2 O3
Paramagnetic materials
These materials when placed in a uniform external magnetic field, they get mag-
netised in the direction of the external field. Because of this, when a paramagnetic
material is suspended in an external field, they at once turns in the same direction of
the applied field.
Explanation:
Paramagnetic materials possess permanent magnetic moments. This magnetic mo-
ments in a single atom of the material is due to (a) orbital motion of electrons around
the nucleus producing orbital magnetic moment and (b) spin motion of electrons
producing spin magnetic moment.
The orbital magnetic moments disappear due to the electric field of neighbouring
charges but spin magnetic moments remain unaltered due to this field.
In the absence of external field, because of random orientation of magnetic mo-
ments under thermal fluctuations, the net magnetic moment in the material is zero.
When the external field is applied, the magnetic moments tend to line up with the
external field. Since the magnetisation produced in the materials is in the same di-
rection of external field, they set themselves in the direction of applied field.
Properties
1. Direction of alignment in external magnetic field
When a paramagnetic substance is suspended in a uniform magnetic field, it at once
turns along the direction of the external field.
In a non uniform field, it turns from a weaker field region to a stronger field
region.
B=0
Fig. 2 Magnetic lines are pulled towards the paramagnetic material

The paramagnetic materials attracts the magnetic lines of force. Hence when they
brought near an electromagnet, the lines of forces due to electromagnet are pulled
towards the paramagnetic materials.
3. Magnetic moment
Paramagnetic materials possess permanent magnetic dipole moment.
4. Magnetisation
Magnetisation in a paramagnetic material is directed along the direction of external
magnetic field.
Paramagnetic materials have a positive magnetic susceptibility (very low). The sus-
ceptibility is of the order of 10−6 .
Examples: χ for Al = 2.2 × 10−5 .

Susceptibility of paramag-
netic substance greatly de-
pends on temperature. As
the temperature increases, c
c=C/T 1/c
susceptibility decreases. ac-

cording to Curie law
1 T T
χ∝
T (a) (b)
C Fig. 3
χ=
T
where C is Curie’s constant.

T is Temperature in kelvin.
At low temperature, Curie-Weiss law can be used.
The relation is
C
χ=
T −θ
where θ = A is a constant known as permagnetic Curie temperature.
Graph (Fig.3) gives the relation between χ and T as per Curie law.

Paramagnetic susceptibility is independent of applied magnetic field and it will not
vary with applied field.

Relative permeability of paramagnetic materials is slightly greater than unity (1)
(µr > 1). The lines of forces due to external field are attracted towards the mate-
rial and penetrate through it.
Eg: µr for Al = 1.00002.
Since µr = 1 + χ where χ has a value 0.00002 = 2 × 10−5 .
9. Variation of magnetisation under weak external magnetic field

The magnetisation is a linear function of the external field (H), when the field is not
so strong.
Examples: Pt, Al, Cr, Mn, CuSo4 , liquid oxygen and solutions of salt of iron and
nickel.
Ferromagnetic materials
These materials when placed in a uniform external magnetic field, they get strongly
magnetised in the direction of the applied field. Because of this, when a ferromag-
netic material is suspended in an external field, they quickly turns along the direction
of the applied field.
Explanation
A ferromagnetic material has a spontaneous magnetic moment naturally even in the
absence of external field that is the net magnetic moments due to the atoms in the
material is not zero. This net intrinsic magnetic dipole moment which is primarily
due to the spin of the electrons. There is a strong interaction between the neighbour-
ing atomic magnetic dipoles. It is known as spin exchange interaction and this
exchange interaction align the neighbouring magnetic dipoles parallel to each other
and this spread over a very small region (1 - 0.1 mm across) called domain. The
domains are oriented in different directions and there is a net magnetic moment in
the material which is the vector sum of the magnetic moment of domains.
In the absence of external field, the magnetic moment of domains are not aligned.
When the external field is applied, the domains that are aligned in the direction of
field, increase in size at the expense of other. In a very strong magnetic field, all the
domains are lined up providing highly observed magnetism. Since the magnetisa-
tion produced inside the material is in the direction of external field, the material
quickly turns along the direction of applied field.
Properties
When a ferromagnetic material is suspended in a uniform magnetic field, it quickly
turns along the direction of the external field.
In a non-uniform field, it turns from a weaker field region to a stronger field
region quickly.

Ferromagnetic material strongly attracts the magnetic lines of force. The field lines
are crowded in to the material, as shown in Fig.4.
N S
Outer ring is made up of Lines of forces are rowded into the

ferromagnetic material ferromagnetic material
Fig. 4
3. Magnetic moment
Ferromagnetic materials have permanent dipole moment. Hence they attract field
strongly.
4. Magnetisation
They exhibit magnetisation even in the absence of external magnetic field. This prop-
erty is known as spontaneous magnetisation.
In the external field, the magnetisation produced is directed along the applied
field.
Ferromagnetic materials have positive magnetic susceptibility. The value of suscep-
tibility is very high and is of the order of 106 .
Eg: χ for pure Fe = 2 × 105 .

Ferromagnetic susceptibility greatly depends on temperature. Each ferromagnetic
material has a characteristic temperature called ferromagnetic curie temperature
(θC ). When T < θC , they show ferromag-
netic property. They obey curie law, χ = TC−θ .
When T > θC , they show paramagnetic prop-
erty. c
Graph between χ and T is shown in Fig.5.

q =TC
C
χ= (χ is very large)
T −θ T
Fig. 5
Because of non linear relationship between B (magnetic induction) and the applied
field, susceptibility of a ferromagnetic material does not have a constant value. The
graph between χ and H is similar to the graph between µr and H.

Relative permeability of ferromag-
netic materials is very high (posi- mr
tive value) and is of the order of -1
(Wb A m )
-1
106 . Relative
permeability
Eg: µr for Fe = 2 × 105 .

0 200 400 600 800 1000
-1
Because of non linear relation be- Magnetic intensity H (A m )
tween magnetic induction (B) and Fig. 6

applied field (H). The permeability of a ferromagnetic material does not have a con-
stant value.
9. Variation of magnetisation with applied field
A
B
Magnetic
induction
B (Tesla)
-1
0 Magnetic field (H) (A m ) H
Fig. 7 (0A represents the initial magnetisation curve)
Magnetisation of a ferromagnetic material does not vary linearly with the applied
field H. It has a very complex function with the applied field.
10. Hysteresis: Y
Ferromagnetic material exhibits hysteresis. In- B

ternal magnetisation (B) lags behind the external
field. Because of this property, there is a resid-
ual magnetisation left after the external field is -X
0
X
H
switched off.
Eg: Fe, Co, Ni.
Antiferromagnetic materials -Y
These materials are magnetised parallel to the di- Fig. 8 Hysteresis loop
rection of external magnetic field. When a antiferromagnetic material is suspended
in a uniform (strong) magnetic field, it turns slowly along the direction of applied
field.
Explanation
Antiferromagnetic materials are crys-
talline solids, which exhibit a small
positive susceptibility of the order of Fig. 9 Dipole magnetic moments are equal
10−3 to 10−5 . Since the distance be-
tween interacting atoms is small in
an antiferromagnetic material, the magnetic interaction between any two dipoles
align themselves anti-parallel to each other and all the dipoles have equal mag-
netic moment in the absence of external field. Hence the resultant magnetisation
is zero. But when an external field is applied, the dipoles align themselves in the
direction of the external field (since the magnetic induction produced in the material
is in the same direction of the external field).
Properties
1. Direction alignment is external magnetic field
When a antiferromagnetic material is suspended in a uniform magnet field, it turns
along the direction of applied field.
2. Magnetic moment
Antiferromagnetic materials have permanent magnetic moment.
3. Alignment of dipoles
Since the distance between interacting atoms is small, the dipoles align in opposite
directions. This is due to an exchange interaction. Actually electron spin of neigh-
bouring atoms are aligned antiparallel. But magnitudes of magnetic moments of

dipoles are equal.
4. Magnetisation
Magnetisation in antiferromagnetic material is directed along the direction of the
external field.
Susceptibility (χ) of antiferromagnetic materials is very small and is positive. It is of
the order of 10−3 to 10−5 .

The susceptibility of antiferromagnetic materials increases with temperature and
reaches a maximum at a temperature called Neel temperature T N . With the further
increase in temperature susceptibility decreases showing paramagnetic properties.
Relation between χ and T is
C
χ=
T +θ
C = curie constant
θ = paramagnetic curie temperature
The variation of susceptibility (χ) of a antiferromagnetic material with tempera-

ture (T) is shown in Fig.10.
× 1/c
T (K)
Fig.10
Variation of 1
χ with T is a straight line.
7. Permeability (µr )
Permeability (µr ) of antiferromagnetic materials is slightly greater than 1
since µr = 1 + χ
Examples: Salts of transition elements.
Ferrimagnetic materials
These materials are magnetised parallel to the direction of external magnetic field.
When a ferrimagnetic material is suspended in a uniform magnetic field, it turns
quickly along the direction of the applied field.
Explanation
In a ferrimagnetic material, the magnetic interac-
tion between any two dipoles is such that they
align themselves antiparallel to each other.
But the magnitudes of any two adjacent
dipole moments are not equal. Hence the ma- Fig.11 Dipole magnetic moments
terial possess a net magnetic moment. Hence if are not equal
we apply a small external magnetic field, it will
produce a large value of magnetisation of specimen along the direction of external
field. Hence the material turns along the direction of external field. But above the
curie temp TC , similar to Neel temperature in antiferromagnetic materials the in-
herent magnetic moment disappears due to random arrangement of dipoles under
thermal agitation.
Properties
When a ferrimagnetic material is suspended in a uniform magnetic field, it turns
quickly along the direction of the applied field.
2. Magnetic moment
Ferrimagnetic materials have permanent magnetic moment.
3. Alignment of dipoles
Since the distance between neighbouring atoms is very small, the dipoles align in
opposite directions. This is due to exchange interaction. But the magnitudes of
magnetic moments of dipoles are not equal. Hence the material possess a net
magnetic moment. That is why ferrimagnetic materials are referred as uncompen-
sated magnetic materials.
4. Magnetisation
Magnetisation in a ferrimagnetic material is parallel to the direction of external mag-
netic field.
Susceptibility (χ) of ferrimagnetic materials is very large and is positive but not so
high as ferromagnetic materials.
6. Dependance of susceptibility on temperature
0 TC T
Fig. 12
The susceptibility of magnetic materials decreases externally with the increase of

temperature (T ) as shown in Fig.12.
Relation between χ and T is
χ
χ=
T +θ

Relative permeability of ferrimagnetic materials is very large and is positive.
Relation between µr and χ is, µr = 1 + χ.
Examples: Ferrous ferrite, nickel ferrite, Ni - Zn composite ferrite.
Advantages:
Ferrimagnetic materials are widely used in high frequency applications (where fer-
romagnetic materials cannot be used).
5.2.3 Comparison of dia, para and ferro magnetism

5.18
Sl.No Particulars Diamagnetism Paramagnetism Ferromagnetism

8. Nature of graph between c C C
and T c c= c
T T-TC
T-TC
T T
Tc = curie temp
9. Dependance on magnetisa- Varies linearly in -ve Varies linearly having Varies linearly having
tion with external field. direction small +ve slope larger +ve slope
(When the field is not so y
y y
strong) B
(flux B B
density)
x
Applied Physics for Engineers
x
H
H x
(ext.field) 0 H
10. Magnetic Relative mr is less than unity (mr < 1) mr is slightly grater than mr is very large and is of
permeability (mr) 5
unity (mr > 1) the order of 10
11. Hysteresis (lagging of Does not exhibit Hysteresis Does not exhibit Exhibit Hysteresis
internal magnetisation with Hysteresis (There is a residual
the external field magnetism in the material
after the external field is
switched off.
12. Presence of Domains (A Presence of large number

group of atomic dipoles of domains
oriented in a particular
direction)
13. Examples: Sb, Bi, Zn, Ag, Au, Pb Pt, Al, Cv, Mn, CuSoY Fe, Co, Nl
liquid oxygen
5.2.4 Domain theory of ferro magnetism

Weiss proposed the concept of domains in order to explain the properties of ferro-
magnetic materials and their hysteresis effect.
Ferromagnetic materials are very strongly magnetic. A, ferromagnet has a spon-
taneous magnetic moment that is a magnetic moment even in zero applied field.
The atoms (molecules) of ferromagnetic materials have a net intrinsic (internal)
magnetic moment which is mainly due to the spin of electrons. The spin mo-
tion of electrons produces a current and in turn has a magnetic moment. Hence
atoms of the materials are considered as atomic magnetic poles. The interaction be-
tween the neighbouring atomic magnetic dipoles is very strong. This interaction
is known as spin exchange interaction and is present even in the absence of an
external magnetic field. This exchange interaction aligns (makes) the neighbouring
magnetic dipole moments parallel to one another and this spread over a small re-
gion [(1 − 0.1mm across) some times 10−6 m size (or) larger] of the bulk material.
This small volume of the bulk is known as domains. In each individual domain, the
magnetic moments of the atoms are aligned in the same direction. Thus domain is a
region of the ferromagnetic material in which all the magnetic moments of the atoms
(magnetic dipoles) are aligned to produce a net magnetic moment in one direction
only. Hence each domain acts as a tiny magnet having a magnetic moment & axis
(points in a direction). A bulk material consists of many domains. The direction of
spontaneous magnetisation (Net magnetic moment) vary from domain to domain.
The total magnetic moment of the material is given by the vector sum of magnetic
moment of all the domains present in it. Since the domains are randomly oriented,
the resultant magnetisation of material may be zero or nearly zero. This happens in
the absence of external field.
The boundaries separating the domains are
called domain walls (or) Bloch walls. The
domain walls are similar to grain boundaries in
a polycrystalline material but domain walls are
thicker than grain boundaries. Like grain
growth, domain size also grow due to the move-
ment of domain walls. Domains in a ferromagnetic material
In an unmagnetised piece of Ferro magnetic Fig. 13

material, the magnetic moment of the domains themselves are not aligned in a par-
ticular direction.
When an external field is applied there are two ways of alignment of a ran-
dom domain as given below.
a) By motion of domain walls

The volume of the domains that are
oriented (magnetised) in the direc- Fig. 14
tion of external field increases in size at the expense of the others by the movement
the walls of domains towards unfavourably oriented with respect to external field.
b) By rotation of domains
As the magnetic field is increased to a larger value (near saturation) further domain
growth becomes impossible. Therefore most favorably oriented and fully growth
domains tend to rotate so as to be in complete alignment in the direction of exter-
nal field.
A typical magnetisation curve (B-H curve) of a pure ferromagnetic material is
shown in Fig.15.
4 B
Saturation
Rot. of domain
3
Rotation of domain
H 2 Growths of favorable
Domain
domains & shrinkage
Domain magnetisation growth of unfavorable domains
1
by rotation A
Fig.15
c) Effect of temperature
C
If a ferromagnetic material is heated to a high c
c=
T-TC
temperature, the thermal vibrations become so
strong enough to offset the alignment of mag-
netic moments of dipoles with in the domain.
At a particular temperature, the material loses TC T
its ferromagnetic property and behave like a Fig. 16
paramagnetic material. The temperature above which a ferromagnetic material be-
comes paramagnet is called as curie temperature given by the relation χ = T −T C
C
.
Where χ is the magnetic susceptibility of the material, variation of χ with respect to
temperature (T) is shown in Fig.16.
Heisenberg’s quantum theory of ferromagnetism (or) Heisen-

berg’s criteria on internal field
Ferromagnetic materials have a large internal magnetic field even in the absence of
an external magnetic field. The first theoretical explanation of the large internal field
(weiss field) in ferromagnetic materials was proposed by Heisenberg, in 1928. He
pointed out that the magnetisation of ferromagnetic materials arises due to electron
spin than due to orbital motion. It has been proved that it is impossible to explain an
internal field of strength lying in the range of 106 to 107 oersted by classical dipole
interaction. Hence Heisenberg interpreted (suggested) that such high value of inter-
nal fields can be explained in terms of quantum exchange interactions between

the electrons.
An exchange force is essentially caused by a static coulombic interaction which
is purely electrostatic is nature and its magnitude can be much larger than the mag-
netic interaction. This exchange force appears in the form of spin-spin interaction
because orbital states of electrons naturally impose a limitation on the spin states
according to pauli’s exclusion principle.
The strength of interaction depends on the inter atomic separation and it may
change its sign as the separation is varied. It can be predicted that as the two un-
paired electrons (spins in the same direction ↑↑) approach each other, the electron
spins of unpaired electrons in each atom assume parallel orientation.
According to Heisenberg, if the spins of the electrons are parallel, the exchange
interaction between the electrons in different quantum states leads to a lower energy.
If the interatomic separation decreases more and more, the exchange force decreases
until they pass through a zero value and an antiparallel spin is favoured. (↑↓)
Let us consider two electrons in a magnetic field, rab is the interatomic separation
and r0 is the orbital radius of electron of any material, and if rrab 0
> 3, then the
exchange energy is negative and hence it is minimum for parallel interaction. Such
a material exhibit ferromagnetic properties. For example ferromagnetic materials
like Fe, Co, Ni and Gd have rrab
0
ratio 3.26, 3.64, 3.94, and 3.12 respectively.
If the ratio rrab
0
< 3, then the materials are found to be non ferromagnetic. For
example, non ferromagnetic materials like Cr and Mn have rrab 0
ratio 2.60 and 2.94.
Thus Heisenberg explained the large value of the intermolecular field successfully
and gave theories for ferro, antiferro and ferrimagnetic materials on the basis
of exchange interaction between spins.
Conclusion: Hence it is possible to combine two materials with unfavourable ratio
of rrab
0
(< 3 and > 3) to form a new compound whose ratio of rrab
0
> 3 and thus make it
ferromagnetic. This is the usefulness of Heisenberg’s interpretation discussed above.
With the help of this theory, one can fabricate a new material with desired properties
required for electromagnetic applications.
5.2.5 Hysteresis
The lagging of flux density (B) (magnetisation) behind the magnetising field H
(external magnetic field) in the case of a ferromagnetic materials is known as Hys-
teresis. The hysteresis graph represents the variation of flux density B with the
change in the external magnetic field strength (H) in a ferromagnetic material.
Consider an unmagnetised specimen of ferromagnetic material subjected to an
external magnetic field. When the magnetic field strength (H) is gradually increased
from zero (point 0), the flux density (B) also increases rapidly upto a point A in the
graph. It is observed that if the magnetic field strength (H) is increased further, the

dB
rate of increase of flux density slope is reduced and finally becomes zero
dH
(slope) and the value of flux density reaches a saturation shown by the curve PC.
When the magnetic field strength (H) is re-
B
versed and slowly decreases to zero then P
C
the flux density (B) decreases not along CO,
D
but along CPD and the flux density (B) B
not becomes zero when the external field Bh A
E
strength (H) is zero. A certain amount H
-H 0 J
of flux density represented by OD in the HC
Br = Retentivity
graph is still left with the material even G HC = Coercivity
F
when the external field strength is zero
and is known as residual magnetism (or)
retentivity and its represented in the Fig. 17
graph as Br . Thus retentivity of a speci-
men is defined as the magnatisation (or) flux density retained by the specimen when
the magnetising field is reduced from saturation value to zero. Its magnitude is rep-
resented as Br in the graph.
If the external magnetic field (H) is decreased (or) increased in the negative di-
rection, the flux density varies along DE and at E, the magnitude of flux density
becomes zero. Hence there is no residual magnetism in the specimen at this stage.
Hence in order to make the flux density left with the material to zero, a certain
amount of external magnetic field represented by OE is applied in reverse direction.
This negative value of the magnetic field causes demagnetisation of the specimen
and it is called as the coercive force (or) coercivity. Hence coercivity of a spec-
imen is defined as the amount of reverse external magnetic field required to make
the residual magnetism zero (flux density B=0) (or) complete demagnetisation. Its
magnitude is represented as Hc in the graph.
It is observed that the field strength (H) is decreased further (increased in nega-
tive direction) the flux density B, increases rapidly along the curve EF, until a nega-
tive saturation is reached at F. If the field is increased towards positive direction, we
get a curve FGJC and the cycle is completed, the enclosed area of the curve CPDE-
FGJC is called as hysteresis loop. It may be noted from the figure, that the flux
density (B) always lags behind the magnetic field strength (H) and this phe-
nomenon is known as magnetic hysteresis.
The work done on the ferromagnetic specimen gives an energy loss known as
Hysteresis loss. The hysteresis loss is defined as the loss of energy in taking a fer-
romagnetic material through a complete cycle of magnetisation and the
magnitude of loss is represented by the area enclosed by the hysteresis loop.
Actually domain structure changes during the hysteresis.
5.2.6 Hard & Soft materials

Based on hysteresis loss, the magnetic materials can be classified into two types
namely hard and soft materials. Hard magnetic materials have large hysteresis
loss and hence the area of hysteresis loop (loop of B-H curv) is large. Eg: carbon,
steel, tungsten, steel chromium steel and Al-Ni-Co alloys (Alnico). Copper
nickel iron alloys (cunife) and Copper nickel cobalt alloys (cunico).
Soft materials have low hysteresis loss and hence the area of hysteresis loop is
small. Eg: Iron-silicon alloys, ferrous nickel alloys, Iron cobalt-alloys (Fer-
rites) and Garnets. Hard materials are used for the production of permanent
magnets used in magnetic detectors, microphones, flux metres, voltage regu-
lators & damping devices and magnetic separators. Soft materials are used in
electromagnetic machinary and transformer cores. They are also used in switch-
ing circuits, microwave isolators and matrix storage of computers.
5.2.7 Explanation of hysteresis on the basic of domain

theory
The phenomenon of hysteresis can be successfully explained on the basis of domain
theory. The increase in value of the resultant magnetic moment (magnetisation)
of the specimen under the action of the applied field can be due to (1) the motion
of domain walls and (2) the rotation of domains.
When a weak magnetic field is applied the domains which are aligned paral-
lel to the external field and in the easy direction of magnetisation (inclined to the
direction of magnetiasation) grow in size at the expense of less favourably oriented
domains by expanding the walls of domains. When the weak field is removed, the
domains reverse back to their original state and size. This reversibility of wall
movement is possible in the region OA of B-H curve.
When the external field becomes stronger, the movement of Block wall con-
tinues and the movement becomes irreversible. This behaviour is indicated by the
portion of the curve AB of the B-H graph. The phenomenon of hysteresis (lagging of
B behind H) is only due to this irreversibility under stronger magnetic field and at
the point B, all domains have magnetised along their easy direction of magnetisation
(still not along the direction of external field).
Application of still higher fields, the process of rotation of domains takes place
and now all the domains are made to align in the direction of external field, which
may be away from their easy direction thereby storing anisotropy energy. When
once the domain rotation is complete the specimen is saturated. This process is
represented by the part ep of the B-H curve. Now all the domains align in the
direction of external field.
On removal of the field the specimen try to attain the original configuration by the
movement of block walls. But this movement is related to impurities latice imperfec-
tions etc. Hence more energy is required to reduce the magnetisation of specimen to
zero. The amount of energy spent in this process (reverse back to original condition)
is known as Hysteresis loss and this loss enclosed by the represented by the area
of hysteresis loop of B-H curve.
Bohr magneton is the magnetic moment produced by one unpaired electron in
an atom. It is the basic (quantum) unit of atomic magnetism, represented by µ B
1µB = 9.27 × 10−24 Am−2
5.2.8 Energy product of a magnetic material

For a permanent magnet, we require a hard material with a high saturation mag-
netisation, high residual magnetism (remanence) and high coercivity. For such a
material, the area of hysteresis loop is also large (B-H curve). The area of the hys-
teresis loop between Br and HC represents the energy required to demagnetise a
permanent magnet. The maximum value of this area, that is the product B r × HC is
called as the energy product. The area of the loop of B-H curve second quadrant is
often used to measure the effectiveness of the material as a permanent magnet. The
area must be as large as possible for permanent magnets.
1.4
D 1.2 1.2
1 B (wbm) B (wbm) 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
Br
0.4 0.4
-48 -32 -16 0.2 0.2 BH max
-H E HC H BH
0 4 8 12 16 20
3 4 3
X 10 A/m (X 10 B/m )
(a) Graph between B & H (b) Graph between B and BH
Fig. 18
Discussion
The second and fourth quadrant of B-H curve, the loop represents the demagnetis-
ing curves of the material and is related to the energy required to demagnetise the
magnet. It is conventional to represent the second quadrant of B-H curve as the de-
magnetising curve. The energy product BH versus magnetic induction B curve for a
hard material is shown in figure.
It is seen from the graph that the energy product is zero at the points D and E and
it attains maximum at an intermediate point known as the maximum energy product
BHmax . Actually the maximum energy product of a hard material is given by the
area of the largest rectangle that can be inscribed in a demagnetising curve.
Application
The energy product should be as large as possible for permanent magnets. Hence the
materials with higher values of energy product can be used as a magnetic recording
materials and these materials can be selected by drawing graph between B and BH
(product of B and H).
5.2.9 Ferrites and their application

Ferrites belong to soft magnetic materials and they are also called as ferrimagnetic
materials. They are complex compounds of different metals and oxygen and they
exhibit the property of ferromagnetism.
The general chemical formula of ferrite molecule’s MOFe 2 O3 (or) MFe2 O4 (in
ionic form M+2 Fe+3
2 O4 ). It is a mixture of MO and Fe2 O3 , where M represents a
−2
divalent metals (having two electrons in the outermost shell) like Fe, Co, Mn, Zn, Ca
and Mg.
Since the oxide contains ions, the magnetic properties can be predicted with some
good approximation each Fe+2 ion corresponds to 4 Bohr magneton (unit of measur-
ing atomic magnetism) and each Fe+3 corresponds to 5 Bohr magneton. A material
such as Fe+2 Fe+3
2 O4 exhibits a saturation magnetisation which amounts to 4 Bohr
−2
magneton. If all the ions are lined up in parallel, we can except 4 + (2 × 5) = 14

magneton per molecule (4µB for Fe+2 , 10µB for 2Fe+3 ). This difference in the esti-
mation of atomic magnetism can be accounted on the basis of arrangement of atoms
in ferrites.
+2 +3
Fe Fe
B site
(Octahedral)
4mB 5mB 5mB
A site
(Tetrahedral)
+3
Fe
Fig. 19 Schematic arrangement of Fe+2 and Fe+3 ions magnetite.
The oxygen ions in a ferrite form a close packed face centred cubic structure
(FCC). It is found that for every four O−2 ions, there are two octahedral holes sur-
rounded by six O−2 ions and 1 tetrahedral hole surrounded by four O−2 ions. The
metal ions are distributed over tetrahedral sites (A site) and octahedral sites (B site).
Thus octahedral sublattice has twice as many sites as in tetrahedral one. There are
two Fe+3 ions and one Fe+2 ion per molecule of Fe3 O4 , Fe+3 magnetic moments just
cancel each other (5 − 5 = 0) and hence the net magnetic moment per molecules of
ferrite is 4µB. This is in good agreement with experiment. The behaviour of other
ferrites may be explained in a similar manner.
Applications
1. Ferrite rods are used in radio receiver to increase the sensitivity and selectivity
of the receiver.
2. Ferrites are used as cores in audio and T.V. transformers.
3. Ferrites are used in digital computers, data processing circuits and digital data
storage devices.
4. Ferrites are used to produce low frequency ultrasonic waves in magnetostric-
tion method.
5. Ferrites are widely used in non reciprocal microwave devices like Gyrator, cir-
culator and isolator.
6. Ferrites are used in power limiting and harmonic generation devices.
7. They are used in the design of ferromagnetic amplifiers of microwave signals.
8. Hard ferrites are used to make permanent magnets which are used in galvano
meters, ammeters, voltmeters, speed meters, wattmeters and recorder.
9. Ferrite core can be used as bistable element.
10. Rectangular ferrite cores can be used as a magnetic shift register.
5.3 Dielectrics
5.3.1 Introduction
Dielectrics are essentially insulating materials. Dielectric materials are used to
store electric energy. The basic function of an insulating material is to resist the flow
of electric current and at the same time the dielectric material stores electric energy.
For a material to be a good dielectric, it must behave as an insulator.
They are non metallic materials having high specific resistance and nega-
tive temperature coefficient. In a dielectric, all the electrons are bound to their
parent molecules and there are no free charges and electrons are not released under
the action of applied electric field or thermal energy.
5.3.2 Description of dielectric in terms of band theory of

solids
The property of dielectric can be explained in terms of band theory (structure) of
solids. The energy band diagram of an insulating materials (dielectric) is shown
in Fig.20. There is a wide energy gap which is of the order of 3eV more between
conduction band and valence band.
This energy gap is so wide that at ordinary temperature, electrons cannot jump
from valence band to conduction band. As a result of this, no conduction takes place
at ordinary temperature. But as the temperature increases, the resistance of dielectric
decreases.
Conduction band
(Energy)
Forbidden band
(wide energy gap)
Valence band
Fig. 20
The common examples of dielectric are rubber, bakelite, mica, glass etc.
5.3.3 Application
1. Dielectrics are widely used as insulating materials. Some examples are given
below.
(a) Copper (or) Aluminium wires are used as conductors in electrical cir-
cuits but they are insulated with an outer jacket of plastic (or) rubber
(dielectric).
(b) In heater coils (filament) dielectric like ceramics beads are used to avoid
short circuiting.
(c) In electric iron box, mica (or) asbestos are used to prevent the flow of
electric current to outer body.
(d) In transformer and generator winding, varnished cotton is used as in-
sulator to prevent short circuit.
(e) In electrical transmission lines porcelain structures are used as insula-
tors between points of different potential.
2. Another important application of dielectric materials is their use as storage

capacitors.
Depending upon the type of dielectric used and its applications, they are classified
into the following groups.
(a) Capacitors with air (or) vacuum, or inert gas as dielectric (gas
dielectric)
When the values of these capacitors are not so large, the dielectric losses are very less.
They are used in radio frequency circuits and low frequency measuring circuits.
(b) Capacitors with mineral oil as dielectric (liquid dielectric) and

electrolytic solution as dielectric
These capacitors have a very large value of capacitance. But dielectric losses are
not so small. They are used in high voltage applications (power pack and filtering
circuits).
(c) Capacitors with solid dielectric

In these capacitors, the dielectric materials like mica, paper glass etc can be used.
Also dielectric constant does not vary with temperature. They have high value of
dielectric constant and high insulating resistance.
They are used as standard capacitors in the laboratories and in electrical circuits.
(d) Capacitors with both solid and liquid dielectric

In this type of capacitors combination of solid dielectrics like paper, glass, mica, thin
films of synthetic materials etc and liquids like mineral oil, silicon oil and castor oil
etc are used. These capacitance have high value of capacitance.
They are used in electrical power distribution systems to provide power factor
correction.
5.3.4 Fundamental definitions

1. Electric field and electric lines
_
of force +
The space around a charge, where the in-

fluence of electricity is felt (or) in which it
Fig. 21
exerts a force on another charge. The elec-
tric field is assumed to consists of electric lines of force. These lines of force start
from positive charge and end on the negative charge. It is a line along which a unit
positive charge is free to move.
The tangent at any point on the electric line of force gives the direction of electric
at that point.
2. Electric field strength (or) electric field intensity (I)

Electric field strength at a point in an electric field is the force experienced by a unit
positive charge placed at that point. It is represented by the letter E.
If q is the magnitude of charge in coulomb and F is the force experienced by the
charge in Newton, then
F
Electric field strength E=
q
V
Also E=
d
V = Voltage applied
d = Distance between the plates
unit E is N/C (or) V /m.
3. Electric flux (ψ)

It represents the total number of electric lines of force starting from a positive charge.
It is numerically equal to the charge. It has the same unit as charge.
Unit of ψ is coulomb.
4. Electric flux density (or) electric displacement vector (D)

Electric flux density at a point is defined as the flux (ψ) (or) electric lines of force
passing normally through the unit area of cross section at that point. It is represented
by the letter D.
If ψ is the total flux in Coulomb
A = Area of cross section in metre2
then Electric flux density

ψ
D=
A
unit of D is c/m2 .
5. Permittivity ()
It represents the effectiveness (or) easiness of a medium (or) substance to allow the
electric flux through it. It is defined as the ratio of electric displacement (D) in a
dielectric medium to the applied field strength (E). Permittivity is represented by
the latter , D
Permittivity =
E
Permittivity can also be defined as the degree up to which a medium can restrict the
flow of charge through it and it is always greater than 1.
If 0 = absolute permittivity of free space

= 8.854 × 10−12 F/m and
r = Relative permittivity (or) dielectric constant of a medium
then permittivity of a medium is given by

= 0 × r
unit of is Farad/metre (F/m).
6. Dielectric constant (r )

The dielectric characteristic of a material can be determined by the dielectric constant
(or) relative permittivity (r ) of the material.
It is defined as the ratio of the permittivity of the medium () to the permittivity
of free space (0 ) and is represented by r

Dielectric constant (or) relative permittivity r = .
0
Since it is ratio, it has no unit. It also gives the measure of polarisation (alignment
of charges) in the dielectric material under external electric field.
7. Dipole
Two charges of equal magnitude but of opposite polarity separated by a small dis-
tance form a dipole. It is represented in the following figure
← d →
•
−q +• q
8. Dipole moment (p)

The product of either charge (one of the charge) on the dipole and distance between
the charges is defined as the dipole moment represented by µ and it is directed from
−q to +q.
The dipole moment µ = q × d
unit of dipole moment is coulomb − metre (C − m).
9. Electric polarisation (→
−
p ) (or) polarisation vector
The dipole moment (µ) per unit volume of dielectric material is known as polarisa-
tion. It is represented by the letter P
µ
P = where V = volume of dielectric in m3 .
V
If →
−
µ is the average dipole moment per molecule and N is the number of molecu-
lar per unit volume then
→
−
P = N→ −µ
Explanation
+ + + + + + + +
Consider an atom of dielectric material placed _ _ _ _ _ _
inside an electric field. The centre of positive Dielectric E E0
charge is displaced along the direction of elec- + + + + + +
tric field (+ve polarity to −ve polarity) and the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
centre of negative charge is displaced in op-

posite direction. Thus a dipole is produced. Fig. 22
Hence when a dielectric material is kept in an electric field, dipoles are created in
all the atoms of the material. The process of producing electric dipoles in an elec-
tric field which are oriented along the field direction is known as polarisation in
dielectrics. But the field produced in dielectric (E) is opposite to the applied field
(E0 ).
Fig. 23
10. Polarizability (α)

When a dielectric material is kept in an electric field and if the strength of electric
field is increased the strength of induced dipoles also increases. Thus the induced
dipole moment (µ) is directly proportional to the strength of the applied field (E).
that is µ × E
µ=αE
Where α is a constant of proportionality known as polarizability

µ Induced dipole moment
α= =
E Strength of applied field
Unit of α is F/m2
Relation between P, 0 , r and E is
P = 0 (r − 1)E
11. Electric flux (D) in terms of field strength

Since the electric flux density (D) of a dielectric material is directly proportional to
the field strength (E), then D can be written as
D = 0 r E (15)
Since polarisation measures the additional field density in the presence of mate-
rial as compared to the vacuum, D can be written as
D = 0 E + p
Sub for D form (15), we have

0 e E = 0 E + P
∴ P = 0 r E − 0 E
P = 0 (r − 1)E
Hence flux density (D) is similar to the magnetic induction (B).
12. Electric susceptibility (χe )

Since polarisation vector p is proportional to the applied field E and is in the direc-
tion of E, the polarisation vector →
−
p can be written as
p = 0 χe E
p
∴ χe =
0 E
Sub for p
0 (r − 1)E
χe =
0 E
χe = r − 1
It is a measure of a substance to get electrified.
5.3.5 Measurement of dielectric constant (or) relative

permittivity (r )
The polarisation (or) dielectric constant (r ) of a dielectric can be measured by using
a parallel plate capacitor.
First the parallel plates of a capacitor are separated by vacuum and if a voltage
V is applied to the capacitor, a charge is developed on each plate (equal magnitude).
Measure the capacitance C using a L-C-R meter and C can be written as
0 A
C= (16)
d
where A = area of one of the plates.

Now if a dielectric material is introduced between the plates, it will increase the
charges on the plates due to polarisation in the material. Again capacitance C 1 us
measured by using L-C-R metre then
0 r A
C1 = (17)
d
C1
∴ = r (18)
C
C1
The ratio gives the value of dielectric constant of dielectric material.
C
5.3.6 Various polarisation mechanisms in dielectric

materials
We know that the net charge within a neutral atom is zero. Further more, the centre
of negative charge of electrons coincides with centre of positive charge of nucleus
and hence the net dipole of an atom is zero.
Electron E
cloud Centre of
+ Atomic _ + +ve charge
nucleus
Centre of
-ve charge
_ +
Centre of +ve and centre
of -ve charge coincides P induced
In the absence of In the presence of
applied field applied field
Fig. 24
When an atom is placed in an external field, an induced dipole moment is de-

veloped. The electrons, being much lighter than the positive nucleus, are easily dis-
placed by the field, which results in the separation of centre of negative charge and
centre of positive charge. Hence a dipole is created.
The seperation of negative and positive charges and the resulting dipole moment
are termed as polarisation. An atom is said to be polarised, if it has effective
dipole moment.
Polarisation occurs due to several mechanisms. When a dielectric material is
placed inside d.c. electric field, the polarisation takes place due to four types of
processes mentioned below.
(a) Electronic polarisation
(b) Ionic polarisation
(c) Orientation polarisation
(d) Space charge polarisation.
(a) Electronic polarisation (or) induced polarisation (pe )

This polarisation is due to the displacment of positively charged nucleus and the
negatively charged electrons (electronic cloud) in the opposite direction under the
external electric field. As a result a dipole moment is created with in each atom. The
extent of this shift (displacement) is proportional to the field strength.
The dipole moment is given by the product of the charge and shift distance (q×d).
But induced dipole moment is proportional to the strength of external field E.
∴ µe α E
µe = α e E (19)
where αe =electronic polarizability.

But the dipole moment per unit volume is known as electronic polarisation
represented by pe
pe = N µ e (20)
pe = N α e E (21)
where N = Number atoms/m3 .

This electronic polarisation occurs in all dielectrics for any state of arrangement.
It sets over a very short period of time, of the order of 10−14 to 10−15 sec (fermi sec-
ond). It is independent of temperature. The process of polarisation is already repre-
sented in Fig.
Calculation of electronic polarizability (αe )

A simple classical model of an atom is shown in Fig.25. Here a nucleus of charge Ze is
surrounded by an electronic cloud of charge −Ze. This electronic charge distributed
over a sphere of radius R.
No field In the presence of
external field
+ _ +
Centre of
Centre of
Centre of +ve and +ve charge
-ve charge
centre of -ve charge
coincides
Fig. 25
Then the charge density of electron cloud is
charge
P =
volume of space (atom)
−Ze −3Ze
P = 4 3 = (22)
3 πR 4πR3
where an external field of intensity E is applied, the nucleus (with the charge Ze)
and electron (with the charge −Ze) experiences a Lorentz force of magnitude,
F =Eq where q = Ze
F = Ze E (23)
The Lorentz forces on nucleus and electron act in opposite direction. Hence nucleus
and electron are pulled apart (A dipole is created).
When they are separated, there is a coulombic force of attraction developed be-
tween them. This force opposes the displacement produced by Lorentz force (which
separates them) when these forces are equal and opposite, an equilibrium is reached
and x be the displacement between centre of positive charge (nucleus) and centre
of electronic charge (electron cloud). Since nucleus is much heavier (1836 times of
electron) than electron cloud, it is assumed that the electron cloud is displaced under
external field.
∴ Lorentz force = Eq = −E(Ze) q = −Ze for electron
= −Ze E
−(Ze) × charge enclosed in a sphere of radius
Coulombic force = (24)
4π 0 x2
4
charge enclosed = π x3 P
3
Sub. for P from (22)

4 −3Ze
charged enclosed (Q) = π x 3
3 4πR3
3
−Ze x
Q=
R3
Sub for Q in (24)
−Ze x3

Ze
∴ coulombic force =
4π 0 x2 R3
2 2
−Z e x
coulombic force = (25)
4π 0 R3
In the equilibrium position
Lorentz force = coulombic force
−Z 2 e2 x
−Ze E =
4π 0 R3
4π 0 R3 E
x= (26)
Ze
The displacement of electron cloud is proportional to the strength of applied field
E. The two electric charges Ze and −Ze separated by a distance x under the action of
external field form an induced electric dipole producing induced dipole moment.
Induced dipole moment µe = one of the charge × dist. between them
Induced dipole moment µe = (Ze) × x (27)
Sub. for x
(4π 0 R3 E)
Induced Dipole moment µe = Ze
Ze
µe = 4π o R3 E (28)
µe = α e E (29)
where αe = 4π 0 R3 E is known as electronic polarizability.

The dipole moment per unit volume is called as electronic polarisation repre-
sented by Pe
∴ Pe = N µ e (30)
Sub for µe electronic polarisation is given by
Pe = N α e E (31)
But Pe = E 0 (r − 1) = N αe E
Eq.(31) represents
0 (r − 1)
electronic polarizability αe = (32)
N
(b) Ionic polarisation (Pi )

Ionic polarisation is due to the displacement of cations and anions in opposite di-
rections and takes place in an ionic solid, suppose an electric field is applied in the
positive x direction. The positive ions move towards right by x 1 , and negative ions
move towards left by x2 . Assuming that each unit cell certain one cation and one
anion, the resultant dipole moment per unit cell due to ionic displacement is given
by
µi = ex1 + ex2
where e = magnitude of charge of each ion.
µi = e(x1 + x2 ) (33)
Let β1 , β2 represent the resoring force constants and F is the force due to the applied
(external) field in Newton. Since the displacement of ions is proportional to the
applied field, then force is given by
F = β 1 x1 = β 2 x2 (34)
F
x1 = (35)
β1
F
x2 = (36)
β2
The restoring force constants (β1 , β2 ) depends on (1) mass of the ions and (2) angular
frequency of molecule (ω0 ) in which ions are present, then
Lorentz force = centripetal force

Ee = m ω02 x1
Ee
∴ x1 = (37)
m ω02
Ee
similarly x2 =
M ω02
where m = mass of cation
m = mass of negative ion

eE 1 1
∴ Resultant displacement = x1 + x2 = 2 + (38)
ω0 M m
Resultant dipole moment µ = e(x1 + x2 )
Sub for x1 + x2 from (38)
e2 E

1 1
µi = 2 + (39)
ω0 M m
But µi α E
µi = α i E (40)
where αi = Ionic polarizability
e2

µi 1 1
αi = = 2 +
E ω0 M m
e2

1 1
αi = 2 + (41)
ω0 M m
where 1 1 −1 Mm
is called as reduced mass of ionic molecule.

M + m = M +m
Here ionic polarizability is (a) directly proportional to the square of the

charges of ions and (b) inversely proportional the square of the natural frequency
of the ionic molecule. The process of ionic polarization is given in Fig.26.
No field _
+
In the field
_ +
_
+
x2 x1
P1 P2
Fig. 26 Electric field is applied between plates P1 & P2
Ionic polarisation (Pi ) is given by
Pi = N α i E (42)
(c) Orientation polarisation (P0 )

The orientation polarisation is due to the existence of a permanent dipole moment in
the electric medium. For example in methane (CH4 ) molecule, the centre of positive
charges coincides so that there is no permanent dipole moment on the other hand,
in CH3 Cl, the centre of positive charge and the centre of negative charge do not
coincide. Since the electronegativity (tendency to pull the electrons towards it self
in a hetro nucleus molecule) of chlorine atom is more than that of hydrogen, the
chlorine atom pulls the bonding electrons nears itself more strongly than hydrogen.
Hence even in the absence of an electric field, this molecule carries a dipole
moment.
When an electric field is applied, the molecules having permanent displacement
align themselves in the direction of the applied field. The polarisation due to such
alignment in the presence of applied field is known as orientation polarisation and
it depends on temperature. As the temperature increases, the orientation polarisa-
tion (P0 ) decreases. Since thermal energy tends to produce random arrangement
thereby disturbing the alignment. This orientation polarisation occurs when the
frequency of applied field is the range of audio frequencies of the order of 20
KHz.
The orientation polarisation P0 is given by
P0 = N →
−
µ (43)
2
→
− µ E
where µ = (44)
3KT
N µ2 E
P0 = (45)
3KT
But P0 = N α0 E (46)
where α0 = orientation polarizability
P0
∴ α0 = (or) comparing equation 45 & 46 (47)
NE
µ2
we get α0 = (48)
3KT
The α0 is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature. The process is as shown
in Fig.27.
+ _
_ _ _ _
+ + + + + +
_ _
+
_
_ + _ _ _ _ +
+ + +
_ _ +
+
No field Applied field
Dipoles are randomly oriented Dipoles are oriented partially
in the direction of the field
Fig. 27
(d) Space charge polarisation (Ps )

This polarisation occurs due to the accumulation of charges at the electrodes or in-
terfaces in multi phase material. The ions diffuse over appreciable distances in the
presence of the applied field, giving rise to a redistribution of charges in the dielectric
medium.
The space charge polarisation (Ps ) occurs when the frequency of applied field
is in the range of power frequencies (about 50-60 Hz). It depends on temperature.
It increases with the increase in temperature. It also depends on the applied field
strength (E).
The space charge polarisation is given by
Ps = N α s E
Where αs =space charge polarizability.

Since αs is very small when compared with other polarizabilities, and it can be
neglected. The process of polarisation is shown in Fig.28.
+ + + + + + + + +
_ __
_ _ _
_ _ _
_
+ + + + + + ++ +
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
No field With field
Fig. 28
Total polarisation (P )
The total polarisation (P ) of a material under the influence of applied field is given
by the sum of the contribution of the electronic, Ionic, orientational and space charge
polarisation discussed above.
∴ Ptotal = Pe + Pi + Po + Ps (49)
Since space charge polarizability αs is very small when compared with other
types of polarizabilities, the term Ps = N αs E can be neglected.
∴ Total polarisation is given by
Ptotal = Pe + Pi + Po (50)
Total polarizability is given by
α = α e + αi + αo
Sub the values of αe , αi , & αo , we get
e2 µ2

1 1
3
α = 4π0 R + 2 + + (51)
ω0 M m 3KT
Hence total polarisation of a material is given by
Ptotal = N α E
Sub for α
e2

1 1

µ2

PT = N E 4π0 R3 + 2 + + (52)
ω0 M m 3KT
Equation (52) is known as Langevin-Debye equation.
5.3.7 Effects of frequency and temperature on polarisation

and dielectric constant
1. Effect of frequency of the applied field on polarisation and dielec-
tric constant
The polarisation and consequently dielectric constant depends on the frequency
of the applied field. This phenomenon is called dielectric dispersion. On the
application of an electric field on a dielectric material, a polarisation takes place as a
function of time. The polarisation P (t) as a function of time is given by
−t

P (t) =P 1 − e Tr
where P =The maximum polarisation (polarisation amplitude)
attained in a time t.
Tr =The relaxation time for a particular type of polarisation
process.
Fig. 29
The relaxation time is measure of the time scale of a polarisation process.

Relaxation time (tr ) is defined as the time taken for a polarisation process to
reach 0.63 times the maximum value. It is a constant for a particular process and
is different for different polarisation process.
The variation of polarisation with the frequency of the applied field is shown in
Fig.29.
Discussion
(a) Electronic polarisation
The electronic polarisation is extremely rapid (fast) and is essentially complete at
the instant the voltage is applied. It occurs at all frequencies. It occurs even when
the frequency of the applied voltage is very high of the order of optical frequencies
(∼ 1015 Hz) and it occurs during every cycle of applied voltage (Range AB in graph).
(b) Ionic polarisation

Ionic polarisation is slower than electronic polarisation, Ionic polarisation is due to
the displacement of ions through a distance in the external field. Since ions are heav-
ier than electron cloud,the time taken for the displacement is larger and hence it is a
slower process than electronic polarisation. The frequency with which ions are dis-
placed is of the same order of the latice vibrational frequency (10 13 Hz). Hence these
ions do not respond to optical frequency that is, the time for required for latice vi-
bration is 100 times more than the period applied voltage at optical frequency. If the
frequency of the applied voltage is less than 1013 Hz, Ionic polarisation will
takes place. At 1013 Hz, both electronic and ionic polarisation take place. (Range
CD in graph).
(c) Orientation polarisation

It is even slower than ionic polarisation. The relaxation time for orientation po-
larisation in a liquid dielectric is less than in a solid dielectric. For example for liquid
propyl alcohol, the relaxation time is 10−10 s where as for solid ice it is 3 × 10−6 s.
Orientation polarisation takes place when frequency of the applied voltage is in the
range of audio frequencies (about 20 KHz) (Range EF in graph).
(d) Space charge polarisation

It is the slowest polarisation process among the four polarisation process. Since
it involves the diffusion of ions over several interatomic distances, it takes a longer
relaxation time than other process. Its relaxation time is related to the successful
jump of ions under the influence of the applied field of frequency 100 Hz. Hence
space polarisation takes place at machine (power) frequencies (about 50 - 60 Hz).
(Range GH in the graph).
Conclusion
1. Hence we can conclude that the electronic polarisation occurs at optical fre-
quencies (1015 Hz). Ionic polarisation at 10+13 Hz along with electronic po-
larisation. For frequencies 106 to 1010 Hz, orientation polarisation takes place
along with ionic and electronic polarisation. At 100 Hz (power frequencies)
space charge polarisation takes place.
2. It has been observed from the graph as the frequency increases, dielectric con-
stant of material decrease. (That is polarisation decreases as frequency as in-
creases). Thus at low frequencies, the value of polarisation (coordinate in the
graph) is very high and at high frequencies its value small.
2. Effect of temperature on polarisation and dielectric constant
It has been observed that
(a) The electronic polarisation is independent of temperature.

(b) The ionic polarisation is also independent of temperature.
(c) The orientation polarisation decreases with the increase of temperature.
It is because of the fact that the thermal energy tends to randomize (disturb) the
alignment of dipole moment. Hence as the temperature increases, dielectric
constant of materials decreases (since polarisation decreases).
(d) The space charge polarisation increases with the increase in temperature.
It is because of the fact that the thermal energy may aid in overcoming the
activation barrier for the orientation (alignment) of polar molecules in the
direction of the applied field. Hence dielectric constant increases with the
increase in temperature. (since polarisation increases with the increase of
temperature)
5.3.8 Expression for Internal field (Lorentz method) and

Clausius - Mosotti equation
Consider a dielectric material (a slab) placed between the plates of a parallel plate
capacitor. Let an external electric field is applied across the plates of the capacitor.
Let us imagine a spherical cavity is formed around the atom A inside the dielec-
tric slab. It is also assumed that the radius (size) of the cavity is large when compared
to the radius (size) of the atom.
The internal field at the atom site A can be considered to be made up of four com-
ponents of electric field intensities namely E1 , E2 , E3 and E4 which are discussed as
follows:
Electric field
E
+ + + + + + + + + + + +
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Polarisation
++ + +
charges
+
_ +
_
Dielectric _ _ _A_
Induced
+ + + + + + + + + + + + charges Applied
Cavity field
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Fig. 30
(a) Electric field intensity E1

This field intensity E1 at A is due to the charge density on the plates of capac-
itor (across which an external field is applied).
From theory we can write
D = 0 E1 (53)
where D =Electric flux density in vacuum (due applied field)

0 =permittivity of air (or) vacuum,
D
∴ E1 = (54)
0
But D =D + 0 E (55)
When the polarisation takes place additional flux density (P) arises due to the
presence of dielectric material along with air or free space.
Hence P = Flux density due to dielectric material present.

0 E = Flux density in vacuum (or) air.
Sub for D in (54)

P + 0 E P
E1 = = +E
0 0
P
E1 = E + (56)
0
(b) Electric field intensity E2

This field intensity E2 at A is due to the charge density induced on two sides of
the dielectric material (kept between plates of a charged capacitor).
P
Hence E2 = − = (P = flux density in the slab)
0
Negative sign shows that this field is opposite to external field (E) [acts up] in
Figure.
(c) Electric field intensity E3

This field intensity at A is due to the other atoms present in the cavity. If we
assume a cubic structure, E3 = 0 due to the symmetric structure (fields due to atoms
surrounding the considering atom cancel each other).
(d) Electric field intensity E4

This field intensity E4 at A is due to the polarisation charges on the surface
of cavity around the atom A. This can be calculated by Lorentz method as given
below.
In the Fig.31 if dA is the surface area of the sphere of radius r lying between θ
and θ + dθ. Where θ is the angle made by the element of sphere with reference to the
applied force (field E).
sq
co
+
P
+ +
R
+ +
E
Q
+ dq + q
r
+ q + P
_ A P _
_ _
_ _
_ _ _
Fig. 31 Enlarged view of cavity around the atoms
Circumference of element of sphere(in the form of circle of radius P Q.
= 2π (P Q)
Surface area of the element = circumference × thickness
dA = 2π(P Q) × (QR) (57)
PQ
In fig sin θ =
r
P Q = r sin θ (58)
QR
dθ =
r
QR = r dθ (59)
Sub in (57)
dA = 2π × r sin θ × r dθ
dA = 2πr 2 sin θ dθ (60)
If dq is the charge on the element and is equal to the product of the normal compo-
nent of the polarisation (P ) by the surface area.
dq = P cos θ × dA (61)
Sub for in (61) from Eq.(60)
dq = P cos θ × 2πr 2 sin θ dθ
dq = P × 2πr 2 sin θ cos θ dθ (62)
The field due to this at A is denoted by d E4 in the direction θ = 0 is given by

By coulomb’s law
q1 × q 2
d E4 =
4π 0 r2
where q1 = dq cos θ
q2 = 1
dq cos θ × 1
dE4 = (63)
4π 0 r2
Sub for dq
dq
P × 2π r 2 sin θ cos θ dθ × cos θ q

dE4 =
4π 0 r2 dq cosq
P × 2π r cos2 θ sin θ dθ
2
dE4 = (64)
4π 0 r2
The total field E4 due to the charges on the entire (full) surface of cavity is obtained
by integrating (64) between limits 0 to π.
Zπ
2πr2 P
Z
dE4 = cos2 θ sin θ dθ
4π0 r2
0
Zπ
P
E4 = cos2 θ sin θ dθ (65)
20
0
Put x = cos θ
dx = − sin θ dθ
∴ −dx = sin θ dθ
Integrating Eq.(65) without limits,
P x3

P
Z
∴ E4 = x2 (dx) =
20 20 3
Substituting the value of x and applying the limits
π
−P (cos θ)3

E4 =
30 3 0
P 1
(cos π)3 − (cos 0)3

=− ×
20 3
P
=− [−1 − 1]
60
2P P
E4 = =
60 30
P
E4 = (66)
30
∴ The internal field Ei is given by
Ei = Intensity of the applied field + field due to polarisation

P
Ei = E + (67)
30
Here Ei is called as internal field or Lorentz field.
Classius - Mosotti relation

Let us consider an elemental dielectric having cubic structure. Since there are no
ions and permanent dipoles in these materials, the ionic polarizability α i and ori-
entation polarizability α0 are zero that is
αi = α 0 = 0 (68)
Since only electronic polarizability occurs, the polarisation P is given by
P = N α e Ei (69)
Sub for Ei

P
P = N αe E+ (70)
30
P
P = N αe + N αe
30

N αe
P 1− = N αe E
30
!
N αe E
P = (71)
1 − N3α0e
We know electric flux density in the material in the presence of external field is given
by
D = P + 0 E (72)
P = D − 0 E (73)
Divide by E
P D
= − 0
E E
P
But = = 0 r (74)
E
P
= − 0
E
= o r − 0
P
= 0 (r − 1)
E
P = E 0 (r − 1) (75)
Comparing (75) and (71) are can write
N αe E
E 0 (r − 1) =
1 − N3α0e
N αe N αe
1− =
30 0 (r − 1)

1 1
1 = N αe +
30 0 (r − 1)

N αe 3
1= 1+
30 r − 1
N αe 1 r − 1
= =
30 1 + r3−1 r − 1 + 3
N αe r − 1
= (76)
30 r + 2
Where N = number of molecules per unit volume. The equation (76) is known
as Classius-Mosotti equation. This equation is used to calculate α e (Electronic
polarizibility), knowing the value of r .
5.3.9 Dielectric loss

Definition
When a dielectric is subjected to an a.c. voltage, the electric energy is absorbed by the
material and is dissipated in the form of heat. This dissipation of energy is called
as dielectric loss. Since this involves heat generation and heat dissipation, the
dielectric loss plays an important role in high voltage applications.
(a) Expression for dielectric loss

When the period of applied voltage is greater than relaxation process, the polar-
isation is completed at any time within a cycle. Here the charging current leads
the voltage as in capacitor. Hence electric energy is lost during charging. This is
applicable for a perfect insulator like vacuum or purified gas.
When the period of the applied voltage is in the same range as relaxation time
of polarisation process, the resonance occurs. Here the current leads the volt-
age by (90 − δ) where δ is called as the loss angle and tan δ is taken as a measure
of electrical loss due to resonance and is known as loss tangent. Here the charging
current can be resolved in to two components, one is parallel and another is perpen-
dicular (90◦ ) to the applied voltage as in capacitor. This is shown in Fig.32.
90°
Fig. 32
The parallel component is the real part (OP is charged current) and results in I 2 R
loss (power loss).
Loss tangent can be expressed as
00r
tan δ = (77)
0r
Where 0r , 00r are real and imaginary parts of relative permittivity for a dielectric
in a capacitor having capacitance C and f is the frequency of the applied voltage V ,
then the dielectric power loss is given by
P = V I cos θ (78)
But V = I XC (79)
where XC is the capacitive reactance

1
∴ XC =
2π fC
V
I= (80)
XC
Also cos θ = cos(90 − δ) = sin δ (81)
Where δ is the angle made by the charging current with the applied voltage sub
in (78)
V2
P = sin δ (82)
XC
Since δ is very small, sin δ = tan δ. Hence Eq.(82) can be sittency
V2
P = tan δ (83)
XC
Sub for XC we get
V 2 tan δ
P = (84)
2π fC
Here tan δ is called as the power factor of the dielectric. Hence power loss
depends on tanδ only. Since other factors like voltage (V ) frequency of applied
voltage (f ) and capacitance are constants.
(b) Frequency regions of dielectric losses

1. The dielectric losses in radio frequency region are usually due to the dipole
rotation or due to ions jumping from one equilibrium position to another.
2. The dielectric losses in the lower frequencies are mainly due to d.c. resistivity
(P ).
3. The dielectric losses in the optical region are associated with electrons and
this loss is known as optical absorption. Hence the electronic polarisa-
tion produces power loss at optical region and at lower frequencies electronic
polarisation produces no power loss.
4. The dielectric losses associated with ionic vibrations the frequencies fall in In-
frared region and is known as Infrared absorption.
(c) Dependence of dielectric loss

Factor affecting dielectric loss. Increase in values of the following factors will in-
crease the dielectric loss.
(a) Temperature
(b) Humidity
(c) Applied voltage
(d) Frequency of the applied voltage.
(d) Significance of dielectric loss

Dielectric loss plays a dominating role in high voltage applications. Dielectric loss is
an engineering problem involving heat generation and heat dissipation. Hence
for the usage of insulating materials, the proper understanding of balance between
heat generation and heat dissipation is a must.
The dielectric materials having very large value of dielectric loss is said to be
lossy dielectric.
5.4 Dielectric breakdown

5.4.1 Definition of dielectric breakdown
When electric field is applied to a dielectric and if it exceeds the critical value, the
dielectric material loses its resistivity (insulating property) and permits a very large
current to flow through it. This phenomenon is known as dielectric breakdown.
The electric field strength at which the breakdown takes place is known as dielectric
strength and the voltage corresponding to this is known as breakdown voltage.
This breakdown produces a devasting effect like firing.
5.4.2 Definition of dielectric strength

The dielectric strength is defined as the breakdown voltage per unit thickness of
the dielectric material. Unit is V m−1 .
The failure (or) breakdown of a dielectric material is of great important for elec-
tronic engineers. There are many reasons for this breakdown to occur.
Let us now discuss the different types of dielectric breakdown and their mecha-
nism briefly.
5.4.3 Types of dielectric breakdown

The different types of dielectric breakdown are
(a) Intrinsic breakdown
(b) Thermal breakdown
(c) Discharge breakdown
(d) Electrochemical breakdown
(e) Defect breakdown.
(a) Intrinsic breakdown

In a perfect dielectric, there are no free electrons and the conductivity is almost
zero.
When the applied voltage is large, some of the electrons in the valence band cross
over to the conduction band after crossing through the large forbidden energy gap,
there by giving rise to large conduction currents. The liberation (or) movement of
electrons from the valance band is known as field emission. This process of crossing
of electrons from valence band to conduction band is a chain reaction. As a result,
a large amount of current flows through the dielectric material causing dielectric
breakdown (losing the resistive property). The breakdown produced in this manner
is known as intrinsic breakdown (or) avalanche breakdown. This breakdown
occurs may be due to the presence of imperfections, vacancies at the intensities or
filled with ions and some extra atoms present at the latice other than normal ones.
Characteristics of this breakdown:

1. It can takes place even at low temperature.
2. It requires relatively large electric field.
3. It does not depends on the electrode configuration and the shape of the
material.
4. This kind of breakdown mostly occurs in thin samples.
(b) Thermal breakdown

If an electric field is applied to a dielectric material, some amount of heat is pro-
duced. This heat produced in the material should be dissipated. In some cases,
the amount of heat generated is larger than the heat dissipated in it, then this
excess of heat results in local melting. Once the melting start, that particular region
becomes more conductive and allows a very large current flow through it there by
causing dielectric breakdown. This type of breakdown is known as thermal break-
down.
Characteristics of this breakdown:
1. It occurs at high temperatures.
2. The breakdown strength depends on the size and shape of the dielectric ma-
terial.
3. It also depends on the geometry and thermal property of electrodes.
4. The breakdown time is of the order of milliseconds or much longer.
5. The breakdown strength is lower in a.c. fields than in D.C., since the power
loss increases with the frequency (frequency of a.c).
(c) Discharge breakdown
This breakdown is classified in two types
1. External breakdown.
2. Internal breakdown.
The external breakdown caused by a glow (or) corona discharge and such a dis-
charge occurs at the sharp edges of the electrodes. The large electric field due to
this glow (discharge) causes a damage on the adjacent solid dielectric medium. The
carbon formed due to this damage makes the dielectric more conducting and there
by causing dielectric breakdown. Dust or moisture present on the surface of the
dielectric may also produce this external discharge breakdown.
Internal breakdown occurs when the insulator contains occluded (hiding) gas
bubbles. If these dielectric materials are subjected to high voltage, the gaseous
substances are dissociated into ions and there by producing a large ionisation
current. This large ionisation current may produce an electric breakdown known as
discharge breakdown.
Characteristics:
When a large number of occluded gas bubbles are present in a dielectric mate-
rials, the breakdown takes place even at low voltages.
(d) Electrochemical breakdown
The chemical and electrochemical breakdown are closely related to thermal break-
down. If the temperature of the dielectric material increases, it will increase the
mobility of the ions and hence the electrochemical reaction takes place. When the
ionic mobility increases, large current will flow there by decreasing the insula-
tion resistance and this will result in dielectric breakdown. Due the chemical reac-
tion, the electrical and mechanical properties of the dielectric materials are changed
and finally these will lead to breakdown. Insulating materials become oxides and
thereby decreasing the dielectric properties. For example in the case of rubber in air
the oxide forms on the surface and, produce cracks on the surface. Organic materials
working at high temperatures have lost their stability towards chemical properties.
Characteristics of this breakdown

1. Electrochemical breakdown is determined by the leakage current, density of
ions, temperature and permanent dipoles present in the materials.
2. To avoid the electrochemical breakdown, the impurities should not be mixed
with the pure dielectric materials.
3. Electrochemical breakdown are accelerated by the increase of temperature.
Hence to avoid electrochemical breakdown, the dielectric materials should not
be operated at high temperature (or) heat dissipation facilities should be pro-
vided.
(e) Defect breakdown

Some dielectric materials may have defects like cracks, and pores etc. Moisture
and other impurities can be get filed up in these places leading to the breakdown.
This is known as defect breakdown.
Criteria for the selection of a dielectric materials

Some of the important factors considered for the selection dielectrics are
1. It should have high value of dielectric constant.
2. It should have a low dissipation factor (or) power factor.
3. It should have a high dielectric strength.
4. It should have a high insulation resistance.
5. It should have a high thermal conductivity and low thermal expansion.
5.4.4 Classification of dielectric (or) insulation materials

The insulating materials (dielectric) are classified into three categories namely
(a) Solid insulating materials:
Eg: mica, porcelain, bakelite asbestos, pre ceramics, glass, rubber & cotton.
(b) Liquid insulating materials:
Eg: varnish, transformer oil, cable oil, silicon fluids and fluoro organic fluids.
(c) Gaseous insulating materials: Eg: Air, hydrogen, nitrogen, halogens and
sulphur hexa fluorides (SF6 ).
5.5 Formulae and Problems in Magnetism

5.5.1 Important formulae in magnetism
µφ = 4π × 10−7 H/m
φ
B= (85)
A
φ=BA (86)
B = Magnetic induction (or) flux density
φ = Magnetic flux
B
µ= (87)
H
µ = µ 0 µr (88)
I
χ= (89)
H
Dividing Eq.(87) by (89) we get
µ B
= (90)
χ I
µr = 1 + K (91)
B = µ0 (I + H) (92)
I = Intensity of magnetisation
H = Magnetic field strength (or) Intensity of magnetic field
µ = absolute permeability
χ = magnetic susceptibility
µr = Relative permeability
µ0 = Permeability of air (or) free space
eh
Bohr magneton µB = (93)
4π m
h = plancks constant = 6.62 × 10−34 Js.
e = charge of electron = 1.6 × 10−19 C
m = mass of electron = 9.1 × 10−31 Kg.
5.5.2 Problems of magnetic materials
Solved Problem 1
The magnetic induction produced in a bar of iron is 8π W b/m2 . Its area of cross
section is 4 × 10−4 m2 . Calculate the magnetic flux (φ).
I Solution
Given B = 8π W b/m2 ; A = 4 × 10−4 m2 .
φ
Magnetic induction B=
A
∴ Magnetic flux φ=BA

φ = 8π × 4 × 10−4
φ = 32π × 10−4
φ = 100.5 × 10−4 = 1.005 × 10−2 W b.
Solved Problem 2
Intensity of magnetic field (or) field strength (H) 200AT /m produces a magnetic in-
duction (B) of 4π W b/m2 in a bar of iron. Calculate the relative permeability and
susceptibility (µ0 = 4π × 10−7 H/m).
I Solution
Given B = 4π W b/m2 ; H = 2000 AT /m; µ0 = 4π × 10−7 H/m
B 4π
µ= = = 2π × 10−3 H/m
H 2000
But µ = µ 0 µr
µ 2π × 10−3 1
∴ µr = = = × 104
µ0 4π × 10 −7 2
µr = 0.5 × 104 = 5000
But µr = 1 + χ
χ = µr − 1 = 5000 − 1 = 4999
Solved Problem 3
A magnetic material having magnetisation 2185 A/m, produces a flux density of

0.004 W b/m2 . Calculate the magnetising force field strength (H) and relative perme-
ability (µr ) of the material. (µ0 = 4π × 10−7 H/m).
I Solution
Given I = 2185 A/m

B = 0.004 W b/m2 = 4 × 10−3 W b/m2
µ0 = 4π × 10−7 H/m.
Using the relation
∴ B = µ0 (H + I)
B 4 × 10−3 104
H +I = = =
µ0 4π × 10−7 π
10000
H +I = = 3185
π
H = 3185 − I = 3185 − 2185
H = 1000 AT /m
B B
But µr = =
B0 µ0 H
4 × 10−3
µr =
4π × 10−7 × 103
10−3 10
= =
π × 10−4 π
µr = 3.185
Solved Problem 4
The susceptibility of a diamagnetic material is −5 × 10−5 and magnetic field strength

is 105 AT /m/ Calculate the intensity of magnetisation produced in it?
I Solution
Given χ = −5 × 10−3 ; H = 105 AT /m; I =?
I
∴ χ=
H
I = χ H = −5 × 105 × 105
I = −5 A/m
(−ve sign shows, the magnetisation produced in the material is in the opposite di-
rection of the external field).
Solved Problem 5
The intensity of magnetisation produced in a diamagnetic material is −5 A/m for the

applied field of strength 105 AT /m. Calculate the flux density (B). (µ0 = 4π × 10−7 ).
I Solution
Given H = 105 AT /m; I = −5 A/m; B =?.
B = µ0 (H + I)
B = 4π × 10−7 (105 − 5)
B = 4π × 10−7 × 105 (approx)
−2 2
B = 4π × 10 W b/m
Solved Problem 6
The susceptibility of a paramagnetic material is 4 × 10−3 at 27◦ . Calculate of suscep-

tibility at 127◦ .
I Solution
χ = 4 × 10−3
T = 273 + 27 = 300 K
By curie law
C
∴ χ= where C=curie constant
T
C = χ T = 4 × 10−3 × 300
C = 1200 × 10−3
C = 1.2
T = 127 + 273 = 400
C 1.2 12
χ127 = = =
T 400 4000
3
χ127 = = 3 × 10−3
103
Solved Problem 7
Calculate the power loss due to hysteresis in a transformer core of volume 0.02 m 3
and 50 Hz frequency. Area of cross section of hysteresis loop (or) energy loss/m 3 is
500 J/m3 .
I Solution
Given
volume V = 0.02 m3
Frequency f = 50 Hz
Area of loop = 500 J/m3 (energy loss)
∴ power loss due to hysteresis = workdone
workdone = WG = A V f V = volume
= 500 × 0.02 × 50
= 25 × 103 × 0.02
= 50 × 103 × 2 × 10−2
= 50 × 101
W = P (loss) = 500 W.
Solved Problem 8
A magnetic flux of 32π × 10−4 Wb produces a magnetic induction (B) 8πWb /m2 in
a bar of iron the volume of the magnet is 2 × 10−5 m3 , calculate the length of bar
magnet?
I Solution
Given π = 32πW b; B = 8πW b/m2 ; A =?
φ = B.A
φ 32π × 10−4
A= = = 4 × 10−4 m2
B 8π
A = 4 × 10−4 m2
V = 2 × 10−5 m3
V = 2 × 10−6 m3
V =A×l
V 2 × 10−5 20 × 10−6
l= = =
A 4 × 10−4 4 × 10−4
−2
l = 5 × 10 m
= 5cm
Solved Problem 9
The retentivity (Br ) and coercivity (HC ) of a magnetic material are 6πW b/m2 and
1000AT /m. Calculate the energy product of the material?
I Solution
Br = 6πW b/m2
HC = 1000
= 103 AT /m
EP = B r × H C
EP = 6π × 103
EP = 6000πJ.
Solved Problem 10
A magnetic field of intensity 104 A/m is applied to a paramagnetic material having

susceptibility 3.7 × 10−3 . Calculate the intensity of magnetization (I) & flux density
(B) (A.U.2002)
I Solution
Use formulae
H = 104 A/m
I
Xe =
H
I = Xe × H
B = µ0 (H + I)
Ans.
I = 37A/m
B = 0.0126W b/m2
5.6 Formulae and Problems in dielectrics

5.6.1 Formulae in dielectric materials
Electric intensity E
1. F = Force in Newton.
q = Charge in Coulomb.
V = Applied voltage.
d = Distance between plates.
E
E= N/c
q
V
E= N/m (or) F = Eq
d
2. ψ = DA
φ = Electric flux in Coulomb.
D = Electric flux density in C/m2
A = Average of cross section.
3. D =∈ E similar to B = µH
D
(a) ∈= ∈ = absolute permittivity of a medium
E
∈=∈0 × ∈r ∈0 = Permittivity of freq space
(b) D =∈0 ∈r E
∈0 = 8.85 × 10−4 F/m
∈r = Relative permittivity
4. Dipole moment (µ)

µ=q×d
unit of µ is c − m
q = Value of one of the charge of dipole

d = Dist. between dipoles
5. Electric polarization
µ
p=
V
V = Volume of dielectric in m3
6. P =∈0 (∈ −1)E
7. µ = αE
µ
α=
E
α = polarizability
Unit of α = F/m2
Electric flux density in a dielectric material under external field is (E).
8. Where
N = Number of units/m3
P = N µ = N αE
9. D =∈0 E + P
10. Electric susceptibility Xc is given by the relation
∈r = 1 + X e
Xe =∈r −1
11. Capacitance of a conductor with air as dielectric

∈0 A
C=
d
A = Area of one of the plate
d = Dist between plates unit of C is farad(f) but practical units are µf and pf
12. Capacitance with a dielectric medium (slab) between the plates,
K =∈r
∈0 ∈r A ∈0 KA
C1 = =
d d
C1
∴ =∈r = K = Dielectric constant of the material,
C
13. Electronic polarization
µe = α e E
p = N µe = N αe E
αe = electronic polarizability
14. Lorentz force on nucleus (or) electron

F = Eq
q = Ze
F = E(ze) = zeE
∈0 (∈r −1)
15. αe =
N
16. In Ionic polarization
µi = α i E
αi = Ionic polarization
Pi = N µ i
Pi = N α i E
e2 e2 M + m

1 1
17. αi = 2 + = 2
ω0 M m ω0 Mm
m = Mass of cation (Ionic nucleus)
M = Mass of negative (electron) or anion
e = Charge of electron = 1.6 × 10−19 e
ω0 = angular frequency of molecule
ω0 = 2πf0
f0 = frequency of rotation of molecule
18. Orientation polarization

α0 = orientation Polarizability
P0 = N α 0 E
N µ2 E
P0 =
KT
Where K = Boltzmann constant
µ2
α0 =
3kT
Here α0 depends on temperature
1
α0 ∝
T
19. Space charge polarization
Ps = N α s E
Ps is very small where compared to other polarizations in dielectric.
20. Internal field in a dielectric (Ei )
P
Ei = E +
3 ∈0
E = applied electric field intensity
P = Polarization vector
21. Classios-Mosotti equation (for the determination of αe )

N αe ∈r −1
=
3 ∈0 ∈r +2
3 ∈0 (∈r −1)
αe =
N ∈r +2
22. Energy stored in a capacitor
1 Q2
E=W = CV 2 = Joules.
2 2C
Problems
Dielectric materials
Solved Problem 11
Calculate the capacitance of a capacitor having square plates of area 4 × 10 −4 m2 and

separated by a distance of 0.004 m.
I Solution
Given d = 0.004m = 4 × 10−3 m; A = 4 × 10−4 m2
∈0 A
C= ∈0 = 8.85 × 10−12 F/m
d
8.85 × 10−12 × 4 × 10−4
C=
4 × 10−3
C = 8.85 × 10−16 × 103
C = 8.85 × 10−13
C = 0.885 × 10−12 f
C = 0.885pf
Solved Problem 12
The capacitance of a capacitor with air as dielectric between the plates is 2µf when
air is replaced by a dielectric slab, the value of capacitance becomes 10µf . Calculate
the dielectric constant of the material of the slab
I Solution
Given C1 = 10mf ; C = 2mf
C1
∈r = K =
C
10
∈r = =5
2
Solved Problem 13
The charge on an electric dipole is 2 × 10−6 c and distance between the dipoles is
2mm. Calculate the dipole moment of the dipole
I Solution
q = 2 × 10−6 C = 2µC
d = 2mm
= 2 × 10−3 m
µ=q×d
= 2 × 10−6 × 2 × 10−3
µ = 4 × 10−9 c − m
Solved Problem 14
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is 4µf is with a dielectric of permittivity

∈r = 50. Find the energy stored in the capacitor and energy stored in polarizing the
dielectric for an applied voltage of 500V . (Anna University Model 2001 & 2002)
I Solution
Given
C = 4µf = 4 × 10−6 f
∈r = 50
V = 500V
1
∴ Energy stored in the capacitorE = CV 2
2
1
= × 4 × 10−6 × (500)2
2
1
= × 4 × 10−6 × 25 × 104
2
1 1
= × 100 × 10−2 = × 102 × 10−2
2 2
1
= J
2
Energy stored in the capacitor E1 = 0.5J
Energy of capacitor when dielectric is removed (air as dielectric)
C C
C0 = =∈r
∈r C0
∈r = 50
C = 4µf
∈r = 50
4 × 10−6
C0 =
50
8
C0 = × 10−6 = 0.08 × 10−6 f
100
C0 = 8 × 10−8 f
Energy stored in the capacitor with vacuum (or) air as dielectric

1
E2 = Co V 2
2
1
E2 = × 8 × 10−8 × (500)2
2
1
E2 = × 8 × 10−8 × 25 × 104
2
E2 = 4 × 10−8 × 25 × 104
E2 = 100 × 10−4 = 1 × 10−2 = 0.01 J
Energy stored in dielectric in polarizing the dielectric
E = E1 − E2 = 0.50 − 0.01 = 0.49 J
Solved Problem 15
In an ionic crystal, the polarization produced is 4.425 × 10 −8 m2 , when an electric

field of intensity 103 V /m is applied to it. Calculate the relative permittivity of the
crystal.
I Solution
Given E = 103 V /m; P = 4.425 × 10−8 m2 ; ∈r =?
P =∈0 (∈r −1)E
P
∈r −1 = E
∈0
4.425 × 10−8 104 10
= 3
= 3
=
8.85 × 10 −12 × 10 2 × 10 2
∈r −1 = 5
∈r = 6
Solved Problem 16
Calculate the electronic polarizability of Argon atom.

I Solution
Given ∈r = 1.0027
N = 2.7 × 1025 atom/m3

P =∈r (∈r −1)E

P = N αe E
P ∈0 (∈r −1)E
αe = =
NE NE
∈r (∈r −1)
αe =
N
8.85 × 10−12 (1.0027 − 1)
αe =
2.7 × 1025
8.825 × 10−12 × (0.0024) 8.85 × 10−12 × 2.7 × 10−3
αe = 25
=
2.7 × 10 2.7 × 1025
αe = 8.85 × 10−15 × 10−25
αe = 8.85 × 10−40 F m2
Solved Problem 17
Find the total polarizability of CO2 if its susceptibility is 0.985 × 10−3 Density of CO2
is 1.977kg/m3 .
I Solution
Given
Xe = 0.985 × 10−3
d = 1.977kg/m3
Molecules weight of CO2 = 44kg
= 44 × 10−3 kg
∈r = 1 + Xe Similar to
∈r = 1 + 0.985 × 10−3
µr = 1 + X m
Take
N = 2.688 × 1025
α =?
∈0 (∈r −1)
α=
N
8.85 × 10−12 (1 + 0.985 × 103 − 1)
α=
2.688 × 1025
−12
8.85 × 10 × 0.985 × 10−3 × 10−25
α=
2.688
8.85 × 0.985 × 10−40

α=
2.688
α = 3.24 × 10−4 F/m2
Solved Problem 18
The following data refers to a dielectric material. ∈r = 4.94 n2 = 2.69. When n is the
index of refraction. Calculate the ratio between electronic and ionic polarizability of
this material.
I Solution
Given ∈r = 4.94 n2 = 2.69
Using
∈r −1 Nα
=
∈r +2 3 ∈0
Where α = α e + αi
∈r −1 N 0 (αe + αi )
=
∈r +2 3 ∈0
4.94 − 1 3.94
=
4.94 + 2 6.94
N (αe + αi )
= 0.5677 =
3 ∈0
N (αe + αi )
= 0.5677
3 ∈0
But ∈r = n2
At optical frequencies αi = 0
n2 − 1 N αe
2
=
n +2 3 ∈0
2.69 − 1 1.69
= = 0.3603f
2.69 + 2 4.69
N αe
=
3 ∈0
N αe
= 0.36034
3 ∈0
Divide
αe + α i 0.5677
= = 1.575
αe 0.36034
αi
1+ = 1.575
αe
αi
= 0.575
αe
αe 1
= = 1.738
αi 0.575
5.7 Modern Engineering Materials

Materials play an important role in the designing and fabrication of equipments and
appliances used in engineering, medicine, science, industry and day to day life. Be-
fore designing and fabrication, a complete study of physical, chemical, electrical,
magnetic etc properties of materials is a must. A thorough study of properties of
materials and their relation to the microstructure, form the basic concepts of mate-
rial science.
The development of material science help us to design the equipments and ap-
pliances to meet the requirements of modern engineering, medical and industrial
needs. The materials used in ‘Hi-Tec’ are designed to give maximum performance
(efficiency) and long life. Let us study some of the newly developed engineering
materials, along with their production, properties and applications.
5.8 Shape Memory Alloys (SMA)

5.8.1 Definition of SMA
Shape memory alloys are special alloys which after being deformed can remember
and recover their original shape or size when they are subjected to appropriate
thermal process. Generally these materials can be physically deformed at some
relatively low temperature and upon exposure to some high temperature, they will
return to their original shape.
5.8.2 Types of SMA

a) Materials that exhibit shape memory only upon heating are referred to have a
one way shape memory.
b) Some materials also undergo a change in shape on recooling. These materials
are said to have two way shape memory. Examples of SMA: Nickel - Ti-
tanium (Ni − Ti ) alloys and copper base alloys such as Cu Zn Al and Cu Al
Ni.
5.8.3 Crystal structure of SMA

Shape memory alloys display two distinct crystal structures or phases. The tem-
perature and stresses will determine the phase of SMA at that moment.
The crystal structure or phase of a SMA at lower temperature is called marten-

site and the crystal structure or phase of a SMA at higher temperature is called as
austenite.
When a SMA is at martensite form at low temperature, it can be deformed into
any shape. When the alloy is heated it goes through a transformation from marten-
site to austenite. In the austenite phase, the memory metal remembers the shape
before it was deformed.
Thus when a SMA alloy of given shape is cooled from a given temperature T 1 ,
to a lower temperature T2 , it deforms and changes in shape. Again upon heating
form T2 to T1 , the alloy regains its original size (or) shape. This property is known
as Thermoplasticity. It is a natural property of the alloy in solid-state trans-
formation and the transformation is known as martensite transformation. There
is a microstructural change takes place when the initial crystal structure is trans-
formed in to a new crystal structure. This mechanism does not involve the mixing
of atoms by diffusion but there is a coordinated shear displacement, in the sec-
tions of the crystal.
5.8.4 General characteristics of SMA

Temperature - Transformation - Temperature Curve for SMA under constant
load (stress) as it is cooled and heated.
Th : Transformation hysteresis
Ms : martensite start
Mf : Martensite finish
As : Austenite start
Af : Austenite finish
Temperature
Fig. 33
The properties of SMA depends on the amount of each crystal (metal) phase
present in it. But the exact structure of two phases varies depending on the types
of SMA.
An SMA can be easily deformed when it is in martensite phase since inter
molecular bonds are not broken. The SMA can recovers its original shape, when
it returns to austenite phase.
The martensite possesses a needle like structure. The martensite transforma-
tion that occurs in SMA, yields a thermo elastic martensite and develops from a
high-temperature austenite phase with a long range order. The transformation does
not occur at a single temperature but over a range of temperatures that varies with
each alloy system. The usual way of characterizing the transformation and naming
each point in the cycle is shown in the graph drawn above.
5.8.5 Thermo-mechanical behaviour of SMA

The mechanical properties of shape memory alloys (SMA) vary greatly over the tem-
perature spreading across the transformations. This is clearly seen in the graph.
Where the stress-strain curve is drawn for Nickel - Titanium alloy when tested be-
low, within and above the transformation range. Austenite phase has much higher
yield and flow stresses. The dotted line on the martensite curve indicates that
on heating after removing the stress, the sample remembered the unstrained shape
and the material transforms to austensite. No such shape memory is found in the
austenite phase up on heating and straining, because no phase change occurs.
(c)
Fig. 34 Stress-strain curve ar different temperatures relative to transformation (a)

Austenite (b) Martensite (c) Pseudo elastic behaviour
An interesting feature of the stress-strain behaviour occurs when the material is
tested above its transformation temperature. At this temperature, martensite can be
self induced. It then immediately strains and shows the increasing strain at constant
stress behaviour as seen in the part of the curve AB, on unloading though the ma-
terial reverts back to austenite at lower stress as shown by the curve CD and shape
recovers not by the application of heat but by the reduction on of stress. This effect
makes the material to become extremely elastic and it known as pseudo elasticity
(or) super elasticity, pseudo elasticity is non linear. Hence young’s modulus is not
able to define in this range since it shows both temperature and strain dependence.
Memory alloys shows greater stress rates of elasticity. For example eyeglass
frames made up of SMA are martensite in phase. Bending the arms (application of
stress) in half (at room temp) introduces a phase change at the bends to make it to
austenite. Austenite is not stable at room temperature and the system seeks lower
energy states, the austenite reverts back to martensite and because of this, the arm of
eyeglass bend back.
5.8.6 Commercial alloys having shape memory effect

The most common shape memory alloy is Nitinol consisting of equal parts of Nickel
and Titanium. The following table gives a list of SMA with their composition and
transformation on temperature.
Composition Transformation
S.No SMA Atomic (or) weight Temperature
Alloy percentage (celsius)
1 Ni − T i 49/51 at% Ni −50 to 110◦
2 Mn − C u 5/35 at % Cu 250 to 180◦
3 Cu − Sn Approx 15 at% Sn −120 to 30◦
4 Ni − Al 36/38 at% N l −180 to 100◦
5 Ag − cd 44/49 at% cd 190 to −50◦
6 Au − cd 46.5/50 at%cd 30 to 100◦
7 Cu − Al − N i 14/4.5 at% Al −140 to 100◦
3/4.5 at% N i
5.8.7 Application of SMA

Shape memory alloys have a variety of applications. Some of their applications are
listed below.
1. Industrial applications
(a) Control of increased heat in industries
Lines that carry high inflammable and toxic (unpleasant (or) pungent
smell) fluids (liquids and gases) should have a greater amount of con-
trol so that the dangerous (unwanted) events can be prevented. For that
the systems are programmed with SMA in such a way as to shut down the
production of increased (unwanted) heat, there by preventing the the dev-
asting effects. Industries like petrochemicals, semiconductors, phar-
maceutical, and large oil and gas fields are using this kind of tech-
nique.
(b) Fire Safety Valve
This equipment uses Cu Zn Al actuator which is designed to shut off
toxic (or) inflammable gas flow when fire occurs. Here SMA is used as a
force actuator on a spring.
(c) Valve Control
A device has been developed using SMA in which a valve controls the
rate of flow of heat carefully to any desired amount.
(d) Croft Hydraulic coupling
SMA Sleeves
Fig. 35
Here fitting are manufactured as cylindrical sleeves with SMA, which are
slightly smaller than metal tubing used to join their diameters get ex-
panded while being martensite and on warming they transformed to
austenite in which they shrink in diameter and strongly hold the ends.
This joint is superior to welding.
(e) Helicopter blades
The performance of helicopter blades depends on the vibrations of SMA
used in micro processing control tabs. These control tabs are used for
the trailing ends of the blades and hence a pilot can fly with increased
accuracy.
2. Commercial Applications
(a) Eye Glass Frames

Eye glass companies demonstrate the eye glass frames that can be bent
back and forth and retain their shape. Here the frames are made up of
SMA which shows super elasticity. In eye glass Nickel - Titanium
alloy is used as SMA, which absorb (or) with stand large deformation
without any damage.
Super elasticity is the capacity of some poly crystalline material to ex-
hibit large deformation without fracture (broken) (or) necking. They can
withstand elongation from 100% to > 1000% without breaking.
3. Medical Applications
(a) Blood clot filter

The main applications of SMA is the blood clot filter. Here N i Ti wire is
shaped to anchor (forced) in to a vein and catch the passing clots. This
part is chilled, so it can be collapsed and inserted in to the vein. The body
heat is sufficient to turn the part in to its functional shape.
(b) Artificial hip joints and bone plates for healing bone fractures
i. Ni − Ti shape memory alloys have been employed in artificial joints
such as artificial hip joints.
ii. Because of their flexibility they are used as, bone plates for narrow
join for healing bone fracture and for connecting broken bones.
iii. They are also used in medical applications like teeth braces, artifi-
cial muscles and orthopaedic devices.
5.9 Nano materials

Nano materials form a branch of materials science that deals with the study of ma-
terials and their morphological characteristics on the nanoscale (i.e., 10 −9 m). Nano
materials are classified into the following categories:
1. Nano particles,
2. Nano thin films,
3. Nano dots,
4. Nano rods,
5. Nano tubes
6. Nano composites.
The size of the nanomaterials is in the range of 0.1-100nm. Nanotechnology is the

field deals with the manufacture, design and properties of materials on the nanoscale.
5.9.1 Definition and introduction

Nanophase materials are the nano structures materials having a characteristic length,
less than 100nm. Their grain size is the order of 1nm to 100nm. They exhibit
greatly altered physical chemical and mechanical properties when compared to their
normal, large grained (macro size) counter parts with the same chemical composi-
tion.
Nano phase material is identified as one of the major field in modern material sci-
ence by the research work done by Gleiter and coworkers in 1990. A cluster (group)
of nano particle contains less than 104 molecules or atoms corresponding to a di-
ameter of a few nanometers. Hence one can conclude the size of a nano particle is
about 1nm. Since the size of nanoparticles lie between molecular and bulk mate-
rial they have hybrid properties. They have non linear optical and magnetic
properties.
5.9.2 Preparation of nanomaterials

Depending upon the needs and requirements, nanomaterials can be produced in
one, two or three dimensions. Based on the grain size the classification of nanoma-
terials is given below.
1. Zero dimension Clusters or powders (Quantum dots)

2. One dimension Multilayers (Quantum wires)
3. Two dimension Buried layers (Quantum carbon tubes)
4. Three dimension Nanometer sized grains
Nanomaterials can be synthesized in two broad ways
1. Top down approach k

2. Bottom-up approach
Nano materials
Top-down Bottom-up
Mechanical alloying Chemical vapour deposition
Lithography Electro deposition
Sol gel technique Gas phase agglomeration
In Top-down approach, the bulk solids are dissociated into fine pieces until par-
ticles of order of nanometer size is obtained. On other hand in Bottom-up approach,
the nanostructured materials are produced by atoms or molecules together to form
nanomaterials.
5.9.3 Production of Nano Structured Materials

It is possible to produce nano structured materials by using a variety synthetic meth-
ods. Depending upon the desired properties or applications, each method will have
some advantages and disadvantages.
a) Vapour Condensation
Method of synthesis:
In this method clusters of atoms are synthesized through vapour condensation.

This method involves the process of evaporation of a solid metal followed by
rapid(fast) condensation in order to form nanosize clusters. Thus the result-
ing powder can be used as filter for composites materials or consolidated in
to bulk material.
Application:
This method is used to produce ceramic or metal nano structured powders.
b) Chemical Synthesis
Method of synthesis
By using a variety of chemical approaches such as sol-gel or thermal
decomposition, a nanostructured materials are synthesized. These methods
provide large quantities of nano sized materials at low cost.
Application
This method is used to produce both metals and ceramics of nano material size.
c) Mechanical deformation
Method of synthesis
This method involves milling or shock deformation. It is a common method
used to produce nanostructured powders which in turn produces nano struc-
tured materials. By mechanical milling, it is possible to produce nano struc-
tured powders of different systems.(other wise it become immisible)
Application
This method is applied to produce nano structured powders of a bulk material
(or) different systems.
d) Thermal crystallization
Method:
By controlling the nucleation and growth rate during annealing (slow cooling)
of an amorphous materials, we can produce bulk materials with an average
grain size of 20nm without using condensation and sintering steps.
Application
This method is used to produce three dimensional nano materials (crystalline
materials).
e) Ball milling
This method uses the principle of mechan-
ical crushing and is an examples of top-
down method of synthezising nanomateri-
Nano
als. It is very simple, popular and inexpen- Bulk powder
sive method to produce all kinds of nanoma- material
terials especially oxides-based nanoparticles

(e.g. CeO2 , T iO2 ).
In this method, small balls inside a drum() cavity are rotated at high speeds
and by gravity action they settle on a solid layer where they are crushed into
nanocrystals. Depending upon the material to be synthesised one can use ei-
ther steel balls or refractory balls or plastic balls. When balls rotate of a particu-
lar rpm, the energy is transferred to the powder which reduces the grain sized
powder to ultrafine nanoparticles. The size of the nonoparticles produced de-
pends on size of the ball, rotational speed of the balls, number of balls, milling
time, milling atmosphere k the ratio of ball of powder mass. To increase the
brittleness of the powders, cryogenic liquids can be used.
various types of ball mills are,
(a) Attrition ball mill,

(b) Planetary ball mill,
(c) Low energy ball mill,
(d) High energy ball mill and
(e) Vibrating ball mill.
f) Solgel techniques
The solgel technique is a wet-chemical technique, i.e., chemical deposition tech-
nique for the production of high purity and homogeneous nanoparticles. This
process used colloidal suspension (Sol) and gelatin to form a network in a con-
tinous liquid phase (gel). The removal of the liquid phase from the sol yields
the gel. The particle size and shape are controlled by the sol/gel transitions.
the precursor for synthesizing these colloids consists of ions of metals alkox-
ides k aloxysilanes.
The initial material is processed with water or dilute acid in an alkaline solvent.
The material undergoes hydrolysis and poly condensation reaction which leads
to colloids formation. The sol is then introduced to form and inorganic net-
work containing liquid phase (gel). The schematic diagram showing synthesis
of nanoparticles using sol-gel technique is shown below.
(Dissol) Dehydration Drying
Spinning Dipping Aero gel

Sol Gel
Su
rfac
o ta
sus rganic nt
pen
sio
n
Calcine
Calcine
Xero gel
Calcine
Thin film coating
Powder Dense ceramic
The sol can further be processed to obtain the substrate in a film, either by dip
coating or spin coating or cast into a container with desired shape or powder
by calcinations. It is an interesting, cheap and low temperature technique used
to produce a range of nanoparticled with controlled chemical compositions.
The sol-gel have variety of applications like optics, electronics, energy, space,
bio sensors and drug delivery.
5.9.4 Properties of nanostructured particles, physical prop-

erties
(a) Variation of physical properties with size
In this section let us discuss how the geometrical arrangement of atoms and hence
their stability changes with size.
Discussion
When the bulk material is reduced to nanoparticle size, it creates more surface sizes
(area). This will in turn changes, the surface pressure and leads to a change in the in-
ter particle spacing. This effect is shown in the graph drawn between size of particle
and inter atomic distance for Cun . (36)
2.6
Cu Metal
Interatomic Distance [Å]

2.4
Cu2 Dimer
2.2
2.0
0.00 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0
Size in diameter [Å]
Fig. 36
It is quite interesting to note that as the inter particle spacing decreases as the
size decreases. It is apical of metal clusters (groups). This is due to the competition
(interaction) between the long range electronic forces and short range repulsive
forces. The change in inter particle spacing and the large surface area to the
volume ratio of the particles have a combined effect on the properties of materials.
The variations in the surface free energy (use to form clusters) changes the chemical
potential. This will inturn alter the thermodynamic properties like meting point.
This effect is shown in Fig.37 drawn between inter atomic distance and meting point
for Aun . Here the meting point decreases as the size decreases. The rate of decrease,
increases substantially at very small sizes.
m.p. bulk
1200
melting temperature (K)
1000
800
0 100 200 300
Distance (Å)
Fig. 37
5.9.5 Electron affinities and chemical properties

The variations in the inter particle spacing and geometry (arrangement) also result
in the variation of electronic properties with size.
a) Ionization potential
When the size is reduced from the bulk, the electronic bands in the metals
become narrower and the delocalized a electronic states are transformed into
more localized molecular bonds. This will affect the ionisation potential (En-
ergy required to remove an electron in the outer most orbit of an atom in the
vapour state). It has been noticed in the experiment that the ionization po-
tentials at small size of the particles are higher than at the bulk material work
function. The ionization potential shows a marked fluctuations with the size
of the particles.
b) Reactivity (catalytic property)
The large surface to volume ratio of the particles, variations in geometry and
the electronic structure have a strong effect on catalytic properties. For example
the reactivity of small clusters (collection) has been found to vary greatly in
magnitudes when the cluster is changed by only a few atoms Fig.38 shows the
activity of clusters of F en with hydrogen.
Fig. 38
c) Hydrogen storage (absorption)
Another important possibility is the absorption (storage) of hydrogen in met-
als. It is well known that the metals do not absorb hydrogen. If they do so (if
the metal absorbs), the hydrogen is absorbed dissociatively by the metal on the
surface in the ratio 1 : 1. This limit is notably increased in particles of smaller
size. It has been found that small positively charged clusters of N i , Pd , and Pt
generated (produced) in molecular beam and containing 2 to 60 atoms, can ab-
sorb eight hydrogen atoms per metal atom. (H: metal: 8:1). Also the number
of absorbed H atoms decreases as the cluster size increases. This clearly
shows that the smaller particles are very useful in hydrogen storage de-
vices. This principle is used in the industry for the process of hydrogenation
of oil and fats using powdered Nickel as catalyst instead of using bulk Nickel
metal (to increase surface area to volume).
5.9.6 Magnetism in nanoparticles

Nanoparticles of magnetic and nonmagnetic solids exhibit an entirely new class of
magnetic properties, which are marked by quantum that are far from complete un-
derstanding.
a) Domains
A bulk ferromagnetic material domain contains several domains. Each do-

mains contains several thousand atomic spins. Generally the spins are aligned
with in the domain but different domains point in different directions. The fol-
lowing table will briefly explain the difference in magnetic behaviour of a bulk
material and clusters of the same metal.
S.No Meatal Bulk Cluster

1 Na − K Paramagnetic Ferro magnetic
2 F e, Co, N i Ferro magnetic Super paramagnetic
3 Gd, T b Ferro magnetic Rotators/super paramagnetic
4 Cr Antiferro magnetic Frustrated paramagnetic
5 Rh Para magnetic Ferro magnetic
b) Geomagnetic resistance, coordination number & magnetic moment (GMR)
Ferromagnetic and anti ferromagnetic multilayers have been found to exhibit

giant magneto resistance (GMR). Small particles differ from the bulk, since
large fraction of the atom resides on the surface itself. The atom residing on
the surface of smaller particles will have lower coordination number than to
the interior atoms.
Fig.39 shows the dependance of magnetic moment on the coordination num-

ber. It is clear from the graph as the coordination number decreases, mag-
netic moment increases towards the atomic size. In other words the
smaller particles are more magnetic than the bulk material.
5.9.7 Mechanical properties

(a) Dependance of hardness and strength
Hardness and strength of conventional grain size are the function of grain size.
For ductile poly crystalline materials, the grain size depends on flow stress
which is given by empirical Hall-petch equation.
0.6
Magnetic moment
0.4
D m ( mb)
(a)
0.2 (b)
(c)
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Coordination number
Fig. 39
1
σ0 = σ i + K d − 2
where σ0 = yield stress
σi = friction stress which opposes the dislocation motion
K = constant
d = grain diameter
A few observations on an particles prepared by gas condensation method are useful

to explain their mechanical properties similarly hardness is given by the equation.
1
Ho = H i + K d − 2
d = grain diameter
Ho = Hardness after stress
Hi = Initial hardness
The experimental results of hardness measurements shows a different behaviour

namely positive slopes zero slope and negative slope depending on the grain size,
when it is less than 20 nm.
5.9.8 Conclusion
Thus the hardness, strength and deformation behaviour of nano-crystalline materi-
als is unique and not yet well understood.
Thus the nano structured particles have the following properties
1. High magnetic resistance

2. Lower melting point
3. High solid state phase transition temp
4. Lower debye temp
5. High self diffusion coefficient

6. High catalytic activity
7. Low ferromagnetic temp
8. High hardness & strength.
We have also seen the physical, electronic, magnetic and chemical properties
of nano materials depends sensitively on size and the small particles display be-
haviours which are quite different from those of the individual atoms of the bulk
material. These new behaviours are not only important from the fundamental point
of view but also lead to new applications. In fact, we are capable of controlling
the properties of materials by changing the size, composition and dimension
that leads to atomically designed materials with additional properties.
They are listed below
1. They have 30 to 50% lower elastic module than for conventional grain size.
2. They posses super plastic behaviour at low homologous temperature.
3. The posses 2 to 7 times higher hardness and strength values for nano crys-
talline pure metals (∼ 10nm grain size) than those of larger grain size (7(µm)).
4. There is a decreasing hardness with decreasing grain size.
Applications
In nano phase materials, there are two types of applications
a) Structural applications
b) Functional applications.
a) Structural applications
These applications are mainly based on the mechanical properties of nano phase ma-
terials. They are used to produce plastic ceramics and extremely hard materials.
b) Functional applications
These applications are mainly based on the transformation of external signals
like the filtering of incident light and the change of electrical resistance in differ-
ent gas concentrations.
c) Other applications
1. They are used to produce soft magnetic materials and tiny permanent
magnets with high energy product (Br × HC ). Hence they are used in high
density magnetic recording, information storage devices.
2. They are used as magnetic nano-composite refrigerants and magneto resis-
tance spin values applications.
3. Quantum wells, quantum dots and quantum wires having quantum confine-
ment are mainly produced from fermi conductor nano materials are used in
computer storage (memory) devices.
4. Since these materials have large ratio between surface area and volume, they
are used to improve the mechanical behaviour of materials in potential struc-
tural applications.
5.10 Superconductivity
Superconductivity was discovered by Heike Kanerlingh Onnes in 1911, while inves-
tigating the effect of impurity on the resistivity of a metal he found superconductiv-
ity for the case of mercury(Hg). The resistivity of Hg is decreasing with temperature
and at the temperature T = 4.12k, the specific resistance suddenly become equal to
zero. This phenomenon of normal metal exhibiting the property of ideal is perfect
conductor is called a new state of matter as “superconductivity”.
The temperature at which a normal conductor is converted into a superconductor
is known as critical temperature or transition temperature (T o ).
Example:
GeTe - 0.3 K
Hafnium - 0.35 K
NbO - 1.25 K
Niobium - 9.22 K
5.10.1 Superconducting transition temperature TC

Superconducting transition temperature TC is the temperature to which or below
which if a normal conductor is cooled, its starts conducting current fully due to enor-
mous conductivity with almost zero resistivity and behave as a superconductor.
5.10.2 Meissner effect

Meissner and Ochenteld, while investigating the properties of superconductor in
the presence of magnetic field observed that when a specimen is placed in magnetic
field and coupled (i.e., the temperature is lowered to Tc ), the magnetic flex originally
present in the bilk of the conductor, is expelled cut from the specimen, Thus implies
that superconductor behaves like a Local diamagnetic material. The phenomenon is
known as Meissner effect.
B¹0 B=0
At T > Tc ,H > Hc At T £ Tc, H £ Hc
The magnetic induction inside the substance is given by
B = µo (H + M )
where,
B - flux density
H - applied magnetic field
M - magnetization in the medium
But in superconducting material B = 0
µo (H + M ) = 0
H = −M
M
= −1
H
M
We know that = χ (superconductivity)
H
Therefore, the above equation can be written as
χ = −1
∴ Superconducting material is a perfect diamagnetic material.
5.10.3 Properties of superconductor

1. Effect of magnetic field
The superconducting state can be destroyed by the application of an external mag-
netic field. The minimum magnetic field required to destroy superconductor is called
critical field Hc . The Hc depends on temperature being at T = Tc and increases with

decrease in temperature. The critical field attains maximum at T = 0 ◦ K. The follow-
ing expression and graph explains the of magnetic field
" 2 #
T
Hc = H o 1 −
Tc
where,
Hc - maximum critical field strength at the temperature T
Ho - maximum critical field strength occurring at 0◦ K
Tc - critical temperature i.e., the highest temperature by superconductor
2. Effect of specific heat
The specific heat of a material shows an abrupt change at T = T c jumping to a large

value for T < Tc .
3. Effect of heavy current
The superconducting state can be destroyed when a sufficient heavy current is passed
through them. According to the for superconducting material the induced electric
current (Ic ) required to destroy the superconductivity is,
Ic = 2πrHc
Ic - critical current (or) induced electric current

where, r - radius of the material (superconductor)
Hc - critical magnetic field
4. Effect of pressure
By applied very high pressure critical temperature T c also increases. Tc is directly

proportional to pressure at very
A superconducting material is possible by applying very high pressure.
5. Isotope effect
The critical temperature Tc is inversely proportional to the square root in atomic
weight of the isotopes of a
1
T =√
Mα
Tc M α = constant
where,
1
α - constant equal to
2
M - the atomic weight
5.10.4 Types of superconductors

Superconductors are divided into two categories depending on the way in which
transition from the superconducting in normal state proceeds when the applied mag-
netic field exceeds the critical field Hc . They are
1. Type I or soft superconductors.
2. Type II or hard superconductors.
1. Type I or soft superconductors.

This type of superconductors delays the Meissner effect i.e., behave as perfect dia-
magnetic material.
The figure shows the relation between
the magnetisation and applied magnetic field.
The superconductivity is destroyed sharply at
and with the critical field. It repels the mag-
netic lines of force, because it acts as a perfect
diamagnetic. Such type of superconductors
are called soft or Type - I superconductors. At
Hc , the repulsive force is zero, and hence the
material behaves as a normal conductor Nb,
Hg, V, Sn are some examples of type - I supercondutors.
2. Type II or hard superconductors.

It does not obey the meissner effect perfectly. These superconductors show the mag-
netisation property as shown in the figure.
In this type upto the field Hc , it will not allow the magnetic lines of force. The
field Hc1 and Hc2 be the lower and upper critical fields. The region in between H c1
and Hc2 is known as Vortex state or mixed state. Above Hc2 the material behaves as
a normal conductor. i.e., the magnetic field penetrates into the material.
5.10.5 BCS Theory

The microscopic theory put forward by Bardeen, Cooper and Schrietter (BCS), in
1951. Provides the better quantum explanation of superconductivity and accounts
very well for all the properties exhibited by the superconductors. This theory in-
volves the electric interactions through phonons as mediators.
The basic of the formulation of BCS theory and
√
1. Isotope effect (Tc M = constant)
2. Variation of specific heat effect.
Froblich and Barden (1950) pointed and that an electron moving through a crystal
lattice has a self energy accomplished by virtual phonons. This means that an elec-
tron moving through the lattice distorts the lattice and lattice in turn acts on the
electron by virtue of electrostatic forces between them. The oscillatgory distortion of
the lattice is quantized interms of phonons and so one can interpret the interaction
between the lattice and the electron as the constant emission and re-absorption of
phonons by lattice. Thus are called virtual phonons.
In 1957 BCS succeeded in showing that the basic interaction responsible for su-
perconductor appears to be that of a pair of electrons by means of an interchange of
virtual phonons.
Thus means that the lattice is distorted by a moving electron, this distortion gives
rise to a phonon. A second electron some distance away is in turn when it is reached
by the propagating fluctuation in the lattice charge distribution as shown in figure.
→
−
An electron of wave vector K 1 emits a virtual phonon → −
q which is absorbed by
→
− →
− →
− →
− →
− →
− →
−
an electron K . This scatters K into K − q and K into K − i . The process
2 1 1 2 2
being virtual one energy meed not be conserved. This electron-electron interaction
depends on the relative magnitudes of the electronic energy and phono energy (hν g ).
If this phonon energy exceeds electronic energy, the interaction is attractive.
The fundamental postulace of BCS theory is that superconductivity occurs when
such an attractive interaction between two electrons, by means phonon exchange
dominate the usual repulsive interact. Two such electrons which interact attractively
in the phonon field are called a “Cooper - Pair”.
The energy of pair of electrons in the bound state is less than the energy of the pair
in the free state. The difference of the energy of the two states is the binding energy
of the cooper pair and should. Therefore be supplied if the pair is to be broken or
separated.
At temperature less than the critical temperature electron lattice interaction is

stronger than electron coulomb interaction and so the electron tend pair up. Pairing
is complete at T = 0K and is complete broken at Tc .
The energy decrease between the free energy of the electron and the paired state
appears as the energy gap at the fermi surface. the normal electrons stages are above
the fermi energy gap and superconductor electron states in the superconducting
cooper pairs. BCS theory thus predicts many electron ground states as well as excited
states for the superconductor in the range 0 to Tc and in these states Cooper pair are
supposes to be in condensed state with a definite phase. At T c , this coherence disap-
pears and the pairs are broken resulting in the transition of superconducting state to
normal state.
5.10.6 High temperature superconductors(HTSC)

In the year between 1911 and 1986, with the help of liquid helium superconductors
having Tc from 4k to 23k were observed. Later in the years 1983, 1987 & 1988 mate-
rials with high Tc upto 40k, 93k and 123k have been discovered respectively. To pro-
duce the superconductor with Tc greater than 77k liquid nitrogen was used instead
of liquid helium. The above observations confirms that it might be possible to de-
velop the superconductors at room temperature. The superconductors having high
transition temperature (Tc ) are known as high temperature superconductor(HTSC).
The oxide compound (Ba Pby Bi1−y O3 ) having perovskite structure shows Tc
at about 13k. Muller and Bendorz, tried to investigate the occurrence of supercon-
ductivity of other oxide compounds & found that the La2−y Bay CUO2 compound in
solid solutions shows Tc of about 45k.
In 1987, Chu showed that yBa2 Co3 O7−y compound became superconducting at
90K. The high Tc oxide compounds of thallium and bismith was found by in the
year 1988. Later on, the HTSCs were also schieved by the substitution of Pb & TI
compounds.
The HTSC compounds are generally represented by simplified notations such
as 1212, 1234, etc., based on the number of atoms present on each metal element.
For example, yBa2 CO3 O3 compound is represented as 123. The HTSC components
along with transition temperature notations, chemical formula & structure are given
in Table 1.
From this, it is evident that high Tc superconductors are formed by the oxides of
copper in combination with other elements. They become brittle & it is easy to form
wires & tapers which provides electrical power transmission over a long distances
without resistance losses.
Structure Tc & propertied of some superconductors chemical notations structure
T.(1 c)
5.10.7 Applications of superconductors

The applications of superconductors were gives below
I Superconducting quantum interface devices (SQUID)

1. It is a magnetometer, involving super current properties of Josephson junctions
2. The low temperature superconductors are used in the fabrication of this SQUID
3. They are suitably processed superconducting loops that can detect minute changes
in magnetic flux, gedogical layers in different minerals, to detect NMR signals
at low temperatures, etc.,
4. They are high-sensitivity magnetic flux and are used in precision instruments
in frontier areas like advanced metrology.
II Magnetic levitation
Magnetic levitation is used to operated leviated trains when a superconducting ma-
terial is placed in magnetic field electric currents are set up at its surface. This results
in zero magnetic field inside the material. This diamagnetic property ensures the
repulsion of magnet when brought near a superconductor. This repulsion can be
used to float a magnet above a superconductor. This phenomenon is called magnetic
leviation.
In the absence of any mechanical friction, it is possible to achieve extremely high
speeds. Speeds upto 500 km/h have been already reported.
III Cryotron
It is a magnetic switch that utilizes superconductivity. It consists of two supercon-
ducting wires (e.g., tantalum and niobium) having different critical temperatures.
The niobium wire (high Tc ) is wrapped around is wire of tantalum (low Tc ). A
proper electrical insulation is provided between the two wires. The complete setup
is immersed in a bath of liquid helium. Both the wires becomes superconducting k
tantalum wire is able to carry large amount of current in superconducting state no
current is passed through niobium wire. When a sufficient current passed through
niobium wire. When a sufficient current passes through niobium wire, the resultant
magnetic field destroys superconductivity V thus current flowing flowing through
tantalum wire.
Thus, the amount of current passing through the tantalum wire can be adjusted
from high to low value with the help of current passing through niobium wire. Thus
the tantalum acts as a gate niobium acts as a control.
Other applications
1. Superconductors are used aa loss less power transmission lines
2. In Japan, superconductors are used to leviate above its rail
3. Superconductors are used as storage devices in computers
4. Super conducting electric generators are small in size. They produce more
power when compared to conventional electric generators.
Josephson effect
In 1962, Brian Josephson predicted that this effect is due to tunneling of cooper pairs
according to Josephson effect. The tunneling of copper pairs takes placed between
two superconductors separated by an insulator, even in the absence of applied volt-
age between the superconductors. The current flowing through the derive has both
ac and dc components.
D.C. Josephson effect

A d.c. current flows across the junction of two superconductors separated by a thin
insulating layer in the absence of any electric or magnetic field is called D.C. Joseph-
son effect.
A.C. Josephson effect

When d.c. voltage is applied across the junction of two superconductors separated
by a thin insulating layer, it reduces r.f. current oscillations across the junction with
frequency of ω = q/h V . Moreover, if a r.f. voltage is applied along with the d.c.
voltage, there is a flow of l.c. current across the junction.
Let Vap be the applied voltage and Vmin be the minimum value of d.c. voltage
required to produce a.c. Josephson effect.
From the figure,
Current
imin
Superconductor
Battery
Oxide insulator Vmin
Votage
Josephson effect
1. If Vap = 0, there is a constant flow of d.c. current equal to imin through the
junction. This current is called superconducting current. This effect is the d.c.
Josephson effect.
2. If Vap < Vmin , there will be a constant flow of d.c current equal to imin only.
3. When Vap < Vmin , the junction has a finite resistance and the current oscillates
qV
with a frequency ω = hap where q = 2e = charge of opposite pair. This
represents a.c. Josephson effect.
4. If the applied voltage is the sum of d.c. voltage a.c. voltage such that a.c.
voltage is lesser than d.c. voltage then a d.c. current flows through the junction.
5.11 Metallic Glasses

Definition
The engineering materials which share the properties of both metals and glasses are
called metallic glasses simply the metallic glasses are glasses having metallic
properties.
Eg: Pd77 , Cu6 Si17 .
Explanation
A glass is a solid material obtained from a liquid which does not crystalline on
cooling. They are amorphous solid in which atoms are packed in random fash-
ion. The glass is a word generally associated with transparent silicate glasses
containing silica (SiO2 ) and oxides of some metals like Al, K, Na, Pb and Mg. These
glasses are non metallic act as electrical insulators and does not exhibit ferromag-
netism. But metals are malleable, ductile act as good conductors and posses crys-
talline structure.
But matallic glasses exhibit metallic properties even though they are amorphous
in nature. Oxides of glasses are amorphous, in nature and it is common feature but
a metallic material (metallic glasses) to have amorphous nature is quite new.
Metallic glasses are usually prepared by cooling a metallic liquid (mentioned
already) which has a disordered structure so quickly so that there is no enough time
Molten specimen
Photo
cell
Light
Copper lining
Piston
Anvil
Fig. 40 Piston-Anvil liquid quenching device
left for the formation of crystalline structure. The rate of cooling is of the order of
2 × 106 ◦ C per second.
During solidification there is no change in interatomic spacing. Thus a metallic
glass may be considered as a solid with frozen liquid structure. The temperature at
which the transition takes place from liquid to solid is known as glass transition
temperature (Tg ). On heating the metallic glasses show a reversible glass-liquid
transition at glass transition temperature Tg . The metallic glasses developed forty
years ago required faster cooling of the order of million degrees of Celsius per sec-
ond. But the new alloys recently developed that form metallic glasses require lower
cooling rates at the order of 1 to 100◦ C per second. This slower cooling facilitate to
fabricate large parts of a machinery using metallic alloys in bulk ingot.
5.11.1 Preparation of metallic glasses

(a) Small scale production
The original method used for preparing metallic glasses was the gun technique
(or) splat cooling. Here a small liquid globule is propelled (pumped) by means
of a shock tube and spraying it to form a thin foil (coating) on copper substrate (Cu
base). Here the substrate is curved so that the centrifugal force promotes a good
thermal contact between liquid layer (sprayed) and the substance. In this method
heat is extracted (absorbed) from the melt from only one side. This limitation is
eliminated in an improved method in which the liquid globules are squeezed be-
tween a fast-moving piston and a fix anvil that are lined with copper. This copper
coating removes the heat from melt (liquid sprayed) quickly. An advantage of this
piston-anvil method is that it provided a good parallelism between two faces of
foil (cooled film) which is about 25mm in diameter and 40µm in thickness.
(b) Large scale (or) mass production

The laboratory methods discussed above are not suitable for large scale (or) mass
production of metallic glasses. For practical applications we require metallic glasses
in the form of thin sheets. Hence large effort was devoted to various methods so as
to freeze the metallic melt rapidly in the form of a continuous ribbon. The principle
of this method is to feed (pump) a continuous jet of liquid alloy on the outer rim of a
rapidly rotating cylinder. Hence the molten alloy solidifies rapidly into a thin ribbon
(50µm thick) that is ejected out tangentially (to the rotating cylinder) at the rate as
high as 6600 ft/min (or) 2200 m/min. The width of ribbon obtained is limited to few
millimeters.
This method mainly involves the following steps.
(a) A stream of melt is injected through a nozzle (small hole) into a rotating drum
containing water, instead of pumping on to a rotating cylinder. Wires with
circular cross sections can be formed.
(b) A very rapid cooling at the rate of 106 K/sec called splat cooling is obtained
in this method.
5.11.2 Properties of metallic glasses

1. Composition
The metallic glasses are metal alloys which have no long range atomic order.
2. Metallic properties
They are all strong, ductile, malleable brittle and opaque.
3. Mechanical properties
They have high rapture strength, high toughness and better corrosion re-
sistance.
4. Electrical and Heat properties
The electrical resistivity of metallic glasses is high and it does not vary with
temperature. Their temperature coefficient can even be zero or negative.
It has negative temperature coefficient, that is the electrical resistivity de-
creases as the temperature increases.
5. Magnetic properties
They have high magnetic permeability (µ is high) and hence exhibit ferro-
magnetism. They have low magnetic losses, saturation magnetisation with
low coercivity and zero magnetostriction. (They will not elongate or con-
tract under a.c.field producing varying magnetic flux).
5.11.3 Applications of metallic glasses

Due to their unusual physical and chemical properties, metallic glasses play an
important role as an engineering material. Some of the applications of metallic
glasses are listed below.
1. Electrical and electronic applications
(a) Because of their insensitivity to temperature, they are used in elec-

tronic circuits.
(b) Since their resistivity is high, they are widely used as resistance ele-
ments in electric circuits.
2. Thermal applications
The metallic glass Pd80 , Si20 in which Pd is replaced by chromium (Cr) up to
7% are used as thermometers for measuring very low temperature. Such
a thermometer is called as cryo thermometers (cryo means low).
3. Safety applications
Since metallic glass can withstand high dozes (amount) of radiations without
a change in electrical properties, they are used in fission and fusion reactor
and environmental devices.
4. Magnetic applications
(a) Since metallic glasses possess high vicker’s hardness (8 GPa) (vicker
hardness is a standard for measuring the micro hardness of a material)
and good corrosion resistance, they are used in the manufacture of
magnetic tape recording heads.
(b) The high value of magnetic permeability makes the metallic glasses rib-
bons and wires ideally suitable for generating harmonics when they are
placed in suitable AC and DC and as antitheft tags for protecting store
merchandize (articles for sale).
(c) Because of their low magnetic loss, they are used in motors which reduces
the core loss as much as 90% when compared to conventional crystalline
magnets.
(d) Super conducting metallic glasses like Zr75 and Rh25 are used in produc-
ing high magnetic fields and for magnetic leviation effect (magnetic
suspension used in fast train track).
(e) Metallic glasses are used in magnetic devices like magnetic sensors (or)
transducers, security systems and power transformer cores and sci-
entic applications.
(f) Since metallic glasses may be regarded as liquids with frozen struc-
ture, they are ideally suited to produce materials for low temperature
transport and critical behaviour studies and they are most suited for
the study of electrons in non crystalline metals.
5.11.4 Metallic glasses as transformer core material

Since metallic glasses exhibit excellent ferromagnetic properties with low magnetic
loss, high permeability, magnetic saturation, low coercivity and zero mag-
netostriction effect with extreme hardness they are ideally suited to produce
large sheets used as transformer cores.
Slotted
nozzle
Nozzle
Metallic glass ribbon
Melt
Substrate
Rotating drum
Substrate
Fig. 41 Planer flow casting (for the manufacture of ribbons of metallic glasses)
Core sheets (or) wide ribbons up to 15 cms can be produced by using a planar
flow casting method in which a narrow slitted nozzle for feeding molten alloy
is situated very close to rotating cylinder surfaces.
These large sheets of metallic glasses are widely used in power distribution trans-
formers which convert high voltage electricity to power lines of 240 V used for do-
mestic purposes (Step down transformer). Another advantage in using metallic
glasses as core in transformer, is that the size of transformer becomes so small
and efficient also in performance when compared to the conventional transformers
which are very large in size.
5.12 Ceramics
5.12.1 Definition
Ceramics is usually refers to an art of pottery.That is, products such as pots, pans,
bricks and tea cups made out of clay. But all these clay products come under tradi-
tional ceramics.
Another class of ceramics is known as modern advanced ceramics, which com-
posed of materials containing metallic and non metallic elements, chemically
bonded together primarily ionic bond or covalent bonds. They can be crys-
talline (or) non crystalline (or) mixtures of both.
5.12.2 Properties
1. Mechanical property:
Most of the ceramics have high hardness.
2. Thermal property:
They have high temperature strength.
3. Chemical property:
They possess a good chemical resistance.
4. Electrical property:
Generally they have low electrical and thermal conductivities, which makes
them useful for electrical and thermal insulations.
5.12.3 Explanation
The exhibition of the above properties can be explained from the electronic behaviour
of constituent atoms of the bulk material. The constituent of ceramics are metallic
and non metallic atoms. The metallic elements release the outer most electrons (va-
lence electrons) and non metallic atoms which receive these electrons. As a result of
this transfer electrons are immobilized (not moving) and this situation indicates the
absence of electrons in the conduction band. Hence a good ceramic material
behaves as a good insulator both thermally and electrically. Thus the insulating
character of ceramics is explained.
For heat chemical and mechanical resistance characters, the following explana-
tion can be given. The metallic positive ions (after losing electrons) and negative ions
(after gaining electrons) develop a strong electrostatic attractive force between them.
Each cation (positive ion) is surrounded in all sides by anions (negative charge).
Hence a considerable energy is required to separate these two ions. That is why
the ceramic materials have mechanical hardness, thermal resistance (refractory)
and chemically inertness (chemical resistance).
5.12.4 Classification of ceramics

Generally ceramic materials can be classified in two classes, namely
(a) Traditional ceramics
(b) Advanced ceramics (Technical ceramics and Engineering ceramics).
(a) Traditional ceramics

These ceramics includes clay made materials like brick, tile, sanitary ware, dinner
ware, clay pipe and electrical porcelain, commonly used glass, cement abrasives and
refractory materials also come under traditional ceramics. Usually the traditional
ceramics are made from the following basic components clay, silica, flint and felspar.
Also traditional ceramics are made from the materials (or) minerals obtained
in their natural state.
(b) Advanced ceramics

Advanced ceramics which is also known as technical ceramics or engineering ce-
ramics are based on pure (or) nearly pure ceramic components or their combina-
tion. The raw materials used for advanced ceramics must be processed carefully so
that a controlled product can be produced. Also ceramics are made by using vari-
ous composition mixing and processing techniques. Therefore the starting materials
used for the manufacture of ceramics are not naturally occurring (got) materi-
als, but materials that have already undergone some chemical transformation
and refinement.
Examples: Alumina (Aluminium oxide Al2 O3 ) Zirconia (ZiO2 ), Silicon carbide (SiC)
Silicon nitride (Si3 N4 ), barium titanate (BaTiO3 ) and high temperature super con-
ductors.
5.12.5 Classification based on function (or) application

Based on the primary function or application, ceramics are also subdivided into two
categories namely structural ceramics and electronic ceramics.
(a) Examples of Structural ceramics:
Engine components, cutting tools, valves, bearings, fibres, heat exchangers,
whiskers and biological implants.
(b) Examples of Electronic ceramics:
Optical and magnetic materials.
(c) The electronic-magnetic-optic functions include electronic substrates, elec-
tronic packages, capacitors, magnets, transducers, wave guides, displays and
sensors.
5.12.6 Fabrication of advanced ceramics

A variety of processes are used to fabricate advanced ceramics. The process cho-
sen for a particular product is based on the material, shape, complexity, property
requirements and cost. Generally ceramics fabrication processes can be divided into
four categories.
1. Powder process
2. Vapour process
3. Chemical process
4. Melt process.
Out of these processes let us now discuss only powder process method.
Manufacturing of advanced ceramics by powder process method
Traditional clay-made ceramics, refractories and majority of advanced ceramics are

fabricated by powder process method. The method involves several steps which are
listed as below
1. Preparation of the starting powders.

2. Forming the desired shape (green forming).
3. Removal of water and organics.
4. Heating with (or) without the application of pressure to density the powder.
5. Finishing.
(1) Powder preparation
The starting powders for traditional ceramics are mainly clay and other natural min-
erals which are first processed to achieve purity and particle size of desired. Size
hence the methods involves mining, crushing and milling or process similar to
those operations used in other industries.
Manufacturing process of ceramics
The methods used to manufacture modern ceramics have many similarities with the
manufactures of traditional ceramics. The mass production of traditional ceramics
involves the process like milling, and blending the naturally occurring (available)
materials into a fine clay powder plastic mass. Then this mass is shaped by using
techniques like injunction moulding, extrusion moulding or slip casting.
Injunction moulding is a process in which the clay is forced into a closed mould.
But in extrusion moulding clay is forced through a die having required cross sec-
tion. Slip casting is a process in which clay-water slurry is poured into a process
mould which absorbs excess of water. Then the shaped product is dried in air and
then taken to a kiln. Here it goes a through a process called sintering. This process
occur at a temperature lower than the melting point of clay mixture. Then the
product is goes through process like finishing, glazing etc. Glazing is done by a wax
like material which is melted on the surface to give a uniform coating on the surface
of the product. It gives a glassy appearance on the surface of the product.
The advanced ceramic manufacture involves very similar steps. But water is
not used in these process. Instead of water, organic polymer binders are added
to convert the finely grounded powder into a malleable mass. But during sin-
tering these organic chemicals are eliminated by vapourisation (Or) chemical com-
bination (or) both. The application of pressure before sintering (or) during sintering
gives a denser product (densifying process). This will remove the voids (or) pores in
the powdered mass. This also helps to eliminate cracks and reduce the shrinkage.
5.12.7 Properties of advanced ceramics

1. Hardness:
Advanced ceramics are hard, stiff and inert.
2. Conduction:
They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
3. Temperature strength:
They can withstand very high temperature.
4. Melting point:
They possess high melting point due to their strong chemical bonds (ionic-
covalent bonds).
5. Wear resistance:
They have high wear resistance.
6. Stability:
They are chemically very stable.(inert)
7. Corrosion resistance:
They have very high corrosion resistance.
8. Fracture toughness:
They have very low fracture toughness (brittle fracture) of about 1. Some ce-
ramics have fracture toughness vary from 3 to 12. They are 50 times more sus-
ceptible brittle fracture than metals. But fracture toughness can be increased
by using materials with no voids and chemical impurities for the fabrication of
ceramics.
5.12.8 Applications of ceramics

The selection of materials for engineering applications is based on performance re-
quirements, cost and other factors.
The general advantages of advanced ceramics over metals and polymers are,
(a) High temperature strength
(b) Chemical stability
(c) Wear resistance and
(d) Corrosion resistance.
Let us now discuss the various applications of ceramics in different fields.
(a) Structural applications

Advanced ceramics like silicon nitride, zirconia and alumina are used for manufac-
turing cutting tools and as mechanical seal which can encounter the heat and
corrosion in the environment. Their fracture toughness can also be increased by re-
inforcing ceramic matrix with ceramic fibre.
(b) Electronic applications
Based on the specific composition and crystal structure ceramic exhibit either in-
sulator (or) fermi conductor (or) conductor behaviour and very often they can
change from one to another. They exhibit some useful magnetic and electronic
properties.
Because of their above mentioned special characteristics, they are used
as substrates for electronic circuits, electronic packages, capacitors magnetic
components electronic sensors piezoelectric components and integrated optic
components.
(c) Semiconductor applications
Since some ceramics exhibit semiconducting properties, they are used to fabricate
semiconductor devices, one of the example is thermistor (or) a temperature sensi-
tive resistor used for controlling and measuring temperature. Because of their tran-
sition property from non conducting to conducting, they are used as varistor which
is a variable resistance device. Zinc oxide is an example of advanced ceramic
material shows this switching over property from insulation barrier to metallic con-
duction, when applied voltage is increased. Switching voltage can also be controlled
by varying the composition.
(d) Piezoelectric effect and piezoelectric ceramic applications
If a mechanical pressure applied on a quartz crystal is changed, a varying voltage

which is proportional to the applied pressure is produced across the crystal in per-
pendicular direction. This is known as piezoelectric effect and the crystal is known
as piezoelectric crystal.
Ceramic materials which exhibit piezoelectric effect are called piezoelectric ce-
ramics. Lead zirconate titanate (PZT) is an excellent example of piezoelectric ceram-
ics. Piezoelectric ceramics are used in phonograph pickups, microphones, gas
lighters etc. When a PZT crystal is subjected to a mechanical pressure, it produces a
very high voltage. This high voltage produces a spartk due to breakdown of air and
this spark is used to ignite the gas in gas stove and gas ovens.
Piezoelectric ceramics are used in quartz watches, ultrasonic scanners in
medicines and SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging) used in submarines.
(e) Magnetic applications of ceramics
Ferrites, a class of magnetic ceramics used in magnetic cores memories, power

transformer, T.V and Radio sets (as ferrite antenna) recording and reading heads
for magnetic tape records and bubble memory cores.
(f) Ferroelectric ceramic applications

These ceramics have a unusual ability of converting electrical signals into me-
chanical energy such as sound.
They can also change the sound, pressure or motion into electric signals.
Thus they function as transducers. (A device used to convert one energy into an-
other). Barium titanate (BaTiO3 ) is a good example of ferroelectric ceramics.
The non conducting property of ferroelectric ceramics is used in the manufac-
ture of capacitors to store electric charge in different electric and electronic circuits,
BaTiO3 has a high value of dielectric. Its dielectric constant vary from 1200 to
1500.
(g) Superconducting ceramics
When a super conductor is cooled below a certain temperature called critical tem-
perature TC , it transforms from normal conductor to a superconductor. Above
TC , it again reverts back in to a normal conductor. High value T C superconducting
ceramics like Ba2 Cu3 O7 (TC = 90◦ K) and Ba2 Ca2 Cu3 O10 (TC = 125◦ K) are used in
power transmission, electromagnets and transformer windings, coil wind-
ings in electrical machines and super conducting ring in computers as storage
element. The main advantage of using super conducting ceramics is that they con-
sume very low power (0.5 W).
(h) Applications in automation
Advanced ceramic components are used in automotive and other engines. The auto-
motive engines includes turbo charger rotors, valves, valve guides, fuel injector
nozzles, exhaust-port inserts and advanced diesel engine components.
(i) Application of ceramics as insulator in space shuttle orbiter
Since advanced ceramics have high thermal strength, they are used in thermal pro-
tection system for the space shuttle orbiter and the space shuttle can be used for at
least 100 missions. This thermal insulation tile material attached to the body of
space shuttle orbiter is known as high temperature reusable surface insulation
(HRSI). They are also used as aerospace hardwares.
(j) Medical applications
A number of advanced ceramics are used as implants in the human body espe-
cially for hip joint and dental implants and they are called as biomedical materi-
als.(ceramics)
(k) Telecommunication application
Silica (SiO2 ) is used to make optical fibres cables used for telecommunication pur-
poses. Super plastic materials (ceramics) are used in advanced nano phase materi-
als.
(l) Wear resistance and corrosive resistance applications
Since advanced ceramics have high value of wear resistance and corrosive resis-
tance, they are used as extrusion dies and pump components.
5.13 Bio-Materials
Bio-materials are the materials which can be implanted in the human body under
required medical conditions so that it heals the defect or wound in the body without
creating any side effect. i.e. Bio-materials are completely accepted by human body
system.
Bio-materials are nowadays used in the following categories:
1. Metallic bio-materials
2. Ceramic bio-materials
3. Polymeric bio-materials
1. Metallic bio-materials
Used as implants in human body. Implants are used in bone replacement, strength-
ening of bones and to connect broken bones.
Example: Stainless steel (ASTMF - 138 and 139) - Implant devices, bone screws.
Proto sul - 10 (Co-Ni-Cr-Mo) for Hip joint.
2. Ceramic bio-materials
Ceramic bio materials are used to prepare artificial bones. They are also used in
dental and orthopaedic purposes.
Example: Apatite ceramics: synthetic bone.
Synthetic hydroxyapatite: dental and orthopaedic raw materials.
3. Polymeric bio-materials
Polymeric bio-materials find vast usage in many areas of medicine.

Example:
PTFE - Polytetra fluro ethylene: To prepare artificial valves
PMMA - Polymethyl methacrylate: To prepare contact lenses and
bone cement.
PVC - Poly Vinyl chloride: To prepare artificial blood vessels and
heart components.
Polyesters - Used in preparing artificial lungs, livers and blood vessels
Nylons - To prepare artificial joints.
Short Answer Questions

1. Define magnetic flux and magnetic induction and flux density. Mention their
units?
2. Define magnetic permeability and susceptibility. Mention their units?
3. Define magnetic relative permeability, Intensity of magnetisation and magnetic

field intensity (H). Give the relation between relative permeability and suscep-
tibility.
4. What is Bohr magneton?

Ans: When an atom is placed in an external magnetic field, the orbital mag-
netic moment of electrons is quantized (have certain definite minimum value).
A quantum (measure) of magnetic moment of an atomic system (Atomic mag-
netism) is known as Bohr magneton represented by µB .

eh
µB =
4πm
e = charge of electron
m = mass of electron
h = planck’s constant
5. What is curie constant and weiss curie law?
6. What are domains?
7. What is Heissenberg theory on ferromagnetism?
8. What is hysteresis and hysteresis loss?
9. Define retentivity and coercivity of a magnetic material?
10. Define energy product of a magnetic material? Give its importance.
11. What are hard and soft magnetic materials? Give examples. Mention their
uses.
12. What are ferrites? Mention their applications?
13. What are dielectrics? Mention some applications of dielectrics.
14. Define electric field intensity (E), electric flux (ψ) and Electric flux density (or)
electric displacement vector (D). Mention their units?
15. Define electric permittivity and relative permittivity (Dielectric constant)?
16. Define dipole and dipole moment.

17. Define electric polarisation (or) polarisation vector?
18. Define polarzability (α).
19. Name the four types of polarisation process and mention their frequency range
of the applied field.
20. What is electronic and Ionic polarisation? Mention their ranges of frequency of
applied field.
21. What is orientation and space charge polarisation. Mention their frequency
ranges of the applied field.
22. Explain the terms dielectric loss and loss tangent?
23. Explain the significant of dielectric loss and list the factors affecting the dielec-
tric loss?
24. Mention same characteristics for the selection of a dielectric material?
25. Explain different types of insulating (dielectric) materials and give examples?
26. Name different types of dielectric breakdown mechanism.
27. Give some examples of active dielectrics and mention their applications?
Ans: piezo electrics and pyroelectrics are two classes of active dielectrics.
(a) Piezo electrics:

Barium titanate (BaTiO3 ) potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KDP) and
Lithiumniobate (LiNbO3 ).
(b) Pyroelectrics:
Barium titanate (BaTiO3 ) Lithium Niobate (LiNbO3 )
Uses: used for making, pressure transducers, ultrasonic transducers &
microphones.
triglycine sulphate (TGS).
Uses: For making high sensitive infrared detectors.
28. Explain intrinsic breakdown mechanism and thermal breakdown mechanism

in dielectrics.
29. Explain discharge breakdown mechanism and electro chemical breakdown mech-
anism in dielectrics.
30. Explain defect breakdown mechanism.
31. Explain the term internal field (or) local field.

32. What are bio materials? Mention their applications in medicine?

A bio material can be defined as a synthetic material used to replace the
part of a living system or to function in intimate contact with the living tissue.
A bio material can be used for any period of time as a part of system which
treats, augments or replaces any tissue organ or function of the body. The
bio material should posses compatibility (matching characteristics) with
human cells and tissues and satisfy many aspects with the required prop-
erties to act as implant materials.
Classification: Metallic biomaterials, ceramic biomaterials, polymeric bioma-
terials.
Eg:
(a) Bio plates are implants which are used to aid in the fixation of long bone
fractures.
(b) Sutural, screws used to assist healing.
(c) Probes and catheters used to aid diagnosis.
(d) Cardiac pacemaker used to improve function of heart.
(e) Ceramic bio materials used in dentistry and to replace heart valves.
(f) PVC used in dialysis devices polypropylene (PP) used in disposable sy-
ringes.
33. What are metallic glasses? Give some examples.
34. Mention some unique properties of metallic glasses?
35. List out some applications of metallic glasses.
36. What are the advantages of using metallic glasses as transformer core? (AU)
37. What are the nano particles?
38. Explain thermal crystallisation and mechanical deformation process tom pro-
duce nano particles.
39. How does the properties of nano particles vary with size?
40. Explain the magnetic properties of nano particles.
41. Mention some special (unique) properties of nanophase materials.
42. Give some applications of nanophase materials.
43. What are shape memory alloys? Give examples. (AU)
44. What is one way and two way shape memory? Explain. (AU)
45. Mention two types of crystal structure exhibited by SMA? (martensite & austen-
ite)
46. Mention some general characteristics of SMA.
47. Explain the thermo mechanical behaviour of SMA.
48. List out some applications of SMA. (AU)
49. What are ceramics? How they are classified. Give the general properties of
ceramics.
50. Give some examples of advanced ceramics?
51. Mention the methods involved in the manufacture of advanced ceramics.
52. What is Green forming and Hot pressing?
53. Mention some applications of advanced (in electronic & structural fields) ce-
ramics.
54. What are piezoelectric ceramics mention their applications. (AU)
55. What are the ferroelectric ceramics mention their applications. (AU)
56. What is the advantage of using ceramics for the fabrication of capacitors?
57. What are the superconducting ceramics? (AU)
58. List out the uses of semiconducting and superconducting ceramics.
59. What are ferrites? Mention some of their uses? (AU)
60. What is ceramic tile insulation (space shuttle orbiter).
Review Questions
1. Compare dia, para and ferromagnetism.
2. What is ferromagnetism? Explain weiss theory (or) Domain theory of ferro-
magnetism and explain how it explains the ferromagnetic properties.
3. Explain the term ‘Hysteresis’ and how hysteresis curve can be drawn for a
ferromagnetic material. Explain how the hysteresis curve can be explained by
domain theory.
4. What are the antiferromagnetic materials and ferrimagnetic materials. Discuss
their properties and applications. Give examples.
5. Describe Heissenberg’s theory of ferro magnetism (or) Heissenberg’s criteria
on internal field?
6. Explain energy product of a magnetic material and its application in electronic
field?
7. Describe dielectric property in terms of band theory of solids and mention

some applications of dielectrics.
8. Mention different types of polarisation mechanisms involved in a dielectric
material? Derive an expression on the internal field (or) Lorentz field (or) local
field produced in a dielectric under the external electric field. Hence derive
claussius - Mosotti equation used for the calculation electronic polarisation
(αe ) for a cubic structure. (AU)
9. Explain briefly the different kinds of dielectric breakdown? Explain the signif-
icance of dielectric breakdown.
10. Describe briefly electronic polarisation and ionic polarisation. Derive expres-
sions for electronic and ionic polarizabilities.
11. Discuss space charge polarisation and orientation polarization. Derive expres-
sion for orientation and space charge polarizabilities.
12. Discuss briefly the effect of frequency of the applied field and temperature on
polarisation and dielectric constant.
13. Explain the term “Dielectric loss”. Derive an expression for the power factor of
dielectric and loss tangent. Explain the significance of dielectric loss. (AU)
14. What are shape memory alloys? Explain their characteristics. List their appli-
cations.
15. What are nano phase materials? How their physical properties vary with ge-
ometry. Mentional their applications. (AU-2003)
16. What are metallic glasses? How are they prepared? Discuss some of their ap-
plications (or) Explain their use as transformer core material. (AU-2003)
17. What are ceramics? What are characteristics? How they are manufactured?
Explain their mechanical, electrical and magnetic applications.
18. Discuss ferroelectric ceramics, piezoelectric ceramics. Superconducting ceram-
ics and their applications.

New Engineering Materials

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

New Engineering Materials

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

New Engineering Materials

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

5.

5.1.1 Terms and Definitions in magnetism

Magnetic moment (M)

Magnetic lines of force

Magnetic flux (φ)

Magnetic induction (or) Magnetic flux density (B)

Magnetic flux density (or)

unit of B is wb/m2 (or) Tesla (T)

Hence Magnetic flux φ = BA (3)

Magnetic field intensity (H)

But the existence of unit north pole is imaginary.

F Force experienced by unit north pole in magnetic field

Magnetic permeability (µ)

where µ is a constant of proportionality and is known as the permeability (or)

Magnetic permeability of free space (or) air (µ0 )

where B0 = magnetic induction (or) flux density in air (or)vacuum.

Magnetic Relative permeability (µr )

µr is a dimensionless quantity. It is only a ratio and has no unit.

Intensity of magnetisation (I)

Significance: when the same amount of magnetic field is applied to different

Magnetic susceptibility (χ)

5.2 Different Types of Magnetic Materials and their

1. Magnetic materials not having any permanent magnetic moment.

2. Magnetic materials having permanent magnetic moment.

(a) Paramagnetic materials.

2. Effect on the magnetic lines of force

6. Dependence of susceptibility on temperature

7. Dependence of susceptibility on applied field

8. Relative permeability (µr )

a. The magnetisation in weak magnetic field

Examples of diamagnetic substances

Sb, Bi, Zn, Ag, Au, Pb, Al2 O3

2. Effect on the magnetic lines of force

Fig. 2 Magnetic lines are pulled towards the paramagnetic material

Examples: χ for Al = 2.2 × 10−5 .

6. Dependence of susceptibility on temperature

susceptibility decreases. ac-

where C is Curie’s constant.

7. Dependence of susceptibility on applied field

8. Relative permeability (µr )

Since µr = 1 + χ where χ has a value 0.00002 = 2 × 10−5 .

9. Variation of magnetisation under weak external magnetic field

2. Effect on the magnetic lines of force

Outer ring is made up of Lines of forces are rowded into the

6. Dependence of susceptibility on temperature

Graph between χ and T is shown in Fig.5.

8. Relative permeability (µr )

Eg: µr for Fe = 2 × 105 .

tween magnetic induction (B) and Fig. 6

9. Variation of magnetisation with applied field

Fig. 7 (0A represents the initial magnetisation curve)

Ferromagnetic material exhibits hysteresis. In- B

bouring atoms are aligned antiparallel. But magnitudes of magnetic moments of

6. Dependence of susceptibility on temperature

The variation of susceptibility (χ) of a antiferromagnetic material with tempera-

Examples: Salts of transition elements.

6. Dependance of susceptibility on temperature

The susceptibility of magnetic materials decreases externally with the increase of

7. Relative permeability (µr )

Examples: Ferrous ferrite, nickel ferrite, Ni - Zn composite ferrite.

If 0 = absolute permittivity of free space

then permittivity of a medium is given by

unit of is Farad/metre (F/m).

6. Dielectric constant (r )

where αe = 4π 0 R3 E is known as electronic polarizability.