Engineering Physics (ET22AS102U)

Lecture Notes
Module 3
Magnetic and Dielectric Materials

B.Tech ( I YEAR - I SEM)

(2022-23)
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Module 3

Magnetic Materials: Magnetism, classification of magnetic materials and their properties,

Ferromagnetic materials – concept of domain, B-H curve, Hysteresis loss, Hard and Soft magnetic
materials - Properties and applications.
Dielectric Materials: Introduction, Types of polarization, Clausius -Mossotti equation, Ferroelec-
tric Materials- Properties and applications of dielectric materials.

Lecture 19: Introduction to Magnetism, Basic Definitions

Lecture 20: Classification of magnetic materials and their properties

Lecture 21: Ferromagnetic materials – concept of domain theory, B-H curve, Hyste-
resis loss

Lecture 22: Hard and Soft magnetic materials - Properties and applications

Lecture 23: Introduction to dielectric materials, Basic Definitions

Lecture 24: Electronic and Ionic polarizations

Lecture 25: Orientation and Space Charge Polarizations

Lecture 26: Derivation of Clausius -Mossotti equation

Lecture 27: Ferroelectric Materials- Properties

SYLLABUS
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Lecture-19

Introduction to Magnetic Materials, Basic Definitions

Introduction
The magnetic materials play a prominent role in modern technology. They are widely used in
industrial electronics, entertainment electronics and computer industry. A basic understanding
of the magnetic phenomena is essential to appreciate the operating principles of the various
magnetic devices.

A magnetic material are substances which can attract or repel other substances under the
influence of its magnetic field. The action of attracting or repelling a substance depend on the
alignment of atomic magnetic moments in the substance in the presence of external magnetic
field. All materials are affected in some way or the other by a magnetic field. However, not all
materials react the same way.

Magnetic Field: It is a region around a magnet where other magnetic materials experience a
force. Or Magnetic field can be described by imaginary lines of force around a magnet which
enables other magnetic materials to get repelled or attracted towards it.

Fig 1: Magnetic field

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Properties of Magnetic Field Lines

i. The Magnetic field lines enter the south pole and comes out of the north pole forming
closed loops.
ii. The magnetic field lines are strong near the poles of the magnet.
iii. There is no chance of magnetic field lines intersecting each other.

iv. More the closeness of the magnetic field lines, more is the strength of magnetic field.

Pole strength (m): The ability of a pole of magnet to attract or repel another magnetic poleis
called it`s pole strength.

Magnetic dipole: It`s a system consisting of two equal and opposite magnetic poles
separated by a small distance of 2l
Or
Two poles of equal strength separated by a very small distance is called a
magnetic dipole.
Magnetic dipole moment (𝛍m): It can define in three ways depending on situation.
i. In case of bar magnet, it is defined as the product of pole strength and distance
between them
µm=2lm
where 2l is the distance between the poles
ii. In case of current carrying conductor, it is the product of current (i) and cross section
area (A) of the conductor.
µm=iA
iii. In case of atom, it is the product of current (i) developed by orbital motion of electron
and the area covered by the orbital.
µm=iA
It is a vector quantity. Its direction is from south pole to the north pole.
Its SI unit is Ampere-m2.

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Magnetic Flux(Φ):
A number of magnetic lines of force is called “magnetic flux”.
The SI unit of magnetic flux is the Weber (Wb).
Magnetic induction or Magnetic flux density (B): in any material is the number of magnetic
field lines that pass through the substance per unit area perpendicularly.
Magnetic flux density (B) = Φ/A
The unit of B is Weber/m2 or Tesla
Magnetizing field (force) or Magnetic field intensity(H): at any point in the magnetic
field is the force experienced by a unit north pole placed at that point.
It is vector quantity. Its SI unit is Ampere⁄m.
The magnetic induction B due to a magnetic field of Intensity H applied in vacuum is
related by B=µ0H
where µ0 is permeability of free space (vacuum). The permeability of free space has a
value of 4π×10-7 H/meter
Instead in vacuum if the field applied in a medium, the magnetic induction in the solid is given
by B=µH
where µ is absolute permeability of solid material

Permeability (µ): isdefined as the ability of a material to allow the magnetic lines of
force to pass through it or degree to which a material can be magnetized.
µ=B/H, Units: Henry/meter
Relative magnetic permeability(𝝁𝑟): The ratio of its absolute magnetic permeability(µ) ofthe
material to the magnetic permeability of free space (µ0).

r 
0
It is purely a number; it has no units.

Magnetization: Magnetization is the process of converting a non-magnetic material to a

magnetic material or The ability of a material to get magnetized when placed in an external

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magnetic field is called magnetization.

Intensity of magnetization (M) is defined as the vector sum of magnetic moments of the
atoms (or molecules) contained in unit volume of the material. It is given by

M   m
V

It is a vector and its unit is Am-1

The intensity of magnetization for a material is proportional to the magnetizing field

𝑴α 𝑯 𝒐𝒓 𝑴 = 𝝌𝑯.

Where 𝝌 is the magnetic susceptibility

The magnetic susceptibility (𝝌) of a material is the measure of ease with which the material
can be magnetized and is defined as the ratio of intensity of magnetization

M
induced in the material to the magnetizing field. Thus,  
H

Relation between magnetic susceptibility and relative permeability

When a magnetic material is magnetized by placing it in a magnetic field, the resultant

field inside the material is the sum of the field due to the magnetization of the material and
the original magnetizing field.

The magnetic flux density is 𝐵 = 𝜇0(𝐻 + 𝑀)

or 𝐵 = 𝜇0(𝐻 + 𝜒 𝐻) = 𝜇0𝐻(1 + 𝜒 ). ……(1) (as 𝑀 = 𝜒 𝐻)

As 𝐵 = 𝜇 𝐻 …..(2) Comparing (1) and (2) 𝜇 𝐻 = 𝜇0𝐻(1 + 𝜒 )

Thus 𝜇 = 𝜇0 (1 + 𝜒 )

As 𝜇 = 𝜇0𝜇𝑟 we get 𝝁𝒓 = (𝟏 + 𝝌 ) .

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Origin of Magnetism/magnetic moment:

Materials are made up of atoms. These atoms consist of positively charged nucleus,
surrounded by cloud of electrons. In all atoms electrons are revolving around the nucleus in
different orbits and also spin about their own axis. These revolving electrons constitute an
electrical current in the orbits. These revolving electrons produces its own orbital magnetic
dipole moment, measured in Bohr magneton (𝜇𝐵) and there is also a spin magnetic moment
associated with it (spin of orbital electrons and spin of nucleus). In most materials there is no
resultant magnetic moments, due to the electrons being grouped in pairs causing the
magnetic moment to be cancelled by its neighbour. Under external applied magnetic field
these dipoles experience torque in the direction of applied field and the atom acquires
certain magnetism. So, the magnetic moment of an atom is due to
1. Orbital magnetic moment of the electrons.
2. Spin magnetic moment of the electrons.
3. Spin magnetic moment of the nucleus.

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Lecture-20

Classification of Magnetic Materials-Properties

Classification of magnetic materials Depending on the way the magnetic moments of the
electrons in the atoms of a material react to an applied magnetic field, materials can be
classified as diamagnetic, paramagnetic and ferromagnetic materials.
Diamagnetic material: Those substances which are weakly magnetised in a direction oppo-
site to the applied magnetic field are called diamagnetic substances.
Examples: Gold, silver lead, copper, antimony, bismuth, silicon, mercury, water, air, hydro-
gen, nitrogen etc..
In general, the magnetic moments of atoms are oriented such that the vector sum of the
magnetic moments of atoms is zero. When such a diamagnetic substance is placed in an
external magnetic field, the substance as a whole acquires a net magnetic moment in a di-
rection opposite to the applied field. Atoms of diamagnetic materials do not possess any
unpaired electrons.
Characteristics:
1. They possess small and negative susceptibility. ( m  0 )
2. The Magnetic moment of the atoms align in the opposite direction to applied mag-
netic field.
3. They are slightly repelled by a magnetic field.
4. When placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, they tend to move from the stronger
to the weaker part of the field.
5. They do not retain the magnetic properties when the external field is removed.
6. Susceptibility is independent of temperature of the material.

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Paramagnetic materials: Those substances which are weakly magnetised in the same direc-
tion as the applied magnetic field are called paramagnetic substances.
Examples: Aluminium, platinum, manganese, chromium, sodium, calcium, lithium, tungsten,
niobium, oxygen etc.
The orbital and the spin magnetic moments of atoms are oriented in such a way that,
each atom has a permanent magnetic dipole moment. However, due to thermal motion (vi-
bration), magnetic moments have random orientations. As a result, the net magnetic mo-
ment zero. When such a substance is placed in an external magnetic field, each atomic mag-
net tends to align in the direction of the field. The substance acquires a net magnetic mo-
ment and gets magnetised. The atoms of paramagnetic materials possess unpaired elec-
trons.
Characteristics:
1. They possess small and positive susceptibility. m ( small 0

2. The Magnetic moment of the atoms align in the same direction as that of applied
magnetic field.
3. They are slightly attracted by a magnetic field.
4. They tend to move from weaker to the stronger part of the field.
5. Material does not retain the magnetic properties when the external field is removed.
6. Susceptibility depends on the temperature of the material.

Ferromagnetic materials: Those substances which are strongly magnetised in the same di-
rection as that of applied magnetic field and retains its magnetic moment even after the
removal of the applied field are called ferromagnetic materials.
Examples: Iron, cobalt, nickel etc
Ferromagnetism is a special case of paramagnetism. In ferromagnetic substances, the con-
tribution of the spin magnetic moment to the magnetic dipole moment of atoms is very

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large. They possess strong magnetic properties due to the presence of magnetic domains. In
these domains, large number of atomic moments (1012 to 1015) are aligned parallel, so that
the magnetic force within the domain is strong. When such a material is in the un-magnet-
ized state, the domains are nearly randomly organized and the net magnetic field for the
part as a whole is zero. When a magnetizing force is applied, the domains are aligned to
produce a strong magnetic field within the part.
Characteristics:
1. They have large and positive susceptibility.
2. They have strong attraction towards magnetic fields.
3. They retain their magnetic properties even after the exter-
nal field is removed.
4. The Domains a strong tendency to move from weaker to
the stronger parts of the non-uniform external magnetic
field.

5. B  o (H  M ) Magnetization is not proportional to the

applied field. They exhibit a property called Hysteresis.

6. Susceptibility depends on the temperature (inversely proportional) of the material.

7. The temperature at which ferromagnetic material converts into paramagnetic mate-
rial is known as Curie`s temperature
The variation of susceptibility with temperature is expressed as
C
 whenT  TC
T  TC

Differences between Dia, Para and Ferromagnetic substances

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Property Diamagnetism Paramagnetis Ferromagnetism

m
Susceptibility −1 ≤ 𝜒 < 0 (negative 0<𝜒<𝜖 𝜒 ≫ 1 (positive and
(𝜒 ) and small) (𝜖 𝑎 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟) alarge number)
(positive and
small)
Relative 0 ≪ 𝜇𝑟 < 1 (𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 1 < 𝜇𝑟 < 1 + 𝜖 𝜇𝑟 ≫ 1 (much
Permeability ( 1) (slightly greater than greaterthan 1)
1)
𝜇𝑟)
Retentivity Zero Zero or Very low Very high

Variation of Linear and small Linear and small Nonlinear variation

M with H negative slope Positive slope
All spins or magnetic All spins or magnetic
moments are moments are orderly
randomly oriented. oriented.
No spin alignment is
spin alignment present.

In the The magnetic lines of The magnetic lines of The magnetic lines
presenceof force are pulled out force are attracted of force are highly
magneticfield from the material towards the centre attractedtowards
.Hence, magnetic flux of the material and the centre of the
density is greater, hence the Bin material and hence
outside the material material is greater the Bin material is
than inside than the B out. verygreater than the
B out

Material Weakly magnetized Weakly Strongly

placed in a opposite to the magnetized inthe magnetized in the
uniform directionof applied direction of direction of applied
magnetic magnetic field. applied magnetic magnetic field
field field

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Effect of Independent of 1 1
 (Curie’s law)  (T  Tc )
temperature temperature T T  Tc
on χ
Curie Weiss Law

Antiferromagnetic materials:
These are the ferromagnetic materials in which the magnetic interaction between any
two dipoles aligns themselves anti parallel to each other. All the dipoles are equal in magnitude.
Therefore, the resultant magnetization is zero.
Properties:
1. Susceptibility is small and positive for these materials.
2. Spin alignment is systematic, but in anti-parallel manner.
3. Initially, the susceptibility increases slightly as the temperature increases, and beyond
a particular temperature known as Neel temperature the susceptibility decreases with temper-
ature.
4. The temperature at which anti ferromagnetic material converts into paramagnetic ma-
terial is known as Neel`s temperature.
5. Susceptibility is inversely proportional to the temperature. The variation of susceptibil-
ity with temperature is expressed as
C
 whenT  TN
T  TN

 T whenT  TN

Where ‘c’ is the curie constant and the 𝑇𝑁 is Neel temperature. Ex: FeO, MnO, Cr2O3

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Ferrimagnetic materials:
These are the ferromagnetic materials in which the magnetic interaction between any two di-
poles align themselves anti parallel to each other. But the magnitudes of any two adjacent di-
poles are not equal. Therefore, if we apply a small value of magnetic field, it will produce a large
value of magnetization.
Properties:
1. Susceptibility is positive and very large for these materials.
2. Spin alignment is systematic, but in anti-parallel of different magnitudes.
3. Ferrimagnetic materials possess net magnetic moment.
4. Above curie temperature becomes paramagnetic while below it behaves as ferrimag-
netic material.
5. Ferrimagnetic domains become magnetic bubbles to act as memory elements.
6. Susceptibility is inversely proportional to the temperature.
The variation of susceptibility with temperature is
C
 whenT  TN
T  TN

Where, C is curie constant and 𝑇𝑁 is Neel temperature.

7. Ferrites are the best examples of ferromagnetic materials.
8. General formula of ferrites are Me2+OFe2O3 or Me2+Fe2O4 Ex-
amples: Zn2+Fe2O4, CuFe2O4.......

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Lecture-21
Concept of Domain theory, B-H Curve: Hysteresis
Magnetic Domains:

Magnetic Domains consists of spontaneously magnetized small regions where all the
magnetic moments are aligned in same direction. This small region is called as domains.

Each domain is at all times spontaneously magnetized to saturation and has a definite magnetic
moment. In the absence of the magnetic field, the magnetic moment vectors of the separate
domain are oriented in all probable directions so that the net magnetic moment of the entire
body equals to zero. When the magnetic fields are applied, the magnetization of the material
takes place through two processes.

By motion of domain walls: The movement of domain walls –in weak magnetic fields Magnetic
moment increases & boundary of domains are displaced, volume of domains changes

By rotation of domains: If applied field is strong, the domains can rotate into the field direction.

In soft magnetic materials the domain walls are thin and in hard magnetic materials the domain
walls are thick.

B-H Curve (or) Hysteresis:

The lagging of Magnetization behind the applied magnetic field is called the Hysteresis.

If we start with no Magnetized specimen (B=0) with the increasing values of magnetizing field H
the magnetic induction of the specimen increases from zero to higher values and attains its
maximum value at a point (a), at this point the magnetic induction Br referred as Saturation
Magnetic induction. When we increase Magnetic Field H there is no further increment in
Magnetic moment. When we decrease Magnetic Field H to Zero, the Magnetic Induction B

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attains point (b). This point is referred as Residual Magnetic Induction Br. Further if we increase
the Magnetic field from zero to negative values, the magnetic induction of material becomes
zero at a point (c), at that point the Magnetic field -Hc is referred as Coercivity of the specimen.
If we increase Magnetic Field H in reverse direction Magnetization of material reaches its peak
value at a points (f).

Figure: The Hysteresis loop

On reversing the polarities of Magnetic field and increasing its strength the Magnetization slowly
decreases first to residual value then to zero and finally increases to saturation state and touches
the original saturation curve. The area of loop indicates the amount of energy wasted in one
cycle of operation is called Hysteresis Curve.

The retentivity of a material is a measure of the magnetic flux density remaining in the material
when the magnetizing field is removed

Coercivity is a measure of the magnetic field strength required to destroy the residual magnetism
in the material.

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Lecture-22

Hard and Soft Magnetic Materials- Applications

Ferromagnetic materials are classified into two types based on the characteristic
parameters such as hysteresis and magnetization.
They are 1. Hard magnetic materials
2. Soft magnetic materials
Hard Magnetic Materials:

1. These materials can’t be easily magnetized and demagnetized

2. The nature of the hysteresis loop is very large

3. Hard magnetic materials have large hysteresis loss

due to large hysteresis loop area

4. The coercivity and retentivity are large

5. These materials have small values of permeability and

susceptibility

6. Impurities and defects will be more

7. These are used for making permanent magnets.

8. Examples: AlNiCo, Chromium Steel, tungsten steel, Carbon steel.

9. Applications: Magnetic detectors, Permanent magnets, microphones, etc.

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Soft Magnetic Materials:

1. These materials can be easily magnetized and

demagnetized.

2. The nature of the hysteresis loop is very steep

3. The area under the curve is small.

4. The coercivity and retentivity are small

5. These materials have large values of permeability and susceptibility.

6. Soft Magnetic materials have low hysteresis loss due to small hysteresis loop area.

7. Impurities and defects will be less i.e., free from irregularities.

8. These are used for making electromagnets

9. Examples: Iron silicon alloy, Ferrous nickel alloy, Ferrites, Garnets.

Applications:

 Switching devices,

 electromagnets,

 temporary magnets etc

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Lecture-23
Introduction to Dielectrics

Dielectrics are class of electrical insulators that exhibit electric polarization. The electrons are
bound to their nuclei and there are no free charges.
Let us consider an atom placed inside an electric field. The centre of positive charge is displaced
along the applied field direction while the centre of negative charge is displaced in the opposite
direction. Thus, a dipole is produced.

When a dielectric material is placed inside an electric filed such dipoles are created in all the
atoms inside. This process of producing electric dipoles which are oriented along the field di-
rection is called polarization in dielectrics. It is observed that the capacitance of a capacitor can
be increased the with dielectric medium between the plates of a capacitor.
Examples: could be solids/liquids/gases (glass, mica, rubber, wood, air, vacuum, ceramics, etc,)
Applications: used in many applications, from simple electrical insulation to sensors and circuit
components. [capacitors, sensors, actuators, memory devices, etc,]
Basic definitions
Electric dipole: A system of equal and opposite charges are displaced in the presence of elec-
tric field E is known as electric dipole. Electron (- vely charged) displaced opposite to the direc-
tion of applied field and nucleus (+ vely charged) shifts along the direction of the field. These
induced charges create induced dipoles
Dipole moment (µ): it is the product of displaced charge and separation between the charges.
Charge (q) and separation/displacement (r).
Units: Coulombs-meter

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Polarizability (α): It is a measure of degree of dipole moment in an electric field or dipole mo-
ment per unit electric filed
𝝁 α𝑬 → 𝝁 = 𝑎𝑬 → 𝑎 = µ/𝑬, 𝑭𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒅 – 𝒎𝟐 are the units of µ
Electric polarization (P): The process of formation of induced dipoles when the dielectric mate-
rial is subjected to external electric filed is known as electric or dielectric polarization.
𝑷 α 𝑬 → 𝑷 = χ𝑬 where χ is electric susceptibility
P can also be defined as induced charges per unit area/volume

Q' Q'
P or whereQ'  inducedcharg e
Area Volume
or
the average dipole moment per unit volume 𝑃 = 𝑁𝜇𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 → 𝑃 = 𝑁𝛼𝐸 where N- number of
dipoles in the substance
Electric Susceptibility (χ): It measures the degree of polarization of a given dielectric
when it is subjected to external electric field. 𝝌 = 𝑷/𝑬
Electric displacement vector or Electric flux density (D): the number of electric field lines passing
through unit area (or) the surface charge per unit area/volume
𝐷α𝐸 → 𝐷 = 𝜀𝐸
Dielectric constant or Relative Permittivity (εr):
Permittivity is the ability of dielectric material that stores electrical energy when the dialectic
material is subjected to electric field.
The dielectric characteristics of a material are determined by the dielectric constant of that ma-
terial.
Dielectric constant is the ratio of permittivity with the medium to the permittivity

without medium (free space/vacuum)  r  ;  0  8.854  10 12 F / m free space permittivity. It
0
is a dimensionless quantity
Types of dielectric substances
Dielectrics are categorized based on the type of molecule present in the material. There are two
types of dielectrics – Polar dielectrics and Non-polar dielectrics.
Polar: In polar dielectrics, the centre of mass of positive particles does not coincide with the

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centre of mass of negative particles. Here the dipole moment exists but in random manner.
When the electric field is applied the molecules align themselves with the electric field. When
the electric field is removed random dipole moment is observed and the net dipole moment in
the molecules becomes zero. E
Examples: H2O, CO2, etc,

Nonpolar: In the non-polar dielectrics, the centre of mass of positive particles and negative
particles coincide. There is no dipole moment in these molecules but when the material is sub-
jected to electric field then it exhibits net dipole moment.
Examples: H2, N2, O2, etc,

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Lecture-24

Electronic and Ionic Polarizations

Dielectric polarization is the displacement of charge particles with the applied electric field.
The displacement of electric charges results in formation of electric dipole moment in atoms,
ions or molecules of the material. There are four different types of polarization, they are listed
below.
1. Electric polarization
2. Ionic polarization
3. Orientational or dipolar polarization
4. Space charge polarization

1. Electronic Polarization: The displacement of the positively charged nucleus and the negatively
charged electrons of an atom in opposite directions, on application of an electric field, result in
electronic polarization.

 It is extremely rapid
 Most common phenomenon that happens in all atoms
 It occurs in the optical frequency range (~1015 Hz)
 Temperature independent
 electronic polarisation is 𝑷𝒆 = 𝑵𝑎𝒆𝑬

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Ionic Polarization:
This phenomenon occurs in ionic solids such as NaCl, KBr, and LiBr. When an electric field is
applied to an ionic solid the positive and negative ions displace to their respective polarities
creating an electric dipole this is called as ionic polarization.

 It slow when compared with electronic polarizability

 It happens in ionic crystals due to displacement of ions
 It occurs in IR frequency (~1013𝐻𝑧)
 Temperature independent
 The ionic polarization is given by 𝑷𝒊 = 𝑵𝛼𝑖𝑬 where 𝛼𝑖 is the ionic polarizability.

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Lecture-25

Orientation and Space Charge Polarizations

Orientation Polarization:
Occurs only in polar molecules (the molecules which have permanent dipole moment eg: H2O,
Phenol, etc.). When an electric field is applied to a polar molecule, the dipoles experience a
torque and try to align parallel to the applied field.

 It is slower than electronic & ionic polarizations

 It happens in polar substances
 It occurs in Radio-Micro wave frequency range (106 − 1010𝐻𝑧)
 It decreases with increasing temperature as it disaligns the permanent dipoles
 The ionic polarization is given by 𝑷o = 𝑵𝛼o𝑬 where 𝛼o is the ionic polarizability is given

2
by  0 
3kT

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4. Space charge polarization:

Occurs due to the accumulation of charges at the electrodes or at interfaces in a multiphase
material.
The space-charge polarization occurs due to the diffusion of ions, along the field direction,
thereby giving rise to redistribution of charges in the dielectrics. Space charge polarization
occurs in multiphase dielectric materials in which there is a change of resistivity between
different phases. The space charge polarization is not an important factor in most common die-
lectrics.

Interfacial or space charge polarization occurs when there is an accumulation of charge at an

interface between two materials or between two regions within a material because of an exter-
nal field. This can occur when there is a compound dielectric, or when there are two electrodes
connected to a dielectric material. This polarization is usually observed in amorphous or poly-
crystalline solids. The electric field will cause a charge imbalance. Mobile charges in the dielectric
will migrate over to maintain charge neutrality. This then causes interfacial polarization.

Total polarization is given by 𝑷 = 𝑷𝒆 + 𝑷𝒊 + 𝑷𝒐.

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Lecture-26

Local Field and Clausius-Mosotti Equation

Internal field (or) Local field

When a dielectric material is placed in an external electric field, it exerts a dipole

moment in it. Therefore, two fields are exerted.

i. Due to external field and ii. Due to dipole moment

This long range of coulomb forces which is created due to the dipoles is called as Internal field
(or) local field. This field is responsible for polarizing the individual atoms (or) molecules.

Lorentz method to find the internal field

The dielectric material which is placed in between two plates of a parallel plate capacitor is
uniformly polarized as shown in Figure.

Assume an imaginary small spherical cavity around an atom for which the internal field must
be calculated at its centre.

The internal field Eint at the atom site (0) can be considered to consist of components namely
E1, E2, E3 and E4. i.e., Eint = E1 + E2 + E3+E4 ... (1)

E1 – Electric field due to charges on this plates of the capacitor.

E2 – Electric field due to the polarised charges (induced charges) on the plane surface of the
dielectric.

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E3 – Electric field due to polarised charges induced on the surface of the imaginary spherical
cavity.

E4 – Electric field due to permanent dipoles of the atoms inside the spherical cavity considered.

Macroscopically, we can take E = E1 + E2 i.e., the field externally applied (E1) and the field
induced on the plane surface of the dielectric (E2) can be considered as a single field (E).

If we consider the dielectric which is highly symmetric, then the field due to the dipoles present
inside the imaginary cavity will cancel each other. Therefore, the electric field due to
permanent dipoles E4=0.

The equation (1) can be written as Eint = E + E3 ... (2)

Determination of E3: Let us consider small area ds on the surface of the spherical cavity. This
small area makes an angle dθ at the center at an angle θ with the direction of the field E.

The polarization P will be parallel to EPN is the component of polarization perpendicular to the
area ds, and q is the charge on the area ds.

Polarization is also defined as the surface charges per unit area.

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This field intensity is along the radius ‘r’ and it can be resolved into two components as shown
in Figure.

The component of intensity parallel to the field direction

Since the perpendicular components are in opposite direction figure, they cancel out each
other. So the parallel components alone are taken into consideration.
Consider a ring area ds which is obtained by revolving ds about AB figure
Ring area ds = Circumference x thickness

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Electric field intensity due to charge present in the whole sphere is obtained by integrating
equation (11) within the limits 0 to π . This field is taken as E3.

where Eint is called internal field or Lorentz field.

This equation (13) shows that Eint is different from E. The local intensity Eint is larger than the
macroscopic intensity E. So the molecules are more effectively polarized.

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Clausius Mosotti Equation:

If N be the number of molecules per unit volume and á the molecular polarizability, then total
polarization

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The above equation is Clausius – Mosotti relation, which relates the dielectric constant of the
material and polarizability. Thus, it relates macroscopic quantity dielectric constant with
microscopic quantity polarizability.

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Lecture -27
Ferroelectric Materials-Properties
Ferroelectric Materials:
The dielectric materials which are having spontaneous polarization in the absence of
electric field are called ferroelectric materials. And the phenomenon of possessing spontaneous
polarization in the absence of electric field is called ferroelectricity.

Properties:
1. All ferroelectric material possesses spontaneous polarization below a certain
temperature.
2. As temperature increases the spontaneous polarization decreases and at a particular
temperature, the spontaneous polarization vanishes. This temperature is known as Curie
temperature.
3. Curie temperature can also be defined as the temperature at which ferroelectric
material coverts into para electric material.
4. Below curie temperature the dielectric constant depends on field strength. i.e., it is no
longer constant.
5. Above curie temperature dielectric constant varies with temperature according to curie-
wiess law,
C
r  provided T>Tc
T  Tc

6. All ferroelectric materials exhibit the property of piezo electricity and pyro electricity.
7. The most important property of ferroelectrics is hysteresis under the action of an
alternating voltage.
Ex: - BaTiO3, Lithium Niobate, Lithium Tantalate, etc.

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HYSTERESIS:
When an electric field is applied on the ferroelectric specimen, the polarization increases non -
linearly and reaches saturation at a certain value of 𝑷𝑠. The polarization will not change even if
E is increased further. When the field is reduced to zero, then the value of polarization does not
return to zero a certain amount of polarization called remanent polarization 𝑷𝑟, is still present
in the material. To remove this polarization, an electric field 𝑬𝑐 known as coercive field must be
applied in the opposite direction.

The shape of the hysteresis loop changes with temperature.

• The height and width of the hysteresis decreases with increase of temperature.
• At certain temperature, the loop merges into a straight line. This temperature is known
as ferroelectric curie temperature and the ferroelectric behavior of the material disappears.
• The hysteresis loop area represents the dielectric loss that occurs in dielectric materials.
The spontaneous polarization of the ferroelectric material depends upon
• Shape of the hysteresis loop.
• Dimensions of the specimen and temperature.
• The thermal and electrical properties of the crystal.

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Applications of Dielectric materials:

1. Almost any type of electrical equipment employs dielectric materials in some form or
another.
2. Wires and cables that carry electrical current, for example, are always coated or
wrapped with some type of insulating (dielectric) material.
3. Quartz crystal is used for the preparation of ultrasonic transducers, crystal oscillators,
delay lines, filters, etc...
4. Barium Titanate is used for preparation of accelerometer.
5. Lead Zinconate titanate is used to preparation of earphones, microphones, spark
generators.
6. The Insulating dielectric liquids are used in transformers, switch gears and generators.
It's also used in radiation detectors, Thermo ionic valves, strain gauges, capacitors,
resistors and many other Electric devices.
7. The electro optic devices are prepared using dielectric materials.

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