ZZZ Battter y

Download as docx, pdf, or txt
Download as docx, pdf, or txt
You are on page 1of 12

For other uses, see Battery.

Battery

Various cells and batteries (top-left to bottom-right): two AA,

one D, one handheld ham radiobattery, two 9-volt (PP3),

two AAA, one C, one camcorder battery, one cordless

phone battery

Type Power source

Working principle Electrochemical reactions, Electromotive

force

First production 1800s

Electronic symbol

The symbol for a battery in a circuit diagram. It originated as a

schematic drawing of the earliest type of battery, a voltaic pile.


An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external
connections provided to power electrical devices such as flashlights, smartphones, and electric
cars.[1] When a battery is supplying electric power, its positive terminal is the cathode and its
negative terminal is the anode.[2] The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that when
connected to an external circuit will flow and deliver energy to an external device. When a battery is
connected to an external circuit, electrolytes are able to move as ions within, allowing the chemical
reactions to be completed at the separate terminals and so deliver energy to the external circuit. It is
the movement of those ions within the battery which allows current to flow out of the battery to
perform work.[3] Historically the term "battery" specifically referred to a device composed of multiple
cells, however the usage has evolved additionally to include devices composed of a single cell.[4]
Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and discarded; the electrode materials
are irreversibly changed during discharge. Common examples are the alkaline battery used
for flashlights and a multitude of portable electronic devices. Secondary (rechargeable) batteries can
be discharged and recharged multiple times using an applied electric current; the original
composition of the electrodes can be restored by reverse current. Examples include the lead-acid
batteries used in vehicles and lithium-ion batteries used for portable electronics such
as laptops and smartphones.
Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to power hearing aids and
wristwatches to small, thin cells used in smartphones, to large lead acid batteries used in cars and
trucks, and at the largest extreme, huge battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby or
emergency power for telephone exchanges and computer data centers.
According to a 2005 estimate, the worldwide battery industry generates US$48 billion in sales each
year,[5] with 6% annual growth.
Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit mass) than common fuels such as
gasoline. In automobiles, this is somewhat offset by the higher efficiency of electric motors in
producing mechanical work, compared to combustion engines.

Contents

 1History
 2Principle of operation
 3Categories and types of batteries
o 3.1Primary
o 3.2Secondary
o 3.3Cell types
o 3.4Cell performance
 4Capacity and discharge
o 4.1C rate
o 4.2Fast-charging, large and light batteries
 5Lifetime
o 5.1Self-discharge
o 5.2Corrosion
o 5.3Physical component changes
o 5.4Charge/discharge speed
o 5.5Overcharging
o 5.6Memory effect
o 5.7Environmental conditions
o 5.8Storage
 6Battery sizes
 7Hazards
o 7.1Explosion
o 7.2Leakage
o 7.3Toxic materials
o 7.4Ingestion
 8Chemistry
o 8.1Primary batteries and their characteristics
o 8.2Secondary (rechargeable) batteries and their characteristics
 9Solid state batteries
 10Homemade cells
 11See also
 12References
 13Further reading
 14External links

History
Main article: History of the battery

A voltaic pile, the first battery

Italian physicist Alessandro Voltademonstrating his pile to French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte
The usage of "battery" to describe a group of electrical devices dates to Benjamin Franklin, who in
1748 described multiple Leyden jars by analogy to a battery of cannon[6] (Benjamin Franklin
borrowed the term "battery" from the military, which refers to weapons functioning together[7]).
Italian physicist Alessandro Volta built and described the first electrochemical battery, the voltaic
pile, in 1800.[8] This was a stack of copper and zinc plates, separated by brine-soaked paper disks,
that could produce a steady current for a considerable length of time. Volta did not understand that
the voltage was due to chemical reactions. He thought that his cells were an inexhaustible source of
energy,[9] and that the associated corrosion effects at the electrodes were a mere nuisance, rather
than an unavoidable consequence of their operation, as Michael Faraday showed in 1834.[10]
Although early batteries were of great value for experimental purposes, in practice their voltages
fluctuated and they could not provide a large current for a sustained period. The Daniell cell,
invented in 1836 by British chemist John Frederic Daniell, was the first practical source of electricity,
becoming an industry standard and seeing widespread adoption as a power source for electrical
telegraph networks.[11] It consisted of a copper pot filled with a copper sulfate solution, in which was
immersed an unglazed earthenware container filled with sulfuric acid and a zinc electrode.[12]
These wet cells used liquid electrolytes, which were prone to leakage and spillage if not handled
correctly. Many used glass jars to hold their components, which made them fragile and potentially
dangerous. These characteristics made wet cells unsuitable for portable appliances. Near the end of
the nineteenth century, the invention of dry cell batteries, which replaced the liquid electrolyte with a
paste, made portable electrical devices practical.[13]

Principle of operation
Main article: Electrochemical cell

A voltaic cell for demonstration purposes. In this example the two half-cells are linked by a salt bridgeseparator
that permits the transfer of ions.
Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy. A battery consists of some number
of voltaic cells. Each cell consists of two half-cells connected in series by a
conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and the
negative electrode, the electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate; the other half-
cell includes electrolyte and the positive electrode to which cations (positively charged ions)
migrate. Redox reactions power the battery. Cations are reduced (electrons are added) at the
cathode during charging, while anions are oxidized (electrons are removed) at the anode during
charging.[14] During discharge, the process is reversed. The electrodes do not touch each other, but
are electrically connected by the electrolyte. Some cells use different electrolytes for each half-cell. A
separator allows ions to flow between half-cells, but prevents mixing of the electrolytes.
Each half-cell has an electromotive force (emf), determined by its ability to drive electric current from
the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the difference between the emfs of its

half-cells.[15] Thus, if the electrodes have emfs and , then the net emf is ; in other
words, the net emf is the difference between the reduction potentials of the half-reactions.[16]

The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal voltage
(difference) and is measured in volts.[17] The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither charging nor
discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell. Because of internal
resistance,[18] the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller in magnitude than the open-
circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging exceeds the open-circuit
voltage.[19] An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would maintain a constant terminal

voltage of until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell maintained 1.5 volts and stored
a charge of one coulomb then on complete discharge it would perform 1.5 joules of work.[17] In actual
cells, the internal resistance increases under discharge[18] and the open-circuit voltage also
decreases under discharge. If the voltage and resistance are plotted against time, the resulting
graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the curve varies according to the chemistry and internal
arrangement employed.
The voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of the chemical
reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and zinc–carbon cells have different chemistries,
but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and NiMH cells have different
chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts.[20]The high electrochemical potential
changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or more.[21]

Categories and types of batteries


Main article: List of battery types
From top to bottom: a large 4.5-volt (3R12) battery, a D Cell, a C cell, an AA cell, an AAA cell, an AAAA cell,
an A23 battery, a 9-volt PP3 battery, and a pair of button cells (CR2032 and LR44)
Batteries are classified into primary and secondary forms:

 Primary batteries are designed to be used until exhausted of energy then discarded. Their
chemical reactions are generally not reversible, so they cannot be recharged. When the supply
of reactants in the battery is exhausted, the battery stops producing current and is useless.[22]
 Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their chemical reactions reversed
by applying electric current to the cell. This regenerates the original chemical reactants, so they
can be used, recharged, and used again multiple times.[23]
Some types of primary batteries used, for example, for telegraph circuits, were restored to operation
by replacing the electrodes.[24] Secondary batteries are not indefinitely rechargeable due to
dissipation of the active materials, loss of electrolyte and internal corrosion.

Primary
Main article: Primary cell
Primary batteries, or primary cells, can produce current immediately on assembly. These are most
commonly used in portable devices that have low current drain, are used only intermittently, or are
used well away from an alternative power source, such as in alarm and communication circuits
where other electric power is only intermittently available. Disposable primary cells cannot be reliably
recharged, since the chemical reactions are not easily reversible and active materials may not return
to their original forms. Battery manufacturers recommend against attempting to recharge primary
cells.[25] In general, these have higher energy densities than rechargeable batteries,[26] but disposable
batteries do not fare well under high-drain applications with loads under 75 ohms (75 Ω). Common
types of disposable batteries include zinc–carbon batteries and alkaline batteries.

Secondary
Main article: Rechargeable battery
Secondary batteries, also known as secondary cells, or rechargeable batteries, must be charged
before first use; they are usually assembled with active materials in the discharged state.
Rechargeable batteries are (re)charged by applying electric current, which reverses the chemical
reactions that occur during discharge/use. Devices to supply the appropriate current are called
chargers.
The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the lead–acid battery, which are widely used
in automotive and boating applications. This technology contains liquid electrolyte in an unsealed
container, requiring that the battery be kept upright and the area be well ventilated to ensure safe
dispersal of the hydrogen gas it produces during overcharging. The lead–acid battery is relatively
heavy for the amount of electrical energy it can supply. Its low manufacturing cost and its high surge
current levels make it common where its capacity (over approximately 10 Ah) is more important than
weight and handling issues. A common application is the modern car battery, which can, in general,
deliver a peak current of 450 amperes.
The sealed valve regulated lead–acid battery (VRLA battery) is popular in the automotive industry as
a replacement for the lead–acid wet cell. The VRLA battery uses an immobilized sulfuric
acid electrolyte, reducing the chance of leakage and extending shelf life.[27] VRLA batteries
immobilize the electrolyte. The two types are:

 Gel batteries (or "gel cell") use a semi-solid electrolyte.


 Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) batteries absorb the electrolyte in a special fiberglass matting.
Other portable rechargeable batteries include several sealed "dry cell" types, that are useful in
applications such as mobile phones and laptop computers. Cells of this type (in order of
increasing power density and cost) include nickel–cadmium (NiCd), nickel–zinc (NiZn), nickel metal
hydride (NiMH), and lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells. Li-ion has by far the highest share of the dry cell
rechargeable market. NiMH has replaced NiCd in most applications due to its higher capacity, but
NiCd remains in use in power tools, two-way radios, and medical equipment.
In the 2000s, developments include batteries with embedded electronics such as USBCELL, which
allows charging an AA battery through a USB connector,[28] nanoball batteries that allow for a
discharge rate about 100x greater than current batteries, and smart battery packs with state-of-
charge monitors and battery protection circuits that prevent damage on over-discharge. Low self-
discharge (LSD) allows secondary cells to be charged prior to shipping.
Cell types
Many types of electrochemical cells have been produced, with varying chemical processes and
designs, including galvanic cells, electrolytic cells, fuel cells, flow cells and voltaic piles.[29]
Wet cell
A wet cell battery has a liquid electrolyte. Other names are flooded cell, since the liquid covers all
internal parts, or vented cell, since gases produced during operation can escape to the air. Wet cells
were a precursor to dry cells and are commonly used as a learning tool for electrochemistry. They
can be built with common laboratory supplies, such as beakers, for demonstrations of how
electrochemical cells work. A particular type of wet cell known as a concentration cell is important in
understanding corrosion. Wet cells may be primary cells (non-rechargeable) or secondary
cells (rechargeable). Originally, all practical primary batteries such as the Daniell cell were built as
open-top glass jar wet cells. Other primary wet cells are the Leclanche cell, Grove cell, Bunsen
cell, Chromic acid cell, Clark cell, and Weston cell. The Leclanche cell chemistry was adapted to the
first dry cells. Wet cells are still used in automobile batteries and in industry for standby power
for switchgear, telecommunication or large uninterruptible power supplies, but in many places
batteries with gel cells have been used instead. These applications commonly use lead–acid
or nickel–cadmium cells.
Dry cell
Further information: Dry cell

Line art drawing of a dry cell:


1. brass cap, 2. plastic seal, 3. expansion space, 4. porous cardboard, 5. zinc can, 6. carbon rod, 7. chemical
mixture
A dry cell uses a paste electrolyte, with only enough moisture to allow current to flow. Unlike a wet
cell, a dry cell can operate in any orientation without spilling, as it contains no free liquid, making it
suitable for portable equipment. By comparison, the first wet cells were typically fragile glass
containers with lead rods hanging from the open top and needed careful handling to avoid spillage.
Lead–acid batteries did not achieve the safety and portability of the dry cell until the development of
the gel battery.
A common dry cell is the zinc–carbon battery, sometimes called the dry Leclanché cell, with a
nominal voltage of 1.5 volts, the same as the alkaline battery (since both use the same zinc–
manganese dioxide combination). A standard dry cell comprises a zinc anode, usually in the form of
a cylindrical pot, with a carbon cathode in the form of a central rod. The electrolyte is ammonium
chloride in the form of a paste next to the zinc anode. The remaining space between the electrolyte
and carbon cathode is taken up by a second paste consisting of ammonium chloride and
manganese dioxide, the latter acting as a depolariser. In some designs, the ammonium chloride is
replaced by zinc chloride.
Molten salt
Molten salt batteries are primary or secondary batteries that use a molten salt as electrolyte. They
operate at high temperatures and must be well insulated to retain heat.
Reserve
A reserve battery can be stored unassembled (unactivated and supplying no power) for a long
period (perhaps years). When the battery is needed, then it is assembled (e.g., by adding
electrolyte); once assembled, the battery is charged and ready to work. For example, a battery for an
electronic artillery fuze might be activated by the impact of firing a gun. The acceleration breaks a
capsule of electrolyte that activates the battery and powers the fuze's circuits. Reserve batteries are
usually designed for a short service life (seconds or minutes) after long storage (years). A water-
activated battery for oceanographic instruments or military applications becomes activated on
immersion in water.

Cell performance
A battery's characteristics may vary over load cycle, over charge cycle, and over lifetime due to
many factors including internal chemistry, current drain, and temperature. At low temperatures, a
battery cannot deliver as much power. As such, in cold climates, some car owners install battery
warmers, which are small electric heating pads that keep the car battery warm.

Capacity and discharge

A device to check battery voltage


A battery's capacity is the amount of electric charge it can deliver at the rated voltage. The more
electrode material contained in the cell the greater its capacity. A small cell has less capacity than a
larger cell with the same chemistry, although they develop the same open-circuit voltage.[30] Capacity
is measured in units such as amp-hour (A·h). The rated capacity of a battery is usually expressed as
the product of 20 hours multiplied by the current that a new battery can consistently supply for 20
hours at 68 °F (20 °C), while remaining above a specified terminal voltage per cell. For example, a
battery rated at 100 A·h can deliver 5 A over a 20-hour period at room temperature. The fraction of
the stored charge that a battery can deliver depends on multiple factors, including battery chemistry,
the rate at which the charge is delivered (current), the required terminal voltage, the storage period,
ambient temperature and other factors.[30]
The higher the discharge rate, the lower the capacity.[31] The relationship between current, discharge
time and capacity for a lead acid battery is approximated (over a typical range of current values)
by Peukert's law:

where

is the capacity when discharged at a rate of 1 amp.

is the current drawn from battery (A).

is the amount of time (in hours) that a battery can sustain.

is a constant around 1.3.


Batteries that are stored for a long period or that are discharged at a small
fraction of the capacity lose capacity due to the presence of generally
irreversible side reactions that consume charge carriers without producing
current. This phenomenon is known as internal self-discharge. Further, when
batteries are recharged, additional side reactions can occur, reducing capacity
for subsequent discharges. After enough recharges, in essence all capacity is
lost and the battery stops producing power.
Internal energy losses and limitations on the rate that ions pass through the
electrolyte cause battery efficiency to vary. Above a minimum threshold,
discharging at a low rate delivers more of the battery's capacity than at a higher
rate. Installing batteries with varying A·h ratings does not affect device
operation (although it may affect the operation interval) rated for a specific
voltage unless load limits are exceeded. High-drain loads such as digital
cameras can reduce total capacity, as happens with alkaline batteries. For
example, a battery rated at 2 A·h for a 10- or 20-hour discharge would not
sustain a current of 1 A for a full two hours as its stated capacity implies.

C rate
See also: Battery charger § C-rates
The C-rate is a measure of the rate at which a battery is being charged or
discharged. It is defined as the current through the battery divided by the
theoretical current draw under which the battery would deliver its nominal rated
capacity in one hour.[32] A 1C discharge rate would deliver the battery's rated
capacity in 1 hour. A 2C discharge rate means it will discharge twice as fast (30
minutes). A 1C discharge rate on a 1.6 Ah battery means a discharge current of
1.6 A. A 2C rate would mean a discharge current of 3.2 A. Standards for
rechargeable batteries generally rate the capacity over a 4-hour, 8 hour or
longer discharge time. Because of internal resistance loss and the chemical
processes inside the cells, a battery rarely delivers nameplate rated capacity in
only one hour. Types intended for special purposes, such as in a
computer uninterruptible power supply, may be rated by manufacturers for
discharge periods much less than one hour.
The C-rate presents a dimensional error: C is in ampere-hours and not
amperes, and one can not express a current in ampere-hours. For this reason
the concept It was introduced by the international standard IEC61434[33], It being
equal to the capacity C divided by one hour, hence allowing a mathematically
correct method of current designation. The figures used for expressing the
discharge rate remain the same: one can speak of "2 It rate" instead of the
dimensionally incorrect "2 C rate".

Fast-charging, large and light batteries


As of 2012, lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO
4) battery technology was the fastest-charging/discharging, fully discharging in

10–20 seconds.[34]
As of 2017, the world's largest battery was built in South Australia by Tesla. It
can store 129 MWh.[35] A battery in Hebei Province, China which can store 36
MWh of electricity was built in 2013 at a cost of $500 million.[36] Another large
battery, composed of Ni–Cd cells, was in Fairbanks, Alaska. It covered 2,000
square metres (22,000 sq ft)—bigger than a football pitch—and weighed 1,300
tonnes. It was manufactured by ABB to provide backup power in the event of a
blackout. The battery can provide 40 MW of power for up to seven
minutes.[37] Sodium–sulfur batteries have been used to store wind power.[38] A
4.4 MWh battery system that can deliver 11 MW for 25 minutes stabilizes the
output of the Auwahi wind farm in Hawaii.[39]
Lithium–sulfur batteries were used on the longest and highest solar-powered
flight.[40]

Lifetime
Battery life (and its synonym battery lifetime) has two meanings for
rechargeable batteries but only one for non-chargeables. For rechargeables, it
can mean either the length of time a device can run on a fully charged battery or
the number of charge/discharge cycles possible before the cells fail to operate
satisfactorily. For a non-rechargeable these two lives are equal since the cells
last for only one cycle by definition. (The term shelf life is used to describe how
long a battery will retain its performance between manufacture and use.)
Available capacity of all batteries drops with decreasing temperature. In contrast
to most of today's batteries, the Zamboni pile, invented in 1812, offers a very
long service life without refurbishment or recharge, although it supplies current
only in the nanoamp range. The Oxford Electric Bell has been ringing almost
continuously since 1840 on its original pair of batteries, thought to be Zamboni
piles.

Self-discharge
Disposable batteries typically lose 8 to 20 percent of their original charge per
year when stored at room temperature (20–30 °C).[41] This is known as the "self-
discharge" rate, and is due to non-current-producing "side" chemical reactions
that occur within the cell even when no load is applied. The rate of side
reactions is reduced for batteries stored at lower temperatures, although some
can be damaged by freezing.
Old rechargeable batteries self-discharge more rapidly than disposable alkaline
batteries, especially nickel-based batteries; a freshly charged nickel cadmium
(NiCd) battery loses 10% of its charge in the first 24 hours, and thereafter
discharges at a rate of about 10% a month. However, newer low self-discharge
nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries and modern lithium designs display a
lower self-discharge rate (but still higher than for primary batteries).
Corrosion
Internal parts may corrode and fail, or the active materials may be slowly
converted to inactive forms.

Physical component changes


The active material on the battery plates changes chemical composition on
each charge and discharge cycle; active material may be lost due to physical
changes of volume, further limiting the number of times the battery can be
recharged. Most nickel-based batteries are partially discharged when
purchased, and must be charged before first use.[42] Newer NiMH batteries are
ready to be used when purchased, and have only 15% discharge in a year.[43]
Some deterioration occurs on each charge–discharge cycle. Degradation
usually occurs because electrolyte migrates away from the electrodes or
because active material detaches from the electrodes. Low-capacity NiMH
batteries (1,700–2,000 mA·h) can be charged some 1,000 times, whereas high-
capacity NiMH batteries (above 2,500 mA·h) last about 500 cycles.[44] NiCd
batteries tend to be rated for 1,000 cycles before their internal resistance
permanently increases beyond usable values.

Charge/discharge speed
Fast charging increases component changes, shortening battery lifespan.[44]

Overcharging
If a charger cannot detect when the battery is fully charged then overcharging is
likely, damaging it.[45]

Memory effect
See also: Nickel–cadmium battery § Memory effect
NiCd cells, if used in a particular repetitive manner, may show a decrease in
capacity called "memory effect".[46] The effect can be avoided with simple
practices. NiMH cells, although similar in chemistry, suffer less from memory
effect.[47]

You might also like