COFFEE/Instant 1493

Further Reading 1983, in legislative force in all member countries has

a somewhat longer definition, ‘coffee extracts are the
Clarke RJ and Macrae R (eds.) (1987) Coffee: Technology,
products in any concentration obtained by extraction
vol. 2. Barking, UK: Elsevier.
Clarke RJ and Vitzthum OG (2001) Coffee: Recent from roasted coffee using water only as the medium
Developments. Oxford: Blackwell Science. of extraction and excluding any process of hydrolysis
Grosch W (2001) Volatile compounds. In: Clarke RJ and involving the addition of an acid or base and,
Vitzthum OG (eds) Coffee: Recent Developments. pp.
1. containing the soluble and aromatic constituents 0003
68–89 Oxford: Blackwell Science.
of coffee
Illy A and Viani R (1995) Espresso Coffee – The Chemistry
of Quality. London: Academic Press. 2. which may contain insoluble oils derived from 0004

Silwar R, Kampschroer H and Tressl R (1986) Gaschroma- coffee, traces of insoluble substances derived from
tische-massenspektrometrische Untersuchungen des coffee, and insoluble substances not derived
Röstkaffeearomas. Chemische Mikrobiologie Technolo- from coffee or from the water used for extraction.’
gie Lebensmittel 10: 176.
Instant coffee is then the dried product of such an 0005
Vitzthum OG (1999) Thirty years of coffee flavour re-
search. In: Taranishi R, Wick EL and Hornstein I (eds) extraction, and can only be labelled as such (or with
Flavour Chemistry – Thirty Years of Progress, pp. 117– synonyms, or foreign language equivalents) when the
133. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum. product so conforms. Products may of course contain
other soluble beverage constituents, but then need
to be appropriately labelled and all ingredients de-
clared. Some soluble mineral constituents (e.g., 0–
1000 p.p.m. of sodium or calcium ions, etc.) may be
Instant present from the water used in the extraction.
R J Clarke, Donnington, Chichester, West Sussex, UK Historically, most instant or soluble coffees first 0006

contained added carbohydrates (about 50% w/w)

Copyright 2003, Elsevier Science Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
such as corn syrup solids, since it was found that a
simple aqueous extract of roasted coffee, extracted
under atmospheric conditions (100  C temperature),
Introduction
could not be dried (usually spray dried) to a satisfac-
0001 Instant coffee is the dried soluble portion of roasted tory free-flowing low hygroscopic powder. It was
coffee, which can be presented to the consumer in only from about 1950 that instant coffee at 100%
either powder or granule form for immediate make- pure coffee solids became commercially available on
up in hot water, whilst the insoluble parts, or spent a large scale. This step forward resulted from the
coffee grounds, are left behind at the factory, for the discovery that the desirable carbohydrate (polysac-
manufacturer to dispose of. Instant coffee is the name charide) substances could be obtained from the roast
by which this product is now generally known, though coffee itself, by a further aqueous extraction at tem-
there are two synonyms, soluble coffee and dried peratures up to 175  C and addition to the simple
coffee extract, to express in different ways what the extract before drying, and thus providing a powder
product is. of satisfactory physical properties. (See Carbohy-
drates: Classification and Properties.)
Instant coffees therefore have a higher yield of 0007
Definitions and Composition
soluble substances from the roast coffee than that of
0002 Most countries have made a point of insisting that a normal household brew prepared at 100  C or
instant coffee be made from roasted coffee using below. The additional substances, though extracted
water only (which includes steam), though allowance or solubilized at temperatures above 100  C, are fully
is needed for the commercial reality of added aroma soluble in hot or even cold water. It is often asked
oils prepared by mechanical pressing of roasted coffee what is the difference in composition between cups of
or by other nonorganic solvent methods. This view is brewed and of instant coffees, when in fact there is a
expressed in a standard of the International Standards continuum, since they contain essentially the same
Organization, ISO 3509–1989 (originated in 1970), substances, though the proportions or percentages
which carries a simple definition, ‘the dried water- of individual components will be different according
soluble product, obtained exclusively from roasted to solubilization achieved for each. Commercial
coffee by physical methods using water as the only yields can differ considerably from one instant prod-
carrying agent which is not derived from coffee.’ The uct to another and, for a short time, were subject to
European Economic Community (EEC) Directive for legislative control in the European Community, but
coffee and chicory extracts, 1977 and as amended this was abandoned in 1983. It is now recognized that
 1494 COFFEE/Instant

yield is only tenuously related to ‘quality’; the extrac- substances present in an instant coffee, which are so
tion and retention of aromatic substances in the total important to the flavor of a coffee beverage, will
manufacturing process is much more important in depend upon the particular process used in its manu-
determining flavor quality. The yield (on a dry basis) facture, as described below. The moisture content of
of soluble solids from roasted coffee will be around instant coffee is controlled by the drying stage, which
21% w/w in brewed coffee, up to 32% in exhaustive should be less than 5% w/w. (See Caffeine.)
extraction at 100  C, and typically 40–55% for
instant coffees, dependent upon blend/roast color of
Physical Forms of Instant Coffee
the originating roasted coffee. A highly water-soluble
substance such as caffeine will be extracted to about In its earlier marketing, instant coffee was almost 0008

85–100% under household brewing conditions, and entirely sold as a spray-dried powder, light-to-dark
to 100% in instant coffee manufacture, but the actual brown in color, free-flowing, and, importantly, with a
percentage content in the soluble solids of the former bulk free-flow density of between 180 and 220 g l1.
will be substantially lower in the latter. In a cup of The latter two properties enable easy spooning out
coffee, the quantity present will be determined by its from a container, such that a typical semiheaped tea-
strength, typically from 2 g of instant coffee dissolved spoon would carry about 2 g of instant coffee to a
in 150–170 ml of water in a cup. Table 1 shows a 150–170-ml cup, giving a strength typically represen-
comparison of approximate composition by the main tative of average UK and US consumer taste
individual components for a typical filter coffee brew preference.
and a corresponding instant coffee beverage. The From about 1965 onwards, instant coffee in 0009

manufacture of instant coffee is accompanied by granule form became available, though having the
some slight hydrolysis of the polysaccharides in same free flow and bulk density characteristics, but
the roast coffee, which is reflected in the slightly generally somewhat darker in color than the corres-
increased reducing sugar content (i.e., arabinose, ponding powder. With improved retention of aromat-
mannose, and galactose) and probably assists solubil- ics also, such products were compared with brewed
ization of these polysaccharides, not otherwise easily coffee far more favorably by most consumers than
possible at 100  C. The quantity of volatile organic before.

tbl0001 Table 1 Approximate typical composition of brewed and instant coffeesa

Filter brewb Instantc

d
Roast coffee R and G basis Extract basis Per cup R and G basis Extract basis Per cup
Component (%, dry basis) (%, dry basis) (%, dry basis) (mg) (%, dry basis) (%, dry basis) (mg)e

Caffeine 1.3 1.1f 5.3 110 1.3 2.9 58

Trigonelline (including roasted byproducts) 1.0 0.9 4.3 90 1.0 2.2 44
Minerals (as oxide ash) 4.5 4.0g 19.0 400 4.2 9.3 186
Acids
Residual
Chlorogenic 2.5 2.5 12.0 250 2.5 5.5 110
Quinic 0.8 0.8 3.8 80 0.8 1.8 36
Aliphatic 1.6 1.6 7.6 160 1.6 3.5 70
Reducing sugars 0.3 0.3 1.4 30 2.2 4.9 98
Polysaccharides (unchanged from green) 31.0 3.2 15.1 320 12.9 28.7 574
Lignin/pectins 5.0
‘Proteins’ 10.0 2.0 9.5 200 5.5 12.2 244
Lipids 17.0 0.01 0.04 1 0.02 0.04 1
Caramelized/condensed compounds 25.0 4.6 22.0 460 13.0 28.9 578
(by difference)
Totals 100 21.0 100.0 2100 45.0 100.0 2000
Volatile compounds (excluding acids) 0.08 0.04–0.07 4–7 Variable according to process
a
Assumed both made from a medium roast arabica coffee.
b
Brew prepared using 10 g of roasted and ground coffee per cup (150–170 ml) at 21% yield of soluble solids from roasted coffee.
c
Extract manufactured at a 45% yield of soluble solids from roasted coffee, both on a dry basis; and instant coffee without added coffee oil.
d
R and G, roasted and ground.
e
Beverage made up using 2 g of instant coffee per cup (150–170 ml).
f
Assumed extraction efficiency of 85%.
g
Assumed extraction efficiency of 90%.
 COFFEE/Instant 1495

0010 Whilst freeze drying can produce powders from commercialized in a very limited way; spoonable
liquid feeds, its use for instant coffee was specially frozen instant coffee has been developed but requires
developed to provide a granular product. In a subse- the presence of gel-like additives.
quent attempt to match the general appearance of
freeze-dried granules, spray-dried powders were
Manufacturing Processes
granulated by agglomeration methods (either simul-
taneously with spray drying, or subsequent to it), and The initial stages in manufacture, selection of green 0012

now form a high percentage of instant coffees sold in coffees, roasting, and grinding (coarse grind) are as
the market place. (See Freeze-drying: Structural and for roasted coffee. The subsequent basic processes
Flavor (Flavour) Changes.) needed are extraction, drying, and packing, but
0011 Dilute or concentrated aqueous extracts of roasted with ancillary optional processes of concentration
coffee would also be ‘instant,’ but their stability at of extract, separate handling of aromatics and
room temperature is poor. Nevertheless, recent agglomeration. The know-how and patents are
reports show canned coffee liquid to be very popular largely in the hands of large international com-
in Japan. Frozen granules or chunks (20  C) would panies. A typical scheme (simplified) is shown in
be quite stable, though they have only been Figure 1.

Green beans
Dumper Cleaner

Distributor

Rotary Storage
screen bins
Stoner
Scale

Cooler
Grinder
Roaster

Stone Storage
collector bin
Dryer

Extractors
Blending
Filling tank
Cooler

To labeling
and packing Silos
Press cake Press
for reclamation
Slurry at
Press liquor at 2−7% w/w 86−58%
S − D − C solids w/w moisture

Solids at 30/35% w/w Centrate to

sewage works

fig0001 Figure 1 Instant coffee manufacturing process with spent grounds recovery (omitting volatile compound handling). Reproduced
from Clarke RJ and Macrae R (1987), with permission from Kluwer Academic.
 1496 COFFEE/Instant

Extraction Time zero Feed to fresh on 6

0013 Percolation batteries with five to eight interconnected

columns holding roast coffee in different stages of 1 2 3 4 5 6
exhaustion is the most widely used system for extrac-
tion to obtain coffee extracts of an economic soluble
Coffee in Feed water in Fill column 1
solids concentration (20–25% w/w) for subsequent
drying. Its operation and variants are fully described
in the literature, though it should be emphasized that
the operation is intermittent (for draw-off of extract),
countercurrent (in respect of water–coffee), and under
pressure for all columns except the first (to keep the
system hydraulic at temperatures in excess of 100  C Vent at column 6
up to 175  C). The first column contains fresh roasted
coffee extracted with liquor at 100  C from which
draw-offs are made, whilst the most spent is contacted
with pure feed water at the highest temperature. The
Start draw on 6
operation is outlined in Figure 2. Recent patents sug-
gest the use of ever higher temperatures for very short
times in the final stages of extraction.

Concentration of Extract
Isolate column 2
0014 The removal of water from a percolated coffee ex-
tract is more economically achieved if concentrated
extract is fed to the driers. Evaporation is widely used
and again, for reasons of heat economy, conducted in
various types of multistage units. Short-contact-time Feed water in
Blow down column 2
evaporators are favored, such as plate and centrifugal
film evaporators, coupled with close attention to op-
erating temperatures to minimize undesirable changes
in the extract. However, evaporation of water is
always accompanied by evaporation and loss of Finish draw on 6
organic volatile substances contributing to flavor.
Certain prestripping techniques are available to over-
come this problem.
0015 Freeze concentration can be used alternatively,
which has the marked advantage of substantially
Time one cycle
retaining the volatile substances whilst the water is Feed to fresh on 1
removed as ice, but has the disadvantage of only
allowing a final concentration of about 38% w/w
soluble coffee solids, due to high viscosity problems.

Spray Drying
0016 Extracts from a percolation battery as described
Figure 2 Typical sequence of events in the operation of a fig0002
above can be directly spray dried, though an inter- percolation battery for instant coffee. The shape, size, and
mediate filtration stage (centrifuges) may be included. number of columns are diagrammatic. Reproduced from Clarke
To provide dried particles of an average size around RJ and Macrae R (1987), with permission from Kluwer Academic.
300 mm, needed for a satisfactory bulk density and
flowability, specialized spray driers are used. The
main features are: 3. internal chamber separation arrangements between 0019

desired product and dust, though not essential.

0017 1. tall drying chambers, e.g., of height 7.5 m or more;
0018 2. use of centrifugal pressure nozzles rather than Spray drying is conducted also to give powder of
spinning disks for feed spraying, with their desired colour, and a final moisture content of less
inherent narrow angle of discharge; than 5% w/w.
 COFFEE/Instant 1497

0020 More concentrated extracts, say up to 60% w/w aromatics from other stages of the manufacturing
soluble solids, may also be spray dried, though some process. The coffee oil and its aromatics are very
controlled foaming of extract with carbon dioxide or susceptible to oxidation, hence the need for gas-
nitrogen gas is then generally required, if the desired packed product, as already described. Its application
physical properties are to be maintained. (See Drying: (so-called ‘aromatization’) will play only a small role
Spray Drying.) in the flavor of the made-up beverage product, so that
other methods are needed, of which there are many
Freeze Drying available, mostly patented. (See Oxidation of Food
0021 Freeze drying has been particularly successful for Components.)
coffee extracts, when its use for other foodstuff Battery extraction, designed primarily for the ex- 0024

liquids/solids has markedly declined in the last traction of soluble solids, can be fairly successful also
decades. However, a specialized technique has been for the extraction of volatile compounds, so that,
developed, first patented around 1965, whereby the when followed by freeze concentration and freeze
coffee extract is first frozen, and then the slabs are drying, a flavorful product is formed. However, vola-
granulated, whilst still frozen, to particles approxi- tile compounds can be prestripped by steam from the
mately the same size as desired in the finished dried roasted coffee before aqueous extraction, in the form
product. Oversize/undersize particles are recycled. of an aqueous condensate to be reincorporated later.
There are a number of designs of freeze drier avail- Similarly, a percolated extract can be stripped of the
able, which will generally handle the frozen granules important volatile compounds by partial evaporation
in trays resting on heated shelves in a batchwise (say 10–20% of the water), again to give an aqueous
manner. The amount of time of freeze drying required essence condensate. The stripped extract can then be
is up to 7 h under a very high vacuum (approx 0.4 further evaporated as required, with the condensate
torr), and a carefully controlled supply of heat to the discarded.
drying granules, by conduction and/or radiation. The final solution after evaporation containing a 0025

0022 Whilst satisfactory product can be obtained by high concentration of solubles, can then be slightly
freeze-drying extracts direct from a percolation diluted back with either or both of the aqueous
battery, it is more usual for economic and other essence condensates, and used as feed for either
reasons for concentrated extracts up to 40% w/w by spray or freeze drying. The retention of volatile sub-
freeze concentration (q.v.) or by evaporation (40% stances in spray drying is known to be very markedly
w/w or higher) to be freeze dried. If a favorable bulk improved when feed extracts of high soluble solids
density of 180–220 g l1 is required, it is additionally concentration are spray dried. This will be true also of
necessary to foam the extract in the slush-frozen freeze drying, though, additionally, it has been found
form, before full freezing and freeze drying. (See that parameters of the freezing itself are also very
Freeze-drying: The Basic Process.) important (e.g., slow freezing to large ice crystals
favors subsequent volatile retention).
Separate Volatile Compound Handling
Agglomeration
0023 In recent decades, instant coffee manufacture has
become increasingly sophisticated, through greater Agglomeration was a process first used for dusty skim 0026

attention to methods of maximizing extraction and milk powders to increase average particle size and,
retention of volatile compounds responsible for more importantly, for ease of rapid dissolution in
flavor/aroma, which earlier procedures of simple water, so-called ‘instantization.’ Whilst the latter is
extraction and spray drying could not accomplish. not required for a satisfactory instant coffee powder,
The first method concerns headspace aroma of the a similar agglomeration process, using steam/water to
finished powder, due to the presence of very highly rewet the surface of particles followed by drying, is
volatile substances that cannot be retained by any used to manufacture instant coffee granules that are
method of spray or freeze drying. A convenient not in fact freeze-dried. Precise details of processes
vehicle was found to be coffee oil, which can be differ, as the numerous patents will indicate. The
sprayed or plated (at a level of about 0.5% or less) diminution of volatile compound content from spray
on to the powder/granules as already described, and drying to granule formation will only be small.
will give an aroma similar to that of dry roasted and
Packing
ground coffee when sniffed. The coffee oil can be that
obtained by mechanical expression of part of the Instant coffee was originally packed into tins but, 0027

roast coffee blend to be percolated, or a spent grounds since 1960, has now been almost entirely packed
coffee oil purified and enhanced with suitable into glass jars. Under EEC prescribed weight
 1498 COFFEE/Analysis of Coffee Products

directives, allowable packed weights for retail sale are Clarke RJ and Macrae R (1985–1988) Coffee: Chemistry,
50, 100, and 200 g, and certain multiples, accompan- vol. 1, Technology, vol. 2, Commercial and Technico-
ied by the average weight system to be assessed over a legal Aspects, vol. 6. Barking, UK: Elsevier.
stipulated number of containers. Filling machinery is Clarke RJ and Vitzthum OG (2001) Coffee: Recent Devel-
opments. Oxford: Blackwell Science.
now very high-speed (e.g., 250 per minute for 50 g
Clifford MN and Willson KC (eds) (1985) Coffee: Botany,
jars), operating by volumetric fill, and adjustable by
Biochemistry, Production of Beans and Beverage.
vacuum level according to the bulk density of the London: Chapman & Hall.
product being packed. Two other operations may
also be incorporated, simultaneous spraying of small
amounts of coffee oil into the powder/granules for
headspace aroma purposes and a final provision of a
carbon dioxide/nitrogen atmosphere within the jar to Analysis of Coffee Products
lower the headspace oxygen level to 4% v/v or L C Trugo, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro,
preferably less. Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil

General Comments Copyright 2003, Elsevier Science Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

0028 In recent decades, all these process stages have

been investigated fundamentally through the discip- Introduction
lines of chemical (food) engineering by a number of
people, especially the late Professor Thijssen of Eind- The composition of the coffee seed is complex, as is 0001

hoven Technical University, to provide considerable the case for other natural products. After roasting at
mathematical insight into their mechanisms. unusually high temperatures many chemical reactions
take place, with degradation of the original com-
pounds as well as polymerization of intermediate
Storage and Stability products, which substantially increases its complex-
0029 Instant coffee is relatively hygroscopic, easily picking ity. These reactions are indispensable for the charac-
up moisture from the atmosphere and caking at about teristic coffee beverage. Analysis of the different
7–8% w/w moisture content. For example, to keep coffee products may be relatively simple, involving
instant coffee below 5% (dry basis) moisture content, inexpensive equipment such as that used for proxim-
the relative humidity of the air with which it is in ate analysis, or may demand a great deal of analytical
contact must be below 35–40%, though the precise expertise and sophisticated apparatus, such as chro-
value depends upon the nature of the instant coffee in matography coupled to mass spectrometers, infrared
question, primarily due to differences in porosity of spectrometers, and capillary electrophoresis to assess
the particular particles made. It is necessary, therefore, coffee flavor composition and authenticity.
that jars of instant coffee be well sealed prior to sale.
0030 A simple spray-dried product, provided the dry Proximate Analysis
matter content is kept above 95% w/w (i.e., < 5%
w/w moisture content), will have a shelf-life of several Proximate analysis in food products is the analysis of 0002

years. The modern sophisticated products, containing the major constituents which together comprise
substantial amounts of volatile compounds (espe- nearly 100% of the food composition. This generally
cially plated coffee oils), need to be packed in jars includes water, ash, total protein, and carbohydrates.
also with no more than 4% in-pack oxygen content Proximate analysis is the first approach for food
and preferably less, so that the shelf-life to acceptable product characterization and control and it is not
quality is maintained up to 18 months. dependent on expensive or sophisticated equipment.
It is easily carried out by quality control laboratories,
See also: Caffeine; Carbohydrates: Classification and including coffee-processing plants.
Properties; Drying: Spray Drying; Evaporation: Basic
Principles; Uses in the Food Industry; Freeze-drying: The Water
Basic Process; Structural and Flavor (Flavour) Changes;
The control of the water content of coffee at different 0003
Oxidation of Food Components
stages of processing, from green beans to instant
coffee, is an important action to achieve a desirable
Further Reading final product. In the first stages of processing the ripe
Clarke RJ (1987) Coffee technology. In: Herschdoefer S coffee cherries, containing 60–65% water, must be
(ed.) Quality Control in the Food Industry, 2nd edn, dried to a level of 10–12% which is normally found
vol. 4. London: Academic Press. in the green beans, and to prevent undesirable