Xlll

GLOSSARY
CANE
Net or gross cane. The sugar cane to be processed for extraction of its sucrose
content. Net cane is cane free from adherent impurities. Gross cane is cane
that contains a determined percentage of trash, stone, dirt, etc.
BAGASSE
What is left of the cane after the juice containing the majority of sucrose is
separated. Its components are fiber, pith, water, solids (which also contain
the lost sucrose).
FIBER
All water-insoluble solids in the cane.
JUICE
1. First expressed juice
Juice separated from the cane by the primary extracting mills, normally
crusher+1st mill or 1st mill (if there is no crusher). Also called primary juice.
2. Last mill juice
Juice extracted from the bagasse by the last milling unit. Part of this juice is
lost in the final bagasse (in fact the juice lost in bagasse is that produced by
the last two rollers of the last milling unit).
3. Diluted juice also mixed or raw juice
The juice of all milling units together with the added water, forming the
juice forwarded to the factory for further processing.
4. Normal juice or undiluted juice
Juice pressed out by the mill tandem, if no water is used for imbibition.
5. Absolute juice
All water containing all soluble solids from the cane or cane minus fiber.
6. Clear juice
The juice from the clarifier after decanted separation of the mud.
7. Filter juice
The combined run-off of any kind of filter.
8. Clarified juice y or evaporator juice
Mainly clear juice with any other juice ready to be evaporated.
9- Syrup
The effluent of the evaporator combination, concentrated clarified juice.
WATER
Imbibition water
Water added to the last mill unit (or last two units), to dilute and displace
juice left in the bagasse, to reduce sugar lost in it.
Dilution water
That portion of imbibition water that goes to the diluted juice. Imbibition
water minus water staying in the bagasse.
xiv
Maceration water
This is found in Australia exclusively, where during the milling process,
bagasse passes through a bath carrier (Meinecke system), normally under
higher temperatures. The use of the word ''maceration" is justified in
Australia alone (Spencer/Meade, p. 622).
EXTRACTION
1. Pol extraction
Pol in diluted juice percent pol in cane, or pol in cane minus pol lost in
bagasse.
2. Diluted juice extraction
Weight of diluted juice percent of weight of cane.
3. Normal juice extraction
Weight of normal juice percent weight of cane. Diluted juice extraction
minus dilution % cane.
4. Absolute juice extraction
Weight of absolute juice % weight of cane, or 100 cane minus fiber % cane.
5. Reduced pol extraction
Pol extraction recalculated on a standard fiber content in cane of \2l/i%.
This makes possible comparison of factories having different fiber contents.
FILTERCAKE
The insoluble impurities separated from diluted juice by means of a filter
process.
MASSECUITE
Further concentrated syrup. It is a mixture of crystals and molasses, before
separation in centrifugals.lt is classified with the letters A, B, C, according to
the boiling order. In some countries, it is classified as first, second and third.
MOLASSES
The mother liquor separated from the grain of the massecuite. It is classified,
as are the massecuites, by letter or number, except for the final molasses,
which is also called black-strap molasses. Final effluent in the preparation of
sugar through repeated crystallization.
MAGMA
A slurry prepared from C-sugar (separated from the final molasses) mostly
with syrup. The magma is stored to serve as seed (or footing) for the A and B
massecuites.
FOOTING
A grain mass, such as magma. On its grain, sucrose is deposited during the
boiling process to form commercial sugar.
SEED
Same as footing, but the grain here is grown from finely powdered sugar.
This smaller size grain is mainly used for starting a low-grade massecuite
(mcC).
RAW SUGAR
Sugar as produced by a factory using the defecation process. The raw material
for the refinery.
 XV

REFINED SUGAR
Sugar as produced by a refinery, after dissolving and purification of the
received raw sugar.
PLANTATION WHITE
A rather white sugar as produced by either the sulphitation or the
carbonatation process.
CONDENSATE
Condensed steam or vapor formed in the calandrias of heaters, evaporators or
vacuum pans, after it has given off its latent heat for heating or boiling
purpose. Depending on the pressure (or vacuum) in the calandria, it is
divided into two categories:
(a) non-contaminated (when pressure in calandria)
(b) contaminated (when vacuum in calandria).
In juice heaters, the juice pressure is higher than the steam pressure. Its
condensate therefore is considered to be contaminated.
CONTAMINATED CONDENSATE
Condensate which can be expected to contain sugar traces. Generally used as
hot water in the different process stages requiring its use.
NON-CONTAMINATED CONDENSATE
This can be expected to be free from sugar contamination. Generally used as
boiler feed water.
STEAM
(a.) Live steam (saturated or superheated).
(b.) Exhaust steam.
LIVE STEAM
Steam as produced by the boilers, at a pressure for which the boilers are
designed. The higher the pressure, the more efficient the consumption of
live steam. Generally used as motive force in driving equipment (turbines,
reciprocating engines, etc.) and to generate electricity.
EXHAUST STEAM
Steam that has been used in prime movers and therefore has lost a large part
of its pressure, which was converted into power (or electricity). Generally
used for heating and boiling purposes in juice heaters, evaporators and
vacuum pans.
VAPORS
Formed by using exhaust steam in a calandria to boil or evaporate liquid.
Generally used for further boiling or heating. Classified with a number,
according to the place the vessel occupies in the multiple-effect evaporator.
For example: vapor II.
MILK OF LIME
A slurry prepared from water with slaked quick-lime, or with hydrated lime.
Used as a clarification agent. Chemical composition: Ca(OH)2 (calcium
hydroxide). Generally it is used at a concentration of 5 ° to 15 ° Be'. The name
is usually abbreviated to m.o.l.
LIMED JUICE
The diluted juice after addition of m.o.l.
XVI

LABORATORY AND CHEMICAL EXPRESSIONS

BRIX
Percentage by weight of solids in pure sugar solutions, as determined by a
brix hydrometer, therefore called apparent solids. Juices are not pure sugar
solutions and the brix is not "true solids".
REFRACTOMETRIC SOLIDS
Percentage by weight of solids as determined by a refractometer. The
difference between this and the hydrometer brix is that it increases as the
impurity content increases.
DRY SUBSTANCE SOLIDS
What remains after drying a sample, as a percentage of original sample
weight. Also called total solids.
POL (ARIZATION)
Reading on the scale of the polarimeter, indicating the apparent sucrose
content of the sample to be analyzed. If the sample is a pure sugar solution,
the pol equals the sucrose percentage. Pol is the direct polarization of a
normal weight solution: 100 pol = 26 grams of sucrose in distilled water at
20 °C and made up to 100 ml.
SUCROSE
This is the true pol, taking into account the influence caused by the presence
of invert on the polarization reading.
CLERGET
The method of double polarization to determine the invert influence on the
polarization. It indicates the true pol or sucrose content.
PURITY
Purity is the pol divided by the brix X 100. It indicates what percentage of
the solids is composed of sugar.
APPARENT PURITY
When pol and brix are used, the result is called apparent purity.
REFRACTOMETRIC PURITY
This is the purity using the pol and the refractometric brix.
TRUE PURITY
The dry substance solids and the Clerget (sucrose) are used as components.
INVERT
The reducing sugars, also wrongly called "glucose", which is only one of the
components of the group of reducing sugars. Some components polarize
positive, others negative. Generally the negatives win, hence the wrong
name (glucose is negative).
NON SUGARS
That part of the solids (brix) not composed of sugar (brix — pol).
 XVII

ASH
There are two forms:
(a.) carbonate ash
(b.) sulphate ash.
Normally expressed as sulphate ash. The analysis of sulphate ash is more
dependable and simpler. Ash is all that remains after burning the sample in
the presence of sulphuric acid, the inorganic impurities.
(c.) Conductometric ash determination can be reported as sulphate ash,
applying a constant factor.
R.S./ASH RATIO
This is the quotient of reducing sugar to ash. It is used for judging refining
quality of raw sugar and also in calculating the exhaustibility of final
molasses.
BOILING HOUSE RECOVERY
Also known as B.H.R. or ΚΕΤΕΝΉΟΝ. Pol in sugar % pol in mixed juice.
OVERALL RECOVERY
Also Recovery = retention X pol extraction. It therefore includes losses in
the mill (or diffuser). Hence its name "overall".
BOILING HOUSE EFFICIENCY
B.H.E. This is the percentage of retention actually retained. The theoretical
retention is calculated by either of the known formulas. The formulas are:
Winter and Carp, S.J.M. (Noell Deerr), also existing tables.
YIELD
Commercial sugar produced % cane.
YIELD 96°
This is the yield converted in sugar of 96° pol. Standard sugar 96° = 97
purity and 1% moisture. Uses the Cobb table (Spencer #36).
YIELD ESG.
This is yield converted into "equivalent standard granulated" (this is a
theoretical sugar of 100% sucrose and 100 purity). Yields can also be
expressed as lb/t or cane. If short tons are used, it is 20 X yield.
RAW VALUE
This is used in the U.S.A. to calculate tax (for U.S. quota), as required by
U.S. Treasury Department. Defined by law: "Raw value means a standard
unit of sugar, testing 96 sugar degrees by the polariscope. All taxes shall be
imposed and all quotas shall be established in terms of raw values and for the
purposes of quota and tax measurements, all sugar shall be translated into
terms of raw value.''
EQUIVALENT 96 (RAW VALUE)
= [(Pol - 92) 1.75] + 93 X Tons sugar produced.
100
xviii

SAFETY FACTOR
Relation between moisture and non-sugar content of raw sugar, as an
indication of keeping quality of sugar in storage. It indicates whether a
micro-organism is enabled to start deterioration, because of favorable
moisture/food conditions. Moisture divided by 100 — pol must be 0.250 or
less, as an acceptable safety factor.

CHEMICALS
BLUE
Optical Brighteners, Ultramarin or Indanthren. Applied in the centrifugals
as a complementary coloring to neutralize the yellowish hue plantation white
sugar might have.
Indanthren is used as 50 g/t of sugar, of which only 0.01% adheres to the
crystals (5 mg/t of sugar).
CARAMEL
Thermal decomposition of sugar, of dark brown color. Used as food color if
pH is restored to neutral.
CAUSTIC SODA
NaOH. Used to descale evaporator heating surfaces (also in juice heaters,
vacuum pans). Generally, by boiling a solution of about 4% by weight
during a predetermined time.
MURIATIC ACID
HC1. Technical quality 38%. Sp.gr = 1.19. Used to descale heating
surfaces, as above. Generally applied by boiling a solution of up to about 2%
by weight.
SULFAMIC ACID
NH2HSO3. Sp.gr. = 2.1. Replacement of muriatic acid, because of ease of
handling. Dry white crystalline powder. Is also less corrosive, non-
hygroscopic.
SODA ASH
Na2C03- As an additive to caustic soda. Helps to descale silicates, mainly
present in last evaporator vessel as scale.
INHIBITOR
Commercial additive to muriatic acid, to retard acid reaction on iron of
equipment. Forms protective coating on bare metal, not on scale.
 XIX

EQUIPMENT, MACHINERY
CANE YARD
Site is usually in the open air, where cane can be stored to cover the
consumption during the night, until cane transport resumes the next
morning.
FEEDING TABLE
This is an inclined feeder of cane to the carrier, having a leveler and
transporting chains.
CANE CARRIER
This is used to transport cane to the milling tandem, and consists of chains
and slats. Its width is normally equal to the mill size. Consists of two
components: the auxiliary and the main carrier.
MILL
A cane-crushing unit, normally consisting of three rollers in a heavy steel
housing. Cane first passes between the top and front rollers, then between
the top and back rollers, to extract the juice.
CRUSHERS
A cane crushing unit, preceding the first mill to crush the cane prior to
extraction of juice, for the purpose of improving the quantity of juice
extracted. Normally consists of two rollers.
SHREDDER
This has the same purpose as the crusher, but a different principle. Consists
of a drum, with a concentric shaft, on which hammers are mounted on arms.
MILL TANDEM
A complete mill complex, consisting of crusher (or shredder) and all mills,
together with drives and reducing gears.
CANE KNIVES
These are mounted on cane carriers prior to entrance to mills, for preventing
entire cane stalks from entering the mills, straightening and precutting the
cane, for the purpose of improving juice extraction and saving driving power
at the same time. Also of benefit to grinding capacity.
INTERMEDIATE CARRIERS
These transport the milled cane (bagasse) from one mill to the next.
BAGASSE CARRIER
This carries the bagasse from the last mill to the boilers, and its excess to
storage.
CUSH-CUSH
This is a juice screener, to separate bagacillo from the juice of the mills. Juice
passes through screens into tanks, while chains provided with brushes pass
over the screens to carry off the retained bagacillo, and return it to the first
intermediate carrier.
XX

BOILER
Steam-generating unit, fired with bagasse and auxiliary fuel oil burners
(sometimes fire wood is used).
POWER PLANT
This produces electricity by means of non-condensing steam turbines, which
drive generators. For the off-season diesel-driven generators are mainly used,
to produce a limited quantity of electricity.
JUICE HEATER
A heat exchanger in which juice is heated by using steam as a medium.
Normally a multi-pass system. Juice flows through tubes, while steam passes
along the outside of the tubes, in the cylindrical body. They can be used
horizontally as well as vertically.
CLARIFIER
A large vertical cylindrical tank, where juice is given time for decantation, to
separate the clear juice from the turbid, which still contains the mud. Juice
flow is continuous.
FILTER
A device to separate the mud from the turbid juice; normally of the rotary-
vacuum type. Can also be any kind of pressure filter, provided with filter-
cloth, to let the juice pass and retain the mud on its surface.
EVAPORATOR
A series of vessels, in which excess water from the juice is evaporated to form
a more concentrated liquid, now called syrup. The vessels work in series
under increasing vacuum conditions, to reduce the boiling temperature
gradually as the concentration increases step-wise. This prevents overheating
of juice and loss of sucrose. The vessels together form a triple-, quadruple- or
quintuple-effect evaporator.
VACUUM PAN
Similar to an evaporator vessel, a continuation of the evaporating process,
but carried so far that crystallization occurs. Also boils under vacuum for
reduced boiling temperature. The syrup is now transformed into massecuite
(fillmass-strike-skipping), which is a mixture of grain (crystals) and mother
liquor (molasses).
CRYSTALLIZER
A strike receiver in which the charge from the vacuum pan is stored before
going to the centrifugals. Its purpose is cooling, to increase grain size and
reduce sucrose left in molasses.
CENTRIFUGAL
A machine with a fast spinning drum and a screen, inside, through which the
molasses can pass while the crystals are retained. Separation is based on the
difference in specific gravity, amplified by centrifugal force.
 XXI

DRYER
A long drum-like rotating cylinder, where sugar is brought in contact with
heated air, to reduce its moisture content.
COOLER
Same as a dryer, but air is dry and cooled to reduce temperature of sugar,
heated by the dryer. This is to prevent caking during storage. The
combination of dryer and cooler into one body is often called a Granulator.
ABBREVIATIONS
DIMENSIONS
btu ,. British thermal unit
cal calorie
cu ft cubic feet
cu ft/ day cubic feet per day
cu ft/m cubic feet per minute
cu ft/1 cubic feet per ton
fps feet per second
gal gallons
gpm gallons per minute
g gram
ha hectare
Hg vacuum
hi hectoliter (100 1)
hp horsepower
kcal kilocalories
kg kilogram
kg cm 2 kilogram per square centimeter
atm kilogram per square centimeter
bar kilogram per square centimeter
lb pound
lb/gal pound per gallon
lb/h .pound per hour
lb/h/sq ft pound per hour square foot
1 liter
m .. meter
m2 square meter
m3 cubic meter
ml milliliter
cc cubic centimeter (same as ml)
mg milligram
ppm parts per million
psi pounds per square inch
psia pounds per square feet absolute
psig pounds per square feet gauge
XX11

qq quintal
rpm revolutions per minute
st short ton
sq ft square foot
ted tons cane per day
tch tons cane per hour
td tons per day
th tons per hour

LABORATORY
app.pur apparent purity
Be' Baume'
B.H.E Boiling House Efficiency
bpr Boiling Point Rise
bx Brix
cp centipoise
clerg clerget
com commercial
cryst crystal
°C degree Celsius (Centigrade)
°F degree Fahrenheit
°S degree Sucrose
°V degree Ventzke
fm final molasses
H.S Heating Surface
mc massecuite
M&E made and estimated
m.o.l milk of lime
p poise
pol polarization
pur purity
rs(is) Reducing Sugar (Invert. Sugar)
sol solids
sp.gr specific gravity
temp temperature
tot.sug total sugars
vol volume

N.B.S National Bureau of Standards

SyA Sugar y Azucar
I.SJ International Sugar Journal
ICUMSA International Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar Analysis
H.E.I Heat Exchange Institute
CHAPTER 1

STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF CANE

Cane, being a plant, is subject to deterioration after it has been cut for
transportation to the factory for processing. Deterioration .starts immediately after
cutting, and therefore storage time should always be kept to a minimum.
Deterioration is accelerated by high temperature, light, loss of moisture and
inversion, all of which factors are greater under tropical conditions. Losses in quality
caused by delay in grinding are far higher, than any mechanical or chemical losses
occurring later in the process. For instance, four days' delay can cause a weight loss of
11% through evaporation (Rosenfield1). Tysdall2 considers that a delay of 14 days
generally causes a 48% loss of sugar in fresh cane. The first delay is in the field, where
the cane grower cuts his cane and stockpiles it for collection and loading onto carts
(truck, railroad, oxen, etc.). Close cooperation between loading crews and cutters is
very important, as it is between factory management and cane grower.
Undoubtedly, hand-cut cane is better suited for factory processing than
mechanically harvested cane. Firstly, it is cleaner, precluding the need for washing.
Secondly, purities are higher, because in general cane is cut lower to the ground by
hand than by machine. The highest sugar content is known to be in the lower part of
the cane stalk, the poorest part being the top.
Nevertheless, mechanical harvesting is here to stay, because it is faster. In fact,
there are very few countries left where cane is still manually harvested and loaded. In
many countries the personnel required for hand cutting is simply not available. Even
in most labor-intensive countries, cane cutters are difficult to find, probably because
of the low standard and image of the job. Where cane is machine-handled, washing
is indispensable. Often, this is combined with stone removal, where the loading of
cane is mechanical (push-raking, etc.). The main problem with machine handling of
cane is usually damage to the field, jeopardizing future cane crop (ratoon). This
occurs particularly when harvesting is done during the rainy season: then damage to
next year's cane can be appreciable.
In Java, a country with very good efficiency programs, short afternoon meetings
held between management, factory and cane transportation personnel determined
the amount of cane to be cut the next day and kept storage to a minimum: this
reduced time between cutting and grinding. Any measures taken to control storage
are welcome because losses can run into high figures.
Another controlled factor, as important as storage, is the moment at which cane is
cut with respect to its maturity, duration of optimum maturity and history of the
cane in that particular environment.
Maturity progress was checked every two weeks by analysis of sucrose and invert,
and at maximum sucrose together with minimum invert orders were given for the
field to be cut. It was then necessary to know the duration of optimum maturity.
Some canes have a high plateau of three weeks, other varieties only 4-5 days. All this
information has to be taken into account when establishing a cane-cutting program.
2

purity

brix —|
pol
*V~—- —

available supjar

*^ -^
^.^
^ --.-\J
/ 2 days 3
(a) Cane left 5 days in the shade

«purity brix
.
-A — —' ■ —
L -"
X*"*", pol

"""""-^,

j L availat)
's
'^ \
"·\.
—^-
davs
·-._
I 2 3 4 5
(b) Cane left 1 day in the open and 4 days in the shade

pur Lty ~ " " " ^ ^ ^ _

^-^^_
-——
. "."— —
pol
available
"
■SU^Al

CD Φ ΦTil,
24 hours in the shade
hours in the open

nant» ground Immediately

(c) Losses caused by delay of grinding compared to fresh cane.

Fig. 1 Deterioration of cane between cutting and processing.

 3

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 H ~15 ?6 17 T3
weightx sucrose/100 = grams sucrose

= April 25
— = May 23
May 23
oooooooooo _ J-Qly 6

= July

- | — , — 7 — , — f — , — j , — j — . — T — . — j — , — , — , — , , — . — j · r-
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
grams weight

Fig. 2. Weight per joint of cane and grams sucrose per joint, at maturity on July 6. (From H.C. Prinsen
Geerligs, Cane Sugar and its Manufacture, Norman Rodger, 1930)3
4

In Fig. 1, deterioration of cane during time elapsed between cutting and

processing is clearly illustrated.
In Fig. 2, the sugar content and weight per internode of a cane stalk are given. It
is shown that the richest part is near the bottom, while the top has some weight but
hardly any sugar, even at the date of optimum maturity (July 6). 3
In most countries, cane is cut during the morning hours, while transportation
stops after dark. This makes it necessary to stockpile cane during the day, to be able
to bridge the night until cane hauling resumes the next morning.
If a storage site has to be designed, it normally has a capacity of about 12 hours,
but this also depends on local conditions. Stockpiled cane is estimated to weigh 25 lb
per cu ft, if it consists of whole cane in bundles, and this figure is somewhat higher
for chopped cane. The extent and height of the cane pile, as well as the weight per cu
ft are important, because at close of day the laboratory chemist has to report "cane in
process", to determine "cane ground in 24 hours", which equals "cane weighed"
minus "cane in stock".
In times of high sugar prices, it is very desirable to continue grinding as soon as
possible and as long as cane is available. The grinding season usually extends into the
start of the rainy season. This is technically a bad situation, for two reasons:
(a) When rain falls, the cane starts growing again and uses its sucrose for this
growing process. Yield decreases, pol in cane decreases, cane weight increases, juice
brix decreases (the more water, the less solids in juice). Therefore there is more cane
to grind, and more evaporation for the same results.
(b) Machines and traffic in the fields cause damage to the remaining root system
and have an adverse effect on yield levels in future crops.
In countries where cane growth depends on irrigation (where there is no rainfall,
such as Peru), maturity is achieved by withholding irrigation some time prior to
harvesting. In other countries, it is brought about through dry weather together with
cool nights. If increased production is required and the season lengthens, then
expansion of the factory to increase its grinding capacity may be desirable.
In some places, such as Louisiana and Florida, temperatures below freeze point
may occur at night. Frozen cane has to be processed as soon as possible, because after
about four weeks, purity of juice and yield of sugar fall off rapidly. The cane, with
brown leaves and dry stalks, looks as if it has been burnt. Later, in the boiling house,
it is almost impossible to induce crystallization. The syrup will not liberate sucrose.
Instead it is held in solution by organic compounds formed by freezing of the cane.
In many cases, routine laboratory analysis to determine purity (brix and pol) indicates
an acceptable purity value that turns out to be false. This is due to the presence of
higher carbohydrates formed in the freezing process, which gives positive
polarization as does sucrose.

REFERENCES
1 Rosenfleld, International Sugar Journal, Jan., 1937.
2 Tysdall, Sugar Journal, April 1957 and July 1959-
3 H.C. Prinsen Geerligs, Cane Sugar and its Manufacture, Norman Rodger, 1930.
4 Ibid.