Circular 1054

Culture Techniques of Moina: The Ideal Daphnia for

Feeding to Freshwater Fish Fry 1
R.W. Rottmann, J. Scott Graves, Craig Watson and Roy P.E. Yanong 2

Introduction
Daphnia are small freshwater cladoceran brine shrimp. In addition, brine shrimp die quickly
crustaceans commonly called “water fleas.” This in freshwater. As a result, Moina are ideally suited
common name is the result not only of their size, for feeding freshwater fish fry.
but their short, jerky hopping movement in water.
The genera Daphnia and Moina are closely related.
They occur throughout the world and are
collectively known as daphnia.

Daphnia have a body consisting of a head and a

trunk (Figure 1). The antennae are the main means
of locomotion. Large compound eyes lie under the
skin on the sides of the head. One of the major
characteristics of daphnia is that the main part of
the body, the trunk, is enclosed in an external
skeleton (carapace). Periodically, they molt or shed Figure 1. Adult Moina.
their external shell. The brood pouch, where the
eggs and embryos develop, is on the dorsal side of Newly-hatched fry of most freshwater fish
the female. In Daphnia, the brood pouch is species can ingest young Moina as their initial food.
completely closed, while Moina have an open However, it should be noted that it can be difficult
pouch. to grade Moina for size. It was found through trials
at the UF/IFAS Tropical Aquaculture Laboratory
There is considerable size variation between that passing Moina through 500 micron mesh
the genera. Moina are approximately half the screening tends to fragment the animals to such an
maximum length of Daphnia. Adult Moina extent that they are no longer usable as live food.
(700–1,000 μm) are longer than newly-hatched In aquaria, care must also be taken when
brine shrimp (500 μm) and approximately two to determining feeding rates, as Moina can quickly
three times the length of adult rotifers. Young grow too large to be eaten. If these larger Moina
Moina (less than 400 μm), however, are become too dense, their “hopping” movements can
approximately the same size or only slightly larger serve to harass and potentially damage fry.
than adult rotifers and smaller than newly-hatched

1
This document is Circular 1054, one of a series from the Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute
of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. First published: May 1992. Revised: February 2003. Please visit the EDIS Web Site at
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu.
2
R.W. Rottmann, former Senior Biological Scientist, Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, Gainesville, and J. Scott Graves, Biological Scientist,
Craig Watson, Director, and Roy P.E. Yanong, Assistant Professor, UF/IFAS Tropical Aquaculture Laboratory, Ruskin, FL 33570, Department of
Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
32611.
Culture Techniques of Moina: The Ideal Daphnia for Feeding to Freshwater Fish Fry 2

In Singapore, Moina micrura grown in ponds, bacterial and yeast cells as well as phytoplankton.
fertilized with mostly chicken manure or, less Moina are one of the few zooplankton which can
frequently, with pig manure, are used as the sole utilize the blue-green algae Microcystis aeruginosa.
food for fry of many ornamental tropical fish Both plant and animal detritus may provide energy
species, with a 95–99% survival rate to ¾ inch for the growth and reproduction of Moina. The
(20 mm) in length quite common. Unfortunately, food value of detritus depends on its origin and
there is very little information concerning practical diminishes with the age of the detritus.
mass culture methods of Moina, and the available
information is in mimeograph documents, foreign Life Cycles of Moina
journals or other scarce publications.
The reproductive cycle of Moina has both a
sexual and asexual phase. Normally, the population
Physical and Chemical consists of all females that are reproducing
Requirements asexually. Under optimum conditions, Moina
Moina appear in high concentrations in pools, reproduce at only 4–7 days of age, with a brood size
ponds, lakes, ditches, slow-moving streams and of 4–22 per female. Broods are produced every
swamps where organic material is decomposing. 1.5–2.0 days, with most females producing 2–6
They become especially abundant in temporary broods during their lifetime.
water bodies which provide them with suitable
conditions for only a brief period. Under adverse environmental conditions, males
are produced and sexual reproduction occurs
Moina are generally quite tolerant of poor water resulting in resting eggs (ephippia), similar to brine
quality. They live in water where the amount of shrimp eggs. The stimuli for the switch from
dissolved oxygen varies from almost zero to asexual to sexual reproduction in populations of
supersaturation. Moina are particularly resistant to Moina is an abrupt reduction in the food supply,
changes in the oxygen concentration and often resulting in an increase in resting egg production.
reproduce in large quantities in water bodies However, it is advantageous to keep the population
strongly polluted with sewage. Species of Moina well fed and in the asexual mode of reproduction,
have been reported to play an important role in the since fewer progeny are produced with resting eggs.
stabilization of sewage in oxidation lagoons.
High population densities of Daphnia can result
The ability to survive in oxygen-poor in a dramatic decrease in reproduction, but this is
environments is due to their capacity to synthesize apparently not the case with Moina. The egg output
hemoglobin. Hemoglobin formation is dependent of Daphnia magna drops sharply at a density as low
on the level of dissolved oxygen in the water. The as 95–115 mature individuals per gallon (25–30/L).
production of hemoglobin may also be caused by The maximum sustained density in cultures of
high temperature and high population density. Daphnia reported is 1,900 individuals per gallon
(500/L). Moina cultures, however, routinely reach
Moina are resistant to extremes in temperature densities of 19,000 individuals per gallon (5,000/L)
and easily withstand a daily variation of 41–88° F and are, therefore, better adapted for intensive
(5–31° C); their optimum temperature is 75–88° F culture.
(24–31° C). The high temperature tolerance of
Moina is of great advantage for both the A comparison of the production of Daphnia
commercial fish farmers in the southern U.S. and magna and Moina macrocopa cultures fertilized
hobbyists culturing live food at home. with yeast and ammonium nitrate, showed that the
average daily yield of Moina (1.42–1.47 ounces/100
Food Requirements gallons; 106–110 g/m3) is three to four times the
daily production of Daphnia (0.33–0.53 ounces/100
Moina feed on various groups of bacteria, yeast, gallons; 25–40 g/m3). The daily yield of Moina
phytoplankton and detritus (decaying organic cultures fed phytoplankton cultured on organic
matter). Bacterial and fungal cells rank high in fertilizer have been reported to exceed 5 ounces/100
food value. Populations of Moina grow most gallons (375 g/m3).
rapidly in the presence of adequate amounts of
Culture Techniques of Moina: The Ideal Daphnia for Feeding to Freshwater Fish Fry 3

Nutritional Value of Moina of Moina and phytoplankton. The advantanges

include less chance of contamination, a greater
The nutritional content of Moina varies degree of control, and more consistent yield.
considerably depending on their age and the type of
food they are receiving. Although variable, the Note: Regardless of the culture method,
protein content of Moina usually averages 50% of always maintain several Moina cultures to
the dry weight. Adults normally have a higher fat ensure a supply in case of a die-off.
content than juveniles. The total amount of fat per
dry weight is 20–27% for adult females and 4–6%
for juveniles.

Procedure for Moina Culture

The batch culture method of producing Moina
uses a continuous series of cultures. Briefly, a new
culture is started daily in a separate container using
the procedures outlined below. When all the
fungal, bacterial, and algal cells are consumed,
usually about 5–10 days after inoculation, the
Moina are completely harvested, and the culture is
restarted. This method is particularly applicable
when a specific quantity of Moina is needed each
day because daily production is much more
Figure 2. Tank arrangement for the separate culture of
controlled. Moina and its food.

Batch culture is also useful for maintaining pure Containers

cultures because there is less chance of the cultures
becoming contaminated with competitors (e.g., Cultures have been maintained in 10-gallon
protozoans, rotifers, copepods) or predators of fish (38-L) aquaria. However, this volume usually only
larvae or fry (e.g., Hydra, back-swimmers, diving yields enough Moina for the hobbyist culturing live
beetles, dragonfly larvae). food. For larger scale and commercial operations,
tanks or vats (concrete, stainless steel, plastic or
Semi-continuous cultures can be maintained for fiberglass) and earthen ponds can be used. Wading
two months or more by daily partial harvests of pools, plastic sinks, old bathtubs, discarded
Moina, water changes and regular feeding, keeping refrigerator liners and cattle watering troughs also
the population in a state of rapid growth. work well. Do not use unpainted metal containers
Eventually, the Moina cultures will fail to respond unless they are stainless steel.
to additional fertilization. When it is evident that
they are not reproducing well, the Moina should be In these larger containers, water depth should be
completely harvested and a new culture started. no greater than 3 feet (0.9 m). A maximum depth
of 16–20 inches (0.4–0.5 m) is probably optimum.
Moina can be produced either in combination The shallow water depth allows good light
with their food or as separate cultures. Combined penetration for photosynthesis by phytoplankton
culture is the simplest, but production from separate and provides a large surface to volume ratio for
cultures has been reported to be approximately ѿ oxygen diffusion.
higher.
Diffuse light or shade over ѿ of the water
For separate culture, the phytoplankton tank is surface of the Moina culture container is
positioned so that it can be drained into the Moina recommended. A greenhouse covered with shade
culture tank (Figure 2). Production from separate cloth (50-80% light reduction) is ideal. Outdoor
cultures has the disadvantage of requiring additional cultures should be protected from rain to help
space for the cultivation of phytoplankton. stabilize production and screened to prevent entry
However, there are advantages of separate culture of predacious aquatic insects.
Culture Techniques of Moina: The Ideal Daphnia for Feeding to Freshwater Fish Fry 4

Containers to be used, whether aquaria, tanks, Feeding or Fertilizing

vats or ponds, need not be particularly clean.
Listed below are some common fertilizer
However, filamentous algae and predators of fish
materials and application rates. Try several of these
larvae or fry (e.g., Hydra, back-swimmers, diving
culture media to determine which one works best in
beetles, dragonfly larvae) can be especially
your situation. The initial fertilization rates
troublesome in Moina cultures. Tanks can be
provided are only a starting point and will probably
disinfected with a 30% solution of muriatic acid or
need to be adjusted depending on individual culture
by drying in sunlight. Earthen ponds should be
conditions.
drained and sun dried.
The following quantity of fertilizer materials
Water
should be added initially for each 100 gallons
Moina are extremely sensitive to pesticides, (379 L) of water. Additional feed or fertilizer,
metals (e.g., copper and zinc, which may be approximately 50–100% of the initial amount,
prevalent in municipal or well water), detergents, should be added about 5 days later.
bleaches and other toxic materials in the water
1. Yeast: 0.3–0.5 ounces (8.5–14.2 g) of baker's
supply. Ensure that toxins are not inadvertently
yeast.
introduced into the culture container. Well water
should be aerated for at least two hours. Municipal 2. Yeast and mineral fertilizer: 0.3–0.5 ounces
water should be aerated for at least two days to (8.5–14.2 g) of yeast, and 0.5 ounces (14.2 g) of
neutralize the chlorine, or sodium thiosulfate or a ammonium nitrate.
commercially available chlorine neutralizer can be 3. Alfalfa, bran and yeast: 1.5 ounces (42.5 g) of
added to shorten this process. Natural spring water alfalfa pellets or meal, 1.5 ounces (42.5 g) of
is ideal. Rain water is also excellent for Moina wheat or rice bran, and 0.3 ounces (8.5 g) of
cultures if it is collected from an area that does not yeast.
have excessive air pollution. Filtered lake or stream
water may also be used. 4. Cow manure or sewage sludge, bran and yeast:
5 ounces (142 g) of dried manure or sewage
The optimum water temperature for Moina is sludge, 1.5 ounces (42.5 g) of wheat or rice bran,
75–88° F (24–31° C). Moina continue to thrive at and 0.3 ounces (8.5 g) of yeast.
temperatures in excess of 90° F (32° C) for short 5. Cow manure or sewage sludge, cotton seed meal
periods. However, low temperatures reduce and yeast: Use 5 ounces (142 g) of dried
production. manure or sewage sludge, 1.5 ounces (42.5 g) of
cotton seed meal and 0.3 ounces (8.5 g) of yeast.
Aeration
6. Horse or cow manure or sewage sludge:
Gentle aeration of the Moina pool oxygenates
Combine 20 ounces (567 g) of dried manure or
the water, keeps food particles in suspension and
sewage sludge.
increases phytoplankton production; these result in
an increase in the number of eggs per female, the 7. Chicken or hog manure: Combine 6 ounces
proportion of egg-bearing females in the (170 g) of dried manure.
population, and the population density. A small
trickle of fresh water into the culture container may 8. Yeast and spirulina powder: 0.2 ounces (6 g)
also improve production of Moina. Only one or baker’s yeast , 0.1 ounces (3 g) spirulina
two aquarium air lines are required in culture powder. Add this amount for the first two days,
containers up to 400 gallons (1.5 m3). Extremely and then every other day until culture is
small bubbles should be avoided as they can get harvested. Note: Add warm water to yeast and
trapped under the carapace, causing Moina to float spirulina powder and let sit for 30 minutes. Stir
at the surface, eventually killing them. and pour contents through a brine shrimp net
into the Moina culture. The net will catch un-
dissolved yeast and extend the life of the culture.
Culture Techniques of Moina: The Ideal Daphnia for Feeding to Freshwater Fish Fry 5

Organic fertilizers are usually preferred to Excessively high pH (greater than 9.5), due to a
mineral fertilizers because organic fertilizers heavy algae bloom and the resulting increase in the
provide bacterial and fungal cells and detritus as proportion of the toxic form of ammonia (un-
well as phytoplankton as food for the Moina. This ionized), may inhibit the production of Moina. The
variety of food items more completely meets their pH of the culture can be adjusted to 7–8 with
nutritional needs, resulting in maximum production. vinegar (acetic acid).
Mineral fertilizers may be used alone, however,
they work better in earthen ponds than in tanks or Inoculating
vats. Use pure live cultures to inoculate. Avoid using
animals for inoculation from poor or declining
Fresh manures are preferred because they are
cultures, cultures producing resting eggs, or cultures
richer in organic matter and bacteria. However,
containing predators of fish larvae or fry. Inoculate
some farm animals are given feed additives that
with approximately 100 Moina/gallon (25/L).
control fly larvae in their manure and these may
Although a culture can theoretically be started with
inhibit the production of Moina. Although not
a single female, always use an adequate number to
absolutely necessary, the manure is frequently dried
develop a harvestable population quickly. If fewer
before use. Commercially available organic
are used, the population in the culture will increase
fertilizers, such as dehydrated cow manure and
more slowly, therefore, the initial quantity of
sewage sludge, may be used for Moina cultures.
fertilizer or food should be reduced to prevent over-
feeding. A greater number used for inoculation
Although manure is widely used to culture
reduces the time to harvesting and lessens the
Moina, yeast, alfalfa and bran are less objectionable
chance of contamination by competitors.
to use and they work well. Activated yeast (baker's
yeast) is readily available from wholesale food
Cultures are usually inoculated 24 hours or more
distributors in 2-pound (0.9-kg) bags. Bran and
after fertilization. However, when yeast is used,
alfalfa meal or pellets can be purchased in 50-pound
Moina can be added to the culture after a few hours
(22.7-kg) bags from livestock feed stores.
of aeration, assuming good water quality and proper
temperature. This is because the yeast cells are
Coarse organic materials, such as manure,
immediately available to the Moina as food. The
sewage sludge, hay, bran and oil seed meals, are
small amount of phytoplankton present in the water
usually suspended in the water column in mesh
and digestive tract of the Moina used to inoculate
bags. Cheese cloth, burlap, muslin, nylon or other
the culture is usually sufficient to initiate a
relatively loose weave fabrics may be used. Nylon
phytoplankton bloom.
and other synthetic fabrics, however, do not
deteriorate in water as do cotton or burlap. For
Monitoring
smaller culture containers, nylon stockings work
well for this purpose, are inexpensive and readily The culture should be inspected daily to
available. The use of a bag prevents large particles determine its health. The following observations
from being a problem when the Moina are should be made.
harvested and allows greater control of fertilization.
1. The health of the culture is determined by
Over-feeding can quickly cause problems in stirring the culture, removing 1 tablespoon
water quality. Regardless of the type of media (15 ml) of the culture, and examining the sample
used, start with small amounts of feed or fertilizer with a 8X- to 10X-hand lens or dissecting scope.
added at frequent intervals and slowly increase the Green or brown-red Moina with full intestinal
amount used as you gain experience. If fungus tracts and active movement indicate a healthy
occurs in the culture container due to over- culture. Pale Moina with empty digestive tracts
fertilization, the bag containing the organic material or Moina producing resting eggs are indications
should be removed from the culture. If fungus of suboptimum environmental conditions or
persists in large quantities the culture should be insufficient food.
discarded and restarted.
Culture Techniques of Moina: The Ideal Daphnia for Feeding to Freshwater Fish Fry 6

2. The population density of Moina is determined Additional Points

by killing the Moina in a 1-teaspoon (3–5/ml)
sample with a 70% alcohol solution and Differences in size, brood production and
counting all Moina in a petri dish with a hand optimum environmental conditions exist between
lens or dissecting scope. Cultures ready for different species and varieties of Moina.
harvest should contain 45–75 Moina in the Adjustments will need to be made in the culture
1-teaspoon sample (3–5/ml). With experience, technique depending on the particular species or
population density can be estimated visually variety you wish to produce.
without the need for counts.
Additional surfaces in the culture tank may have
3. The food concentration in the culture water, a positive effect on the production of Moina. For
when examined in a clear glass, should appear Daphnia, a four-fold increase of surface area, in the
slightly cloudy and tea colored or green. Clear form of plastic sheets, has been shown to result in a
culture water is an indication of insufficient four-fold increase in the density, biomass and
food. The cultures should be fed or fertilized harvest. It is unknown whether this is the result of
with approximately 50–100% of the initial improved water quality due to nitrifying bacteria on
quantity whenever the transparency is greater the substrate, a change in the spatial distribution of
than about 12–16 inches (0.3–0.4 m). This can the Daphnia or improved nutrition.
be determined with a white plastic or metal lid
approximately 4 inches (100 mm) in diameter, It may not always be possible to match Moina
attached to the end of a yard stick. The depth of production to the food demand of the fish fry.
transparency is where the disk is just barely Harvested Moina can be kept alive for several days
visible when lowered into the tank. in clean water in a refrigerator. They will resume
normal activity when they are again warmed. The
4. If predators of fish larvae or fry (e.g., Hydra, nutritional quality of the stored Moina will probably
back-swimmers, diving beetles, dragonfly not be optimal because of the period of starvation,
larvae) are observed, discard the culture and so the Moina should be enriched with algae and
clean and disinfect the tank or pool to avoid yeast before feeding them to fish.
contaminating other cultures.
Moina can be stored for long periods by freezing
Harvesting in low salinity water (7 ppt, 1.0046 density) or by
freeze-drying. Both methods kill the Moina, so
Moina can be harvested by simply dipping out adequate circulation is required to keep them in
the required number with a brine shrimp net or re- suspension after thawing so they will be available to
usable coffee filter as they concentrate in "clouds" the fish fry. Frozen and freeze-dried Moina are not
at the surface. Cultures may also be harvested by as nutritious as live animals and they are not as
draining or siphoning the culture water into a readily accepted by fish fry. Although freezing or
plankton collector equipped with 50- to 150-μm freeze-drying does not significantly alter the
mesh netting net suspended in a container of water. nutritional content of Moina, nutrients do leach out
Turn off the aeration and allow the food particles to rapidly into the water. Nearly all of the enzyme
settle before harvesting. For semi-continuous activity is lost within ten minutes after introduction
culture, do not harvest more than 20–25% of the in fresh water. After one hour, all of the free amino
population each day, unless you are restarting the acids and many of the bound amino acids are lost.
culture. Harvesting by draining the culture tank
allows for a partial water exchange, improving Sources of Moina
water quality. Harvest only small quantities at a
time and transfer the Moina to containers with fresh Scott Graves or Robert Leonard
water to keep them alive. University of Florida
Tropical Aquaculture Laboratory
The bottom sediments should be stirred up 1408 14th ST SE
manually every day following harvest, thoroughly Ruskin, FL 33570
mixing the culture, to re-suspend food particles and (813) 671-5230
prevent anaerobic conditions from developing.