The Language Choice Among Chinese-Indian

Mixed-Marriage Families in Malaysia

Alnun Rozana Mohd Zaid

Mac Yin Mee

English Language Department

Faculty of Languages And Linguistics
University of Malaya

Abstract
In Malaysia, under certain cultural, social and political conditions, a
minority community might adopt a different language and become
monohngual, bilingual or multilingual. However, the morc general trend,
especially among well-educated individuals, is that they tend to become
English speakers. This may occur among children from inter-group
marriages where English is the only common language between the
spouses.
The main objective of this study is to examine the language choice
among Malaysian children from inter-group marriages where one of the
spouses is either Tamil or Chinese. Another objective IS to identify the
role of attitude in language choice. The Chindians comprise dyads of
Indian-Chinese mixed marriage children and their parents from urban
areas. The data will be gathered through questionnaires and structured
interviews administered across both groups. Analyses of the data will
include a comparison of the language choice among the Chindians in
the urban areas and the role of language as a marker of self/group
Identity. The domains examined are home, school, workplace and places
of worship.

Introduction
In a multilmgual set-up as in Malaysia which compnses of indivtduals from
several ethnic backgrounds, tt IS almost impossible not to be Imked to one
another According to Schmidt-Makey (1971 ), there has been an increase
In the number of marriages that occur between indIviduals who come from
dIfferent ethnic backgrounds and hence, also speak different languages.
2 JOURNAL OF MODER;' LANGUAGES

Baker (2000) and Harding-Esch & Riley (2003) show that both nation­
wide and across internatIOnal borders, mixed-language marriages are on
the rise. ThIs has rcsulted in many families raismg theIr children to be at
least bilmgual (Malave, 1977).
LmgUlstlc development of children can be mfluenced by a number of
reasons. Children arc found to be very sensItIve to the choice of language
used by those people around them and more so if the language IS directed
to them (Harrison & Piette, 1980). The role of parental mfluence as an
mfluential adult can be a major factor. In an investigation of bilingual children
m EnglIsh and Spanish, Kasuya (1998) found that parental language chOIce
has the potential to encourage active language selection m theIr children.
In MalaysIa, the general trend, especially among well-educated
mdlvlduals, IS that they tend to become English speakers. This often occurs
among children from mtergroup marriages where EnglIsh IS the only common
language between the spouses. Since Malaysia is a multiracial country,
there arc many opportunIties for inter-mamages between the different races.
Nowadays, there are mcreasmgly more mixed marriages between the IndIans
and Chinese.
The focus of thIs study is on the offspnngs of parents ofindIan-Chmese
mIxed marriages. Their children, comprismg a certam part of the Malaysian
populatIOn, are often referred to as Chindians. The study also focuses on
the IndIan and Chmese parents who both sharc the responsibIlIty of raising
thclr Chindians, in an environment where at least one or more languages
are used.

The objectIves of this study are:

(i) to examine language choice among Chindians

(ii) to identify parents' role of attItude m language chOIce
(iii) to Identify dIfferent domains where the native language IS used

The research qucstions are as follow'

(i) What IS the language chOIce among Malaysian Chindians?

(ii) What is the role of parents' attItude in children's language chOIce?
(iii) WhIch are the dIfferent domaInS where the native language IS used?

This study on a contemporary issue related to cross-cultural

commUnIcatIOn In MalaysIa gIves an insight on the use of native and neutral
languages In a multi-racial country Factors that influence language chOIce
 TilE LANGUAGE CHOICE AMONG CHINESE-INDIAN
MIXED-MARRIAGE FAMILIES IN MALAYSIA J

among Citindians are important in a natIon with such a rich cultural diversity.
This study also provides an insIght on the role parents play in their Chindians'
choIce of language(s) in different domains.

Literature Review
Malaysia IS a multilingual country, with three major races and numerous
minority languages being spoken by people of different ethnic backgrounds.
In terms of linguIstic choices, a study by Lim (2008) shows that while
Malay youths prefer to use their ethnic language, Chinese and Indian male
adolescents prefer to use EnglIsh, the international language in their daily
in-group and out-group interaction. Children who come from inter-ethnic
marnages are seen to have the advantage of picking up at least two different
languages spoken by theIr parents. David (2008) cites studies by Nadarajan
(1994) and Arumugam (1990) which reveal that Chindian children have a
tendency to be multilingual. They also acquire and speak most of the major
languages spoken in Malaysia, namely Malay, English, Chinese and Tamil.
According to Arumugam (1990), exposure from family members and frIends
IS the main contributing factor for this ability
In addItIon, these children acquired the ability to read, write and speak
Malay and English at school. In short, Chindian children have the advantage
when it comes to languages as they in most cases have the languages of
one or both their parents and in all cases use both the national and
IIlternatIOnal languages. In the Malaysian context, this scenario IS rather
common where most children of Indian-Chinese mixed marnages are able
to master at least more than two languages. In many occasions, however,
they use a neutral language to communicate to the parents. The neutral
language IS not the native language of eIther parents. There IS a clear
advantage of beIllg able to communicate wIth family on both sides (Barron­
Hauwaert, 2004, Blum-Martinez, 2002, Harding-Esch & Riley, 2003).
Another obvious benefit is that the child IS socialized III both languages
and both cultures, whIch contributes greatly to the success of bilingual
acqUIsition (de Houwer, 1999b; Parke & Drury, 2001). In a multilingual
country like Malaysia, not only are these children exposed to theIr parents'
natIve languages (i.e. Tamil and Chinese) but they are also learning other
languages like English and Malay This is more so when there are close
contacts with theIr other extended family members.
As shown in a study by Harding-Esch & Riley (2003), close contacts
with extended family are not only vital for a child's development III both
languages and both cultures, but important for buildIllg relationshIps, whIch
4 JOURNAL OF MODERN LANGUAGES

cannot be done without language. According to Barron-Hauwacrt (2004,

p. 88), grandparents may play a key role in the linguIstic development of
children, especially 10 the mmority language, as 11 allows "for extra language
input and forms strong person-language bonds that will help them mamtain
their languages" Children of mIxed marriages not only are encouraged to
mhent their parents' native languages but also continue to embrace the
cultures that come wIth the languages.
According to Baker (2000), children as young as I 7 years of age, can
notIce a clear separatIon of languages. When growing up In a home where
bilingualism IS encouraged, children are able to make the necessary
adaptatIOns when they encounter new or unfamiliar hngulstlc environments
(Parke & Drury, 200 I).
Research shows that bihngual children are not simply inclined to speak
one language over the other; they make a dcliberate chOlce (Malave, 1997,
Parke & Drury, 2001). Bilingual children arc able to sort out languages in
their mmd, consciously choose to use one or the other (Parke & Drury,
2001). They are also believed to be able to keep theIr languages in balance
as de Houwcr (1990) and Meisel (1989) rellerate in their studies. It has
also been SaId that they can choose their language according to the intended
recipient even when that person may not he present (Hamson & Piette,
1980) as well as according to thc settmg or location in which the child heard
the language (Deuchar & Quay, 1999).
In mlxed-hngual families, specifically where both languages are valued
and are a means of soclahzation, "the child learns that one cIas, of socml
mteractlons corresponding to one set of scripts can make use of two sets of
Imgulstlc rules accordmg to a number of sItuatIOnal variables, such as
mteriocutor, tOP'C and context" (Hamers & Blanc, 1989'74).
A study has confirmed that people speak like those With whom they
wish to be IdentIfied and those with whom they interact (Chaika, 2008).
Sl1mguaJ children are aware of the eXistence of two d"tmct codes and are,
therefore, able to switch between the two, long before they have mastered
all the rules of the languages they are exposed to (Fantmi, 1985; Hamel'S &
Blanc, 1989).
According to Suda (2006), one's language choice may also be affected
by utilltanan conSiderations. In olher words, by using a particular language
a speaker feels that he IS in a better posltlon to be accepted in a group or
social context. In some sltuatlOns, a person may have a personal reason in
h,s choice of language. For example, a foreign student may prefer to use a
target language whenever possible, with the sole mtentlOn of improving his
language proficiency m the language.
 THE LANGUAGE CHOICE AMONG CHINESE-INDIAN
MIXED-MARRIAGE FAMILIES IN MALAYSIA 5

The choice of a code In a multilIngual context which Involves 'who

speaks what language to whom, when, where and even why?' IS a complex
task. It can be said that there IS a large number of factors which can
influence language choice such as language user's social background,
lIngUIstic profile, profeSSion, educational background, attitudes and social
domainS. Some of these factors may work either with or agall1st each
other, producing a complex web of interaction which makes the task of
describing any one language-choice event extremely difficult.
Finally, It needs to be recoglllzed that language choice events do not
eXist in a vacuum. As Buda (2006) reiterates, language IS, afler all, a medium
for interaction and commUlllcatlOn between people and the use of language
will reflect the Infinite complexity of human relationships. It is also very
much affected by the domainS which they are found to be Interacting.
A number of studies (e.g. Fishman, 1972, Gal, 1979; Parasher, 1980;
David, 1 999; Hohenthal, 2003 and Yeh, Chan, & Cheng, 2004) found that
people use language as per status of the domains. A study in New York by
Greenfield (1972) on a bilingual Puerto Rican comrnulllly reports that Spanish
IS used in intimate domains such as family and friendship while EnglIsh IS
chosen for employment and education.
A local study looks at the patterns of language choice in the domain of
office among undergraduates at University Putra Malaysia by Mostafizar
Rahman (2008) In the study, non-Malay respondents are shown to be
more inclIned to use Engli h in the workplace domain. The study concludes
that the choice is Influenced by language proficiency and ethnicily of the
respondents.
Several other studies recognized the domain distribution of language
use. In a study by Parasher (1980), mother tongue is used in the family
domain by people in India. On the other hand, English is the preferred
choice In domains such as education, government and employment. Other
similar studies such as by Nerclssians (2001), Arua & Magocha (2002),
Goebel (2002), Hohenthal (2003) and Yeh e/ al. (2004) also report similar
findings where mother tongue IS favoured for use in family or home domain.

Definitions
In thiS study, the follOWing defillltions are used:

CHINDIANS
Chilldialls refers to the children / off-springs of Malaysian mlxed­
marriage couples where one parent is Indian and the other Chinese.
6 JOURNAL OF MODERN LANGUAGES

2. NATIVE LANGUAGE
Native language refers to the main language acquired and used in
childhood (Gupta. 1998).

3 LANGUAGE CHOICE
Language chOIce refers to the deliberate choice of language made by
a speaker in a given context.

4. ATTITUDE
Attitude refers to the viewpoints and opmions ofChindians as well as
their parents towards language choice, shift and maintenance.

5 DOMAIN
Domain refers to a particular environment or area of activity or interest
that Chilldialls are exposed to in theIr daily lives.

Methodology

The sample comprises of Chilldians of mixed Indian-Chinese parentage

and their parents from urban areas. The Chindians are randomly selected
from the urban towns In MalaySia. A total of 13 ChiJldians and 6 parents
(either parent Indian or Chinese) participated in this study
Among the 13 Chindians, there are 7 males and 6 females. Their
ages range from 8 years old to 30 ycars old. All of them are from urban
areas. They comprise pnmary, secondary or tertiary students; and young
working adults.
Among the 6 parents mterviewed, there are 2 males and 4 females. 3
of them arc Indians whereas the other 3 are Chinese. Their educational
qualIficatIOns rangc from doctorates to MalaYSian Lower Certificate of
Education. 3 are univerSity/college lecturers, I businesswoman, I housewife
and another, a contractor
Questionnaires are given to the Chindian children by the researchers.
Telephone IIlterviews with the parents of these Chindians are conducted
by the researchers over a week. The questionnaire has been pilot tested on
2 Chindians and some amendments have been made to improve the
questionnaIre.
The questionnaire comprises four sections. (A) Biodata and (B)
Language ChOice. Section A comprises 5 questions and Section B, 15
questions. All the questions are a combination of structured and open-ended
 THE LANGUAGE CHOICE AMONG CHINESE-INDIAN
MIXED-MARRIAGE FAMILIES IN MALAYSIA 7

questions. The interview schedule comprises 14 questions, both structured

and open-ended questions. The researchers conducted telephone interviews
with all the parents of the Chilldialls.
Data are analysed based on the responses indicated m the questionnaire
and infomlation which have been obtained from telephone interviews with
the parents. AnalysIs includes the language choice among Chilldialls in
the urban areas, the role of language as a marker of self/group Identity; and
the different domams where the native language IS used. The data obtained
IS analysed quantitatively and qualitatively

Findings and Discussion

Qllestionnaire
In this study two sets of respondents have been included in helping the
researchers invesngate the choice of language among Chmese-Indian mixed
families in Malaysia. The study focuses on children of the inter-marriage
group of Chinese and Indian (Chilldialls) whose ages range from 8 years
to 30 years old. A total of 7 males and 6 female Chilldialls participated in
thiS study Most of the children's fathers are Chinese. The Chindialls are
mostly young people studying in schools/universities, with an exception of3
Chilldialls who are working.
77% of the children have no problems Identifying their race with only
23% statmg that they are unsure which race they want to Identify with. It IS
also interesting that for most (85%) of these children, they see themselves
as mostly Chindialls although their race in the national registration is either
Chinese or Indian. Only two (15%) children consider themselves as
belonging to either Chinese or Indian race only Accordmg to most of the
Chilldialls, their inability to speak one of their parents' languages, seldom
thmking in either parents' language(s), and not seeing themselves as belonging
to either group, have caused them to feel more comfortable being identified
as Chilldians. However, most of the parents mterviewed see their children
as belongmg to the father's race.
Identifying their race is easy in Malaysia as the children follow their
fathers' race in their birth certificates and identity cards. One Chilldian
has stated that it IS not important to be Identified as a particular race.
However, most Chindialls say that being the children of mixed marriages
have made them feel very special. According to one Chindian, belonging
to neither race may cause them difficulties in findmg partners 111 future.
8 JOURNAL OF MODERN LANGUAGES

Another Chindian claims that because of his identity, he seems to be more

popular than those who have the typical look of a certain race. One of the
3 Chindians who are unsure of decidmg their race, has reasoned that
smcc he prays to Hilldu gods, he IS an Indian.
Most of these Chindians admit that in mosl occasIOns (67%) they
are mistaken as belonging to either a Malay race (63.2%), Eurasian (15 8%)
or others (21 %) while 33% say that they are somelimes mistaken as
bclonging to the races mentioned earlicr. Those who have been mistaken
as bclongmg to other groups (21%), are sometimes thought of as foreign
nationalities such as Brazilian, Spanish, Portuguese or of Sabah and
Sarawak origins.
46% of Chindians like to be referred to as Chindians and the remaming
(54%) are indifferent to the term. Those who like the term say that tt
makes them feel unique as there are not many Chindians in the world, it is
not wrong to be termed as one; they are already used to the term, to state
their race as Chmese-Indlan or Indtan-Chinese IS too long and best of all,
they are able to celebrate both traditIOns and cultures. 62% agree that they
are conscious of their Chindians' status while 23% indicate that they are
not conscious at all, the remainmg 15% admit to bemg conscIOus sometimes.
A total of 6 parents (2 males and 4 females) have taken part in the
Interview They are mostly parents of children in this study with an exception
of one parent. An equal number of Chinese and Indian parents have given
their co-operatIOn in answenng the interView questions. The parents' levels
of educatIOn are from Malaysian Lower Certificate ofEducatlOn, Malaysian
Certificate of Education, Masters and Doctoral level. Their occupatIOnal
background also varied as there is I housewife, I contractor, I business
woman and 3 university lecturers. Overall, these parents have an average
of 3 children III a family and have 2 or 3 of their children takmg part in this
study The parents' responses are mamly related to their role in choosmg
the language(s) that their children speak.
Although more than half the Chindians has not been gIven a language
chOice, all of them (100%) state that they have no problems in decidmg
which language to speak m. The Chindians regard Engltsh as theIr native
language, the language that is mostly spoken at home. But tf given a language
choice, the Chindians have Identtfied all the 4 languages spoken in Malaysia
as one of theIr chOices although English appears to be the most popular
language. Most of the Chindians realize the advantage of being able to
speak III more than one language. Among the Chindians, 22 7% have
identIfied Chinese as their language chOice; 18.2% indenlIfied TamIl and
 TilE LANGUAGE CHOICE AMONG CHINESE·INDIAN
M IXED·MARRIAGE FAMILIES IN MALAYSIA 9

13.6% indentlfied Malay The remaining 45.5%, however, prefer to speak

in English as they feel more comfortable and proficient in English. They
vIew English as a language that enables them to interact with a wIder circle
of people, especially people from dIfferent ethnic backgrounds.
90 I % of Chilldialls are not affected by how others vIew their choice
of language whereas 9.9% of them are. Regarding the influence of parents
on the Chilldialls' choIce of language, 46.1 % say they have been Influenced
by theIr parent(s), 30 8% say they haven't been Influenced, while the
remaining 23 I % say that they may have been ll1fluenced by their parents.
In general, more Chilldialls say that It is important for them to speak the
mothers' natIve language than tbe fathers' All Chindians (100%) intend to
teach theIr own children the language of their choice.
Reasons for choosing the language or languages as stated by the
Chilldians are mostly related to the language use wIth close family members
rather than to other people outside the family circle. 69.2% Chilldialls
want to identIfy wIth their mother(s) and 69.2% Chindialls wIth their
siblings; 61 5% want to communicate with their fnends and peers. 53.8%
Chilldians also feel that the language chosen enables them to Idenllfy with
their father while 46.1% of Chindians agree that it helps them to identify
wIth their teachers or lecturers. Only 23% and 15.4% believe that their
language choice helps them to identify with theIr religIous authoritIes or
colleagues, respectively
For most Chindians (92.3%), it is Important to be able to speak in
their choice of language with theIr siblings. It is also Important for them
(84.6%) to be able to use the language chosen to communicate wIth their
parents. As the language IS the only language spoken at home, some
Chindians (69.2%) feel the Importance of being able to use it. In addItIon,
by chOOSIng the language, they are trying to accommodate their
grandparents' language(s) and maintain relative ties wIth other family
members (53.8%). The Chindians (53.8%) also feel that being proficient
In the language also helps them In their language choice, especIally since
the language IS neutral to the family members.
The majority of Chindians (43.8%) who have Identified English as
theIr preferred language, agree that it is important for them to communicate
effectively in the language; get a good educatIon (37.5%) rather than getting
a good Job (18.7%). Their ability to speak in a particular language(s) IS felt
to have influenced the feeling of acceptance by their fnends and peers
among 61.5% Chindialls. Acceptance by grandparents and other family
members (46.2%) is also regarded as important although acceptance by
parents, siblings and colleagues share equal (38.5%) importance for the
10 JOURNAL OF MODERN LANGUAGES

Chindians. Members of the commumty are shown to have less effect

(31%) on their chOice of language use.
The majoflty of Chilldians (91 7%) admit to have been using the
same language Since their childhood and for most of them, it is the language
that is spoken by most of their fflends and family members. Being in the
same language environment since childhood has also reduced their need to
use another language. Moreover, both parents also use the same language
so commumcation is eaSIer.

Language Domain and its Importance

DIfferent languages may be used In certain domains. For instance, the use
of the Enghsh language In the schools/umverslties domain (84.6%) seems
to be the most Important among the four domainS identified for Chindians
The second most important domain is the workplace domain (61.5%); home
domain (53.8%) is the third most important; and places of worship (38.5%)
is the least Important domain.
When asked to rank the Importance of the four languages (Tamil,
Chmese, English and Malay) at the national and international levels, Chindians
list Tamil as the least Important language at both levels. While Malay is
vICwed as Important as the natIOnal level, ItS Importance at the internatIOnal
level is ranked as ummportant. However, Chinese language is equally
Important at both levels. This IS also true for English whIch is regarded as
more important at both levels. In retrospect, their perception towards the
Importance ofthese languages has also been influenced by theIr knowledge
and experience about these languages as users and learners of the languages.
With regard to the home domain, the data show that English (47.4%)
has been identified as the language that is mostly spoken at home which is
followed by Chinese (26.3%), Tamil (15.8%) and Malay (10.5%). These
languages are often used by 92.3% Chindians and seldom used by 8.2%
Chlnd,ans. Most Chindians who have IdentIfied English as being the most
chosen language spoken at home, also Indicate that they (69.2%) regard it
as theIr native language. An equal number of Chindians has not conSidered
a neutral language, Malay, as a native language.
Although these Chindians have come from either Chinese or Indian
background, none of their parents' native languages has been identified as
the popular choice when Chindians are outside the home domain. It must
be noted here that for many Chindialls (53.8%), language chOice has not
been given to them. However, 23 1% Chindians has been given the choice
of choosing a particular language or 23 I % are unsure if they have been
 THE Ll\f\!GU!\GE CHOICE AMONG CHINESE�INDIAN
MIXEI)�MARRIAGE FAMILIES IN \'IALAYSIA II

gIven the option 10 speak III thetr language choice. To support their answers,
they have given reasons like: that IS t he way they have been brought up:
they have ne\ er felt any p res sur e to speak the language(s) spoken by their
parents/fami I Y
37.Y% ofChindians use another langu age when communicating with
family members and fnends. Aecordmg to thel11, It IS an Important way to
keep in touch with both hentages, as well as be multilingual for effective
coml1lLIm cation.
From a lotal of 13 Chilldialls, more than half (54%) say that It is
Important for them to speak their fathers' language. TheI r reasons range
from I he Importance to 111d,cate that they are part Chinese; Chinese is
wIdely spoken In the communJty; thcre is a need to communicate wllh
relatIves, and to preserve t he I r fat he rs' l an guage 3 6.4% of Chilldians
.

state that It IS lll 1lmportant to speak Tamil (father's language) as they do not
have Tamil fnends, that no one speaks Tamil to them, that they find Tamil
dIfficult as the majority of the family members speak Enghsh. The rema1l111lg
9 1% ehindian.'> are unsure whether it is Important, as long as they can
COl11mUlHeate, th ey are satisfied regardless of what l a ngu age they use.
In contrast, 75°/" Chindians say that it important for them to speak
their lI lother , native language. ThIS IS b ecause many people speak Chinese
'

alld they want to be w i th their Chinese relatIves, they also want to know
1110rc Chlllese than TamIl, or t hey are part Tamil so It is Important to speak
Tamil to communicate wIth the mothers' sIde. A reason g iven is that her
first teacher IS her mother who has taught h er to speak. Hence, mothers
play an Important role in teaching their Chindian children to speak their
nallve language or a neutral language. This IS probably because mothers
tend to spend more tnne nurturing theIr children than the fathers so the
childrcn see a greater need to speak their mothers' language. The other
Chilldialls (16.6%) say It is not important as Tamil is not an international
language and that they use English to communicate.
With regard to speaking then' grandparents' language, 61.5% say 'yes'
while 30.8% say 'no' Those who feel that is nnportant empha siz e the need
to spe a k Chinese III order to understand then grandparents better
Commul1lcalion is I mp ortant to them and language IS a means of I dentJfying
and reflcetlllg their race. 30.8% of th e Chindians who said' no, ex p lai ned
'

tbat EnglIsh IS used by their grandparents so they get by with English.

Hence, there IS no need to learn their grandparents' native language(s).
All the Chil1dialls (100%) want to teach their own children the
language of theIr choice in future. As for t eac hing the language of their
parents, 46.2% of them say that they will do so only iftheir children want to
12 JOURNAL OF MODERN LANGUAGES

learn the language(s). One interesting finding is that the majority ofChindians
(77%) think In English while they were answenng the questionnaire; only
23% thought in Tamil or Chinese. The reason given is that all the questIOns
are III English so they (77%) thmk in English. This can also be attributed to
the fact that most Chilldialls in this study use English as a neutral language.
For the school domain, none of the parents' native languages has been
identified as the popular choice among Chindians when they are outside
the home domain. In most cases, where a language is used at college,
workplace or at places of worship, English has been identified as a language
of choice by most Chindialls; followed by another neutral language - Malay
Tamil IS least spoken at workplaces, schools or places of worship.
Malay language, however, is identified as another popular choice when
commul1lcatmg with others III schools or workplaces but not in places of
worship. Chinese IS spoken too but not as often as English or Malay
Accordmg to 33.3% Chindians, the influence by their friends and
peers is felt especially so when they are older. However, the majority (66.6%)
are not influenced by their friends and peers at school. The Chindians are
still using their native language to speak to their friends as they feel proud
of their own language. In their mind, once a language is learnt and used, it
will be difficult to forget it easily.
In general, the findings indicate the majority ofChindians have been
using the same language since their childhood as it is the language spoken
by most of their friends The change in language chOIce occurs when they
start schooling or when they are influenced by their peers.
In the workplace domain, 23 1% Chindial1s foresee themselves using
another language in the near future. The reasons are they want to widen
their scope of language or to use it in their workplace. However, these
Chindians stressed that they will not forget their native language. The other
53.8% Chindians say that they will still use English as they are they are
more proficient in this language. 3 Chindians state that they usually use
English at their workplace as their colleagues communicate in English.
For places of worship, in most cases, where a language is used at
places of worship, English has been Identified as a language of choice by
most of the Chindians (69.2%). However, 111 some situations, Chinese and
Tamil maybe used especially If the order of worship is conducted in these
languages. Where there are bilingual services conducted at places of worship,
theChindlans state that they prefer English as the medium of commuOication.
 THE LANGUAGE CHOICE AMONG CHINESE-INOIAN
MIXED-MARRIAGE FAMILIES IN MALAYSIA 13

Interview
Based on the data collected in the interviews, all Chindians parents (100%)
have 2 to 4 children per person. All of them (100%) speak English to their
Chindians children. In addition to English, some parents speak Tamil
(1 6.6%) and Chmese (33.4%) to their children. However, none of the parents
use Malay to converse with their children.
The parents themselves speak several languages. Besides speaking
English (IOO%), they also speak Malay (66.7%), Chinese (33.3%) and
Tamil (\6.7%). Their Chindian children respond to them mainly in English
although I child responds in Tamil, Chinese and Malay (7.7% respectively.)
When speakIng to the other parent, 1 5.4% Chindian children use another
language, 23 I % do not and 7 7% do It sometimes. Based on the data,
English seems to be the choice of the Chindian children and their parents
when communicatIng with one another.
Although the term 'Chilldians' is used in Malaysia, 66.7% parents do
not conSider their children as Chindians whereas 23 I % parents do. I
mother (16.7%) says that she sometimes conSiders her child Chindian.
Among the reasons given for not conSidering their children as Chindians is
the stigma attached to the term 'Chindians ' 33.4% parents dislike the
tem] Chindians as they find it derogatory and racist. I mother (16.7%)
who is Indifferent to the term, says that her children are more Chinese or
Malaysian than Chindians However, 33.4% parents who like the term,
describe Chindians as a umque term as not many people use it. The parents
describe their children as being proud to be Chindians who can speak
several languages and that they are beautiful, happy people who are not
typically Chinese or Indian, just Chindians
RegardIng whether the children are conscious of beIng Chindians,
33.4% parents say 'yes' while the other 66.6% say 'no.' All the parents
(IOO%) say that they have no problems deciding which language(s) their
children should speak in. This IS because the issue of language choice doesn't
arise; and that English has been used since their children's childhood. I
mother (16.7%), however, pointed out that her son was initially confused
With hiS language for his first 3 years so he spoke Tamil although hiS father
is Chmese.
All tbe parents (100%) are not worned about their children speaking a
neutral language, which is English. What concerned them most is that their
children can communicate effectIvely and are comfortable with USIng the
neutral language of their choice. In fact, the majority of the parents (83.5%)
say that they do not make any conscious effort to teach their children their
14 JOURNAL OF MODERN LANGUAGES

nalive language. As long as their children can communicate with their family,
they feel that English IS the best language for them as they are all proficient
in English. There is seldom the necessity to speak the parents' native
language(s) as the children can communicate effectively in English with
their grandparents. Based on the data, it can be concluded that the parents
have no objections to the use of English among their Chindian children as
long as effective communication takes place.
Another II1terestll1g finding is dissent on the issue on whether the
parents' attitude towards the language choice affected the children's choice
of spoken language. 23 I % parents felt that their attitude has played a role
111 their children's perception of their native language. I mother (1 6.7%)
admits that her own prejudice against Tamil has sub-conscIOusly affected
her children who have become very hostile towards Tamil, their father's
native language. Her children refuse to learn Tamil even during the
compulsory Pupils Own Language (Tamil) classes in school. The situation
IS made worse since the father himself does not see any necessity 111 teaching
hiS children Tamil sll1ce they converse fluently in English and Chll1ese.
Another mother (16.7%) expressed regret that she has not made any effort
to teach her children Tamil (their father's native language) as both parents
have become too comfortable With English, and are too lazy to use other
languages.
About one third of the parents (33.4%) feel that there is a loss of
Identity if their children do not use either parent's native language. This is
because the children should learn the native language In order to
commul1lcate better with family members and relatives who may not be
fluent in English. However, the parents (66.7%) are adamant that English
is an asset, not a liability as English is an mternationallanguage. Moreover,
language is just one aspect of a person's identity and It is more Important
that the children speak the language they prefer.
In general, English is the chOice ofChindians and their parents when
communicating. More than half of the parents do not consider their children
as Chindialls and their children are also not conscious of being Chilldians
With regard to whether parents' atlitude affects their children's spoken
language, three quarters of them say 'No' Most of the parents do not feel
there is a loss of Identity if their children do not use the native language.
They regard English as an important international language.
 THE LANGUAGE CHOICE AMONG CHINESE-INDIAN
MIXED-MARRIAGE FAMILIES IN MALAYSIA 15

Conclusion and Recommenddations

In a multilingual nalion like Malaysia with so many languages and dialects,
the choice of language is not only in the public domain but also in the home
domain. Education, rural-urban migration, increased interracial interaction
and interracial marriages are among factors that infiuence language choice,
especially In the home domain. Malaysians have the option of choosing
which language(s) to use: Malay, the national language; English the second
language; the native languages, or a mixed discourse comprising several
languages.
In this study, the language choice among Malaysian Chindians I S
English. English has become a neutral language to 'bndge' the language
gaps between mixed marnage couples and their Chindian children. This is
especially true among educated parents with Chindian children living in
urban areas. English IS also the language used by some Chindians in their
homes, where traditionally, native languages dominated.
The Chindians do not see any need to use other languages besides
English as It IS also the language taught and spoken at school. The majonty
of children from mixed marnages Identify themselves as mostly Chindians
They do not regard themselves as either Chinese or Indian and hence, they
adopt English as their native language.
Notwithstanding the fact that Malay is the natIOnal language In the
work domain particularly In the private sector, the hnguistic code that IS
preferred by most Chindians speakers in the work domain IS Enghsh. It is
clear that English is also of great Importance when compared to Malay
The language choice of the Chindians IS noted in their preference of
language In both the workplace and school domains. Malay language,
however, IS identified as another popular choice when communicating with
others in schools or workplaces but not In places of worship. Chinese is
spoken too but not as often as English or Malay Tamil IS least spoken at
workplaces, schools or places of worship.
LIVing III an urban area where English is commonly used by speakers
of various races IS one factor which promotes the use of English. This is
supported by DaVid's (2008) study, which Identifies reSidency in an urban
area like Kuala Lumpur has undoubtedly affected and Infiuenced the
language chOice of Chindians children.
Parents' attitude does infiuence their children's language chOice. In
thiS study, parents who have a negative percepllon towards the native
languages Will indirectly encourage their Chindian children to choose a
neutral language, English. On the other hand, the other parents with
16 JOURNAL Of MODERN LANGUAGES

neutral perceptIOns toward the native languages do not affect the children's
language choice.
As this study only focuses on a small sample of Chindialls from urban
areas, a more m-depth study with a larger sample of Chindians from urban
and rural areas is recommended. More data on the language choice among
the Chindians can be obtamed through questionnaires, mtervlews as well
as observatlOns. This is merely a prelimmary study on Chindians and their
parents from urban areas only Hence, the results cannot be generalised
across the Malaysian population especially as the sample is taken randomly
from urban areas.

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