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Geothermal Binary Power Plants
Preliminary study of low

temperature utilization, cost
estimates and energy cost
With funding from

Preliminary study of low temperature utilization,

cost estimates and energy cost
Prepared by Verkis Consulting Engineers 2014, www.verkis.is

With funding from the Icelandic International Development Agency (ICEIDA),
www.iceida.is, under the Geothermal Exploration Project
Preliminary study of low temperature utilization, cost estimates and energy costs
Executive summary
This report was prepared in November 2013 - August 2014 by Verkís Consulting Engineers and is
funded by the Icelandic International Development Agency (ICEIDA). It is intended to contribute to
discussions on the possibilities for electricity generation from geothermal resources in East Africa
Rift Valley States, as a part of the ICEIDA and NDF funded Geothermal Exploration Project. The
objective is to explore the feasibility, and factors that influence feasibility, of electricity production
from binary power plants in the context of low temperature geothermal areas, providing a
reference point for further discussions once the resource potentials in the various countries are
recognized. The main task is to evaluate the economy of producing electricity with water below
150°C.
The binary technology allows for the production of electricity from resources that could otherwise
not be used for such a purpose, typically at reservoir temperatures between 100°C and 200°C In
a conventional steam power plant, the turbine is driven directly by the steam whereas in a binary
plant, the geothermal fluid is used indirectly by heating up the working fluid above its boiling point.
The binary production technology has recently become competitive due to higher energy prices
and subsidies to electricity generated with renewable energy resources. The binary technology for
production of energy from geothermal resources is therefore an option worth assessing in low and
medium temperature geothermal fields.
The characteristics of the geothermal resource is the basis for the design of the power plant and
has to be carefully investigated before the commissioning of the project. The most important
parameters are:
 Extent of the resource
 Temperature
 Flow from each well versus depth to water table in wells
 Depth of wells
 Chemical composition of the geothermal fluid
In this report the following assumptions are set as a base case for a geothermal field:
 Flow from each well: 40 l/s
 Depth of wells: 1.400 m
 Depth to water table: 150 m
 Pumps installed at depth: 200 m
 Distance between wells: 250 m
 Temperature of the geothermal fluid: 90°C – 150°C
In the report a study was performed on two working cycles, one and two stage, see Figure 1 and
Figure 2.
i
Working Fluid Vapour
Brine Generator
90-150°C
Boiler Turbine
Preheater
Air cooled
Working Fluid Condensate Condenser
Reinjection
Pump Cycle Condenser
Pump
Well Pump(s)
Production Reinjection
Well Well
Figure 1 One stage binary cycle

Turbine
Generator
Vaporizer
Recuperator
Preheater
Air Cooled
Condenser
Circulation Pump
Well Pump
Turbine
Generator
Vaporizer
Recuperator
Preheater
Air Cooled
Condenser
Circulation Pump
Reinjection Pump
Figure 2 Two stage binary cycle
ii
Five different sizes of power plants with 250 kW, 1000 KW, 2.500 kW, 5.000 kW and 10.000
kW generator output were introduced.
In Figure 3 the net production of the power plants is plotted as a function of the resource
temperature. The net power production is the electricity which can be sold. All parasitic loads
of the power plant have been subtracted from the gross generated power (well pumping not
included).
Figure 3 Net power as a function of temperature. The colored lines

indicate the generator size (gross product).
The annual production of electricity as well as requirements for control of the electrical
production highly depend on the type of electrical network. An island operation with the binary
plant as the only producer is not recommended. Connection to a strong network where a binary
plant will be a base load producer is the best way to operate the plant. An island operation in a
smaller isolated network in combination with a diesel generator is also possible.
In this study it is assumed that the turbine and generator will be located under a weather shield
and the electrical equipment and service facilities situated in a container or a building close to
the turbine. The whole area will have to be fenced off to shield it from animals and fend off
trespassers. Often geothermal areas are situated far from developed areas and often in rugged
volcanic terrains, and requires drill site preparation which involves road construction for heavy
equipment and transportation of employees.
Cost summary
The investment cost is divided into two parts, power plant and steam field respectively.The cost
estimate for the power plant is relatively secure although it may vary from one place to another
and from time to time. The cost of the field development may vary a lot due to the uncertainty
in acquiring an adequate amount of water. The cost estimate in this report is based on the base
assumptions mentioned previously. The actual cost of field development may deflect +50%
from the base case due to different conditions. Figure 4 shows the investment cost estimate for
the 5 different plant sizes and resource temperature from 90°C – 150°C
iii
Figure 4 Investment Cost of the plants, USD/kW generated
Table 1 shows the total annual cost i.e the annual operation and financial cost. Operation cost
includes all cost of personnel, maintenance and other conventional cost of operation.
The financial cost includes depreciation, loan interest and return on equity. For simplification
the annual financial cost is defined as a percentage of investment cost. The percentage is based
on depreciation period, estimated interest rate, required rate of return and equal distribution of
total financial cost, annuity. Two alternatives are presented for financial cost:
Fin 1
 Depreciation period 25 years
 Interest rate of loans 3,71%
 Rate of return of equity 15%
 Equity/loan ratio 30%/70%
 Average rate equity/loan 7,1%
Fin 2
 Depreciation period 25 years
 Interest rate of loans 3,71%
 Rate of return of equity 15%
 Equity/loan ratio 15%/85%
 Average rate equity/loan 5,4%
Table 1 Total annual cost
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Power Plants - Total Annual Cost

Single stage ORC cycle Two stage ORC cycle
Cost, MUSD /Year Cost, MUSD /Year

Generated O&M Fin. Fin. Total Total O&M Fin. Fin. Total Total
Power Cost Cost Cost I II Cost Cost Cost I II
kW I II I II
250 0,3 0,6 0,5 0,8 0,8 0,3 0,7 0,6 1,0 0,9
1000 0,6 2,3 2,0 2,9 2,5 0,6 2,8 2,4 3,4 3,0
90°C
2500 1,3 5,6 4,7 6,8 6,0 1,5 6,7 5,7 8,1 7,1
5000 2,2 10,8 9,2 13,1 11,5 2,6 13,0 11,1 15,6 13,7
10000 4,1 21,5 18,3 25,6 22,5 4,9 25,8 22,0 30,7 26,9
250 0,2 0,4 0,4 0,7 0,6 0,3 0,5 0,4 0,8 0,7
1000 0,5 1,7 1,4 2,1 1,9 0,5 2,0 1,7 2,5 2,2
100°C
2500 1,0 3,9 3,3 4,9 4,3 1,1 4,7 4,0 5,8 5,1
5000 1,7 7,6 6,4 9,2 8,1 1,9 9,1 7,7 11,0 9,6
10000 3,0 15,0 12,8 18,0 15,8 3,5 18,0 15,3 21,5 18,8
250 0,2 0,3 0,3 0,6 0,5 0,2 0,4 0,3 0,6 0,6
1000 0,4 1,3 1,1 1,7 1,5 0,4 1,5 1,3 2,0 1,7
110°C
2500 0,8 2,9 2,5 3,7 3,3 0,9 3,5 3,0 4,4 3,9
5000 1,3 5,5 4,7 6,8 6,0 1,5 6,6 5,7 8,1 7,2
10000 2,3 11,0 9,4 13,4 11,7 2,7 13,3 11,3 16,0 14,0
250 0,2 0,3 0,2 0,5 0,4 0,2 0,3 0,2 0,6 0,5
1000 0,3 1,0 0,8 1,3 1,2 0,4 1,2 0,8 1,6 1,2
120°C
2500 0,7 2,3 2,0 3,0 2,7 0,8 2,8 2,0 3,6 2,7
5000 1,1 4,3 3,7 5,4 4,8 1,2 5,2 3,6 6,4 4,9
10000 1,9 8,7 7,4 10,6 9,3 2,2 10,4 7,2 12,6 9,4
250 0,2 0,2 0,2 0,4 0,4 0,2 0,3 0,2 0,5 0,5
1000 0,3 0,8 0,7 1,1 1,0 0,3 1,0 0,8 1,3 1,2
130°C
2500 0,6 1,9 1,6 2,5 2,3 0,7 2,3 2,0 3,0 2,7
5000 0,9 3,5 3,0 4,5 4,0 1,1 4,2 3,6 5,3 4,7
10000 1,6 7,0 6,0 8,7 7,6 1,9 8,5 7,2 10,3 9,1
250 0,2 0,2 0,2 0,4 0,4 0,2 0,2 0,2 0,4 0,4
1000 0,3 0,7 0,6 1,0 0,9 0,3 0,9 0,7 1,2 1,0
140°C
2500 0,6 1,5 1,3 2,1 1,9 0,6 1,9 1,6 2,5 2,2
5000 0,8 2,9 2,5 3,8 3,4 1,0 3,5 3,0 4,5 4,0
10000 1,4 5,9 5,0 7,3 6,4 1,6 7,0 6,0 8,6 7,6
250 0,2 0,2 0,2 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,2 0,2 0,4 0,4
1000 0,3 0,6 0,5 0,9 0,8 0,3 0,7 0,6 1,0 0,9
150°C
2500 0,5 1,3 1,1 1,8 1,6 0,6 1,6 1,3 2,2 1,9
5000 0,8 2,5 2,2 3,3 2,9 0,9 3,1 2,6 3,9 3,5
10000 1,3 5,0 4,3 6,3 5,5 1,4 6,0 5,1 7,5 6,6
The production cost per kWh electricity is calculated from the total annual cost presented in Table
1 divided by the net annual energy production. The net energy production is defined as the net
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power presented in Figure 3 multiplied by the maximum annual production time defined as 0,96 x
8760 = 8.410 hours. This is the maximum production which can only be achived if the plant is
operated as a base plant connected to a large grid compared to plant size.
Table 2 shows the production cost based on the annual operation cost only and the total production
cost that includes annual operation and finance cost (two alternatives) as presented in Table 1.
The total cost of production of electricity according to Table 2 is: 7,3 to 61,9 UScent pr. kWh,
where of the operation (variable cost) is 1,7 to 17,9 depending on temperature and plant size. For
comparison the cost of oil for electricity produced in diesel engine is estimated to be 25,5
UScent/kWh.
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Table 2 Production Cost pr. kWh of net energy production

Power Plants – Production cost UScent/kwHnet
Generated Annual Cost, UScent/kWh Annual Cost, UScent/kWh
Power Energy Energy
kW sale sale
kWh O&M Total Total kWh O&M Total Total
Cost I II Cost I II
250 1.596.983 17,3 54,7 49,2 1.632.135 17,9 61,9 55,4

1000 6.893.349 8,5 41,9 37,0 7.032.948 9,4 48,7 42,9
90°C
2500 17.483.558 7,6 39,3 34,6 17.836.762 8,4 45,8 40,3

5000 35.135.309 6,6 37,6 33,1 35.816.486 7,5 44,0 38,6
10000 70.447.219 6,2 36,7 32,2 71.675.021 7,0 43,0 37,7
250 1.661.737 14,6 40,7 36,8 1.680.406 15,4 46,3 41,7
1000 7.152.365 6,6 29,7 26,3 7.227.210 7,3 34,7 30,7
100°C
2500 18.131.098 5,6 26,8 23,7 18.318.632 6,2 31,4 27,7

5000 36.438.797 4,7 25,2 22,2 36.808.819 5,3 29,7 26,1
10000 73.037.376 4,3 24,7 21,7 73.785.830 4,9 29,1 25,6
250 1.681.920 13,4 33,4 30,4 1.712.026 13,9 37,4 33,9
1000 7.233.097 5,5 23,1 20,5 7.351.672 6,0 26,8 23,7
110°C
2500 18.332.928 4,6 20,6 18,3 18.633.992 5,0 24,0 21,2

5000 36.834.048 3,7 18,9 16,7 37.439.539 4,1 22,1 19,5
10000 73.844.698 3,2 18,0 15,8 75.030.451 3,7 21,1 18,5
250 1.706.308 12,6 28,8 26,4 1.732.966 13,0 32,1 26,8
1000 7.328.966 4,8 18,8 16,7 7.435.768 5,2 21,8 17,0
120°C
2500 18.576.806 3,9 16,4 14,6 18.843.391 4,3 19,1 14,6

5000 37.321.805 3,0 14,7 13,0 37.855.814 3,4 17,1 12,9
10000 74.803.392 2,6 14,0 12,3 75.871.411 2,9 16,4 12,2
250 1.723.968 12,1 25,6 23,6 1.746.842 12,4 28,4 26,1
1000 7.399.607 4,4 15,9 14,2 7.493.795 4,7 18,4 16,4
130°C
2500 18.753.408 3,5 13,6 12,1 18.982.149 3,7 15,7 14,0

5000 37.666.598 2,6 12,0 10,6 38.141.741 2,9 14,0 12,3
10000 75.509.798 2,2 11,3 10,0 76.451.674 2,5 13,3 11,7
250 1.736.582 11,7 23,3 21,6 1.757.018 11,9 25,7 23,7
1000 7.450.906 4,0 13,8 12,3 7.532.479 4,3 15,8 14,1
140°C
2500 18.879.552 3,1 11,3 10,1 19.083.905 3,3 13,1 11,6

5000 37.927.296 2,3 10,1 8,9 38.336.003 2,5 11,8 10,4
10000 76.022.784 1,9 9,5 8,4 76.838.515 2,1 11,2 9,8
250 1.745.833 11,4 21,8 20,3 1.763.577 11,7 24,0 22,2
1000 7.488.749 3,7 12,1 10,9 7.558.212 4,0 14,0 12,5
150°C
2500 18.972.058 2,9 9,8 8,8 19.149.500 3,0 11,3 10,1

5000 38.120.717 2,1 8,8 7,8 38.459.624 2,3 10,2 9,1
10000 76.401.216 1,7 8,3 7,3 77.701.340 1,9 9,6 8,5
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Figure 5 shows the total production cost (Fin I) pr. net kWh in a binary power plant and the
corresponding cost of production in a diesel plant.
Figure 5 Comparison of total production cost per net kWh produced in a binary plant
and the corresponding cost for each kWh produced in a diesel plant. The
colored lines indicate the generator size (gross product).
Figure 6 shows the operation cost pr. net kWh in a binary power plant and the corresponding
operational cost in a diesel plant. The graph shows that operation of a binary plant costs less than
the oil in a diesel plant in all cases expect for a 250 kW plant using 90°C water. Therefore if a
diesel plant and a binary plant have been installed it is beneficial to produce as much electricity as
possible in the binary plant.
viii
Figure 6 Operation cost per net kWh in a binary plant and the corresponding
operational cost of a diesel plant. The colored lines indicate the generator
size (gross product).
The power delivered to the grid is the net power minus the power needed for pumping of wells.
In Figure 7 it is shown how water level and pumping depth affect the production cost. The price is
higher as the water level is lower as more energy is required to drive the pumps, thus leaving less
electricity to be sold.
Figure 7 Effect of water level and well pumping on production cost of energy
delivered to the grid in a 5 MW plant. The colored lines indicate the water level depth.
ix
Figure 8 shows the cost of power to the grid for the base case defined in Table 5-1. The pumping
depth is 200 m and the water level at 150 m.
Figure 8 Production cost of electricity delivered to the grid for a case where the well
pumping depth is 200 m and the water level at 150 m.
x
Contents
Executive summary ...................................................................................................... i
Contents .....................................................................................................................xi
List of figures ............................................................................................................. xii
List of tables ............................................................................................................. xiii
1 Introduction.................................................................................................. 15
1.1 Geothermal energy and the binary technology ....................................................... 15
2 Overview of the binary technology ................................................................ 18
2.1 Binary Process Description ................................................................................. 18
2.2 Case study ....................................................................................................... 20
3 Geothermal field ........................................................................................... 21
3.1 Geothermal Exploration ..................................................................................... 21
3.2 Production Wells ............................................................................................... 21
3.3 Reinjection Wells .............................................................................................. 24
3.4 Chemical Composition........................................................................................ 24
3.5 Well Field Piping ............................................................................................... 25
4 Power Plant .................................................................................................. 26
4.1 Preheater and Vaporizer ..................................................................................... 26
4.2 Heat Exchanger Pinch ........................................................................................ 26
4.3 Turbine............................................................................................................ 27
4.4 Working Media .................................................................................................. 27
4.5 Cooling Systems ............................................................................................... 28
4.6 Efficiency ......................................................................................................... 29
4.7 Auxiliary systems .............................................................................................. 29
4.8 Electricals and Controls ...................................................................................... 29
4.9 Plant Electrical Production Options ....................................................................... 31
4.10 Buildings and Roads .......................................................................................... 32
5 Process diagram ........................................................................................... 34
5.1 Single Stage ORC Cycle ..................................................................................... 34
5.2 Two-Stage Cycle ............................................................................................... 35
5.3 Results ............................................................................................................ 36
6 Capital Cost Estimate .................................................................................... 38
6.1 Geothermal Field – cost estimates ....................................................................... 38
6.2 Cost of Power Plant ........................................................................................... 40
6.3 Total Investment Cost ....................................................................................... 42
7 Operation and Production ............................................................................. 46
7.1 Plant Operation and Maintenance Overview ........................................................... 46
7.2 Production cost ................................................................................................. 51
7.3 Influence of Well Pumping on Production Cost ....................................................... 54
8 Environmental and Risk Management ............................................................ 56
8.1 Environmental Impact ....................................................................................... 56
8.2 Risk Management.............................................................................................. 57
9 Project Implementation ................................................................................ 59
9.1 Project Development Phases and Planning ............................................................ 59
9.2 Overview of Technology Suppliers ....................................................................... 60
9.3 Overview of Installed Binary Power Stations.......................................................... 61
9.4 Operation and Training ...................................................................................... 62
xi
10 Conclusions ................................................................................................... 63
11 Bibliography.................................................................................................. 64
Appendices................................................................................................................ 65
Appendix A – Simple layout of a binary plant, 150°C geothermal fluid temperature and 10 MW 66
Appendix B – Process Diagrams – Detailed Simulation Results ............................................. 67
Appendix C – Cost Results .............................................................................................. 75
List of figures
FIGURE 1 ONE STAGE BINARY CYCLE ............................................................................ II
FIGURE 2 TWO STAGE BINARY CYCLE ............................................................................ II
FIGURE 3 NET POWER AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE. THE COLORED LINES INDICATE TO THE
GENERATOR SIZE (GROSS PRODUCT). .............................................................. III
FIGURE 4 INVESTMENT COST OF THE PLANTS USD/KW GENERATED .......................................IV
FIGURE 5 COMPARISON OF TOTAL PRODUCTION COST PER NET KWH PRODUCED IN A BINARY PLANT AND
AND THE CORRESPONDING COST FOR EACH PRODUCED KWH IN A DIESEL PLANT. THE
COLORED LINES INDICATE TO THE GENERATOR SIZE (GROSS PRODUCT). ..................... VIII
FIGURE 6 OPERATION COST PER NET KWH IN A BINARY PLANT AND THE CORRESPONDING OPERATIONAL
COST OF A DIESEL PLANT. THE COLORED LINES INDICATE TO THE GENERATOR SIZE (GROSS
PRODUCT). ..............................................................................................IX
FIGURE 7 EFFECT OF WATER LEVEL AND WELL PUMPING ON PRODUCTION COST OF ENERGY DELIVERED
TO THE GRID IN A 5 MW PLANT. THE COLORED LINES INDICATE THE WATER LEVEL DEPTH. .IX
FIGURE 8 PRODUCTION COST OF ELECTRICITY DELIVERED TO THE GRID FOR A CASE WHERE THE WELL
PUMPING DEPTH IS 200 M AND WATER LEVEL AT 150 M. ......................................... X
FIGURE 1-1 GEOTHERMAL UTILIZATION (ADAPTED FROM THE LINDAL DIAGRAM) .......................... 15
FIGURE 2-1 SINGLE STAGE ORC CYCLE ......................................................................... 18
FIGURE 2-2 TWO STAGE ORC CYCLE WITH AN AIR COOLED CONDENSER.................................... 19
FIGURE 3-1 CASING PROGRAM FOR A LOW TEMPERATURE WELL .............................................. 22
FIGURE 3-2 LINE SHAFT DEEP WELL PUMP ....................................................................... 23
FIGURE 3-3 EFFECT OF PUMPING HEIGHT ON NET OUTPUT OF 5 MW BINARY PLANT. GEOTHERMAL
RESOURCE TEMPERATURE 120°C. ................................................................. 24
FIGURE 4-1 TYPICAL LAYOUT OF A 10 MW TWO STAGE CYCLE BINARY POWER PLANT ..................... 26
FIGURE 4-2 WORKING FLUID COMPARISON ..................................................................... 27
FIGURE 4-3 BASIC LAYOUT OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT........................................................ 30
FIGURE 4-4 BINARY PLANT AND DIESEL GENERATOR COMBINATION.......................................... 32
FIGURE 4-5 WEATHER SHIELD OVER A TURBINE AT THE OLKARIA FIELD IN KENYA ........................ 32
FIGURE 4-6 SIMPLE LAYOUT OF A 10 MW PLANT, 150°C GEOTHERMAL FLUID. ........................... 33
FIGURE 5-1 HEAT AND MASS BALANCE DIAGRAM OF A 10 MW SINGLE STAGE ORC CYCLE. GEOTHERMAL
FLUID TEMPERATURE IS 120°C. ................................................................... 34
FIGURE 5-2 HEAT AND MASS BALANCE DIAGRAM FOR A 10 MW TWO STAGE ORC CYCLE. GEOTHERMAL
FLUID TEMPERATURE IS 120°C. ................................................................... 35
FIGURE 5-3 NET POWER AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE. THE COLORED LINES INDICATE THE
GENERATOR SIZE (GROSS PRODUCT) .............................................................. 36
FIGURE 5-4 MASS FLOW OF GEOTHERMAL FLUID IN KG/S REQUIRED PER EACH UNIT. THE COLORED LINES
INDICATE THE GENERATOR SIZE (GROSS PRODUCT) ............................................. 37
FIGURE 6-1 COST OF FIELD DEVELOPMENT PER NET KW GENERATED - SINGLE STAGE CYCLE. THE
COLORED LINES INDICATE THE GENERATOR SIZE (GROSS PRODUCT). ......................... 39
FIGURE 6-2 COST OF FIELD DEVELOPMENT PER NET KW GENERATED - TWO STAGE CYCLE. THE COLORED
LINES INDICATE THE GENERATOR SIZE (GROSS PRODUCT). .................................... 40
FIGURE 6-3 COST OF POWER PLANT PER NET KW GENERATED - SINGLE STAGE CYCLE. THE COLORED
LINES INDICATE THE GENERATOR SIZE (GROSS PRODUCT). .................................... 41
xii
FIGURE 6-4 COST OF POWER PLANT PER NET KW GENERATED - 2 STAGE CYCLE. THE COLORED LINES
INDICATE THE GENERATOR SIZE (GROSS PRODUCT). ............................................ 42
FIGURE 6-5 TOTAL INVESTMENT COST PER KW GENERATED - SINGLE STAGE CYCLE. THE COLORED LINES
INDICATE TO THE GENERATOR SIZE (GROSS PRODUCT). ........................................ 44
FIGURE 6-6 TOTAL INVESTMENT COST PER NET KW GENERATED - 2 STAGE CYCLE. THE COLORED LINES
INDICATE THE GENERATOR SIZE (GROSS PRODUCT). ............................................ 44
FIGURE 7-1 COMPARISON OF TOTAL PRODUCTION COST PER NET KWH PRODUCED IN A BINARY PLANT AND
AND THE CORRESPONDING COST FOR EACH PRODUCED KWH IN A DIESEL PLANT. THE
COLORED LINES INDICATE THE GENERATOR SIZE (GROSS PRODUCT). ......................... 53
FIGURE 7-2 OPERATION COST PER NET KWH IN A BINARY PLANT AND THE CORRESPONDING OPERATIONAL
COST OF A DIESEL PLANT. THE COLORED LINES INDICATE THE GENERATOR SIZE (GROSS
PRODUCT). ............................................................................................ 54
FIGURE 7-3 EFFECT OF WATER LEVEL AND WELL PUMPING ON PRODUCTION COST OF ENERGY DELIVERED
TO THE GRID IN A 5 MW PLANT. THE COLORED LINES INDICATE THE WATER LEVEL DEPTH. 54
FIGURE 7-4 PRODUCTION COST OF ELECTRICITY DELIVERED TO THE GRID FOR A CASE WHERE THE WELL
PUMPING DEPTH IS 200 M AND WATER LEVEL AT 150 M. ....................................... 55
FIGURE 9-1 ROUGH DRAFT OF A TYPICAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN FOR A BINARY PLANT. ...................... 59
FIGURE B-1 MASS FLOW OF GEOTHERMAL FLUID REQUIRED PER KWNET IN A ONE STAGE BINARY CYCLE.
THE COLORED LINES INDICATE TO THE GENERATOR SIZE (GROSS PRODUCT). ............... 70
FIGURE B-2 PERCENTAGE OF NET POWER OF TOTAL GENERATED ELECTRICITY IN THE ONE STAGE ORC
CYCLE PLANT. THE COLORED LINES INDICATE TO THE GENERATOR SIZE (GROSS PRODUCT).
......................................................................................................... 71
FIGURE B-3 MASS FLOW OF GEOTHERMAL FLUID REQUIRED PER KWNET IN THE TWO STAGE BINARY CYCLE
PLANTS. THE COLORED LINES INDICATE TO THE GENERATOR SIZE (GROSS PRODUCT). ..... 73
FIGURE B-4 PERCENTAGE OF NET POWER OF TOTAL GENERATED ELECTRICITY IN THE TWO STAGE ORC
CYCLE PLANTS. THE COLORED LINES INDICATE TO THE GENERATOR SIZE (GROSS PRODUCT).
......................................................................................................... 74
List of tables
TABLE 1 TOTAL ANNUAL COST...................................................................................IV
TABLE 2 PRODUCTION COST PR. KWH OF NET ENERGY PRODUCTION ..................................... VII
TABLE 3-1 GEOTHERMAL EXPLORATION SUMMARY............................................................ 21

TABLE 5-1 DESIGN PREMISE OF THE ORC CYCLES............................................................ 34
TABLE 6-1 CAPITAL COST OF INDIVIDUAL WELL, INCL. PUMP ................................................ 38
TABLE 6-2 CAPITAL COST FOR 40 L/S SUPPLIED FROM THE GEOTHERMAL FIELD .......................... 39
TABLE 6-3 ELEMENTS INCLUDED IN THE MAIN COST ITEMS .................................................. 41
TABLE 6-4 INVESTMENT COST OF POWER PLANT AND STEAM FIELD (BASE CASE) ......................... 43
TABLE 7-1 REQUIREMENT FOR EMPLOYEES PER SHIFT ........................................................ 46
TABLE 7-2 YEARLY COST OF PER EMPLOYEE .................................................................... 46
TABLE 7-3 COST SCHEDULE FOR PLANT OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE COST ............................ 47
TABLE 7-4 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE COST FOR EACH UNIT ........................................... 48
TABLE 7-5 FINANCIAL COST ASSUMPTIONS ................................................................... 49
TABLE 7-6 TOTAL ANNUAL COST ................................................................................ 50
TABLE 7-7 PRODUCTION COST PER NET KWH.................................................................. 52
TABLE 8-1 TYPICAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS. ............................................................... 56
TABLE 8-2 TYPICAL RISKS RELATED TO GEOTHERMAL BINARY POWER PLANT PROJECTS .................. 58
TABLE 9-1 OVERVIEW OF INSTALLED BINARY POWER STATIONS (BERTANI,2010) ...................... 61
TABLE B-1 SINGLE STAGE ORC CYCLE, 90°C GEOTHERMAL FLUID......................................... 68

TABLE B-2 SINGLE STAGE ORC CYCLE, 100°C GEOTHERMAL FLUID. ...................................... 68
TABLE B-3 SINGLE STAGE ORC CYCLE, 110°C GEOTHERMAL FLUID ....................................... 68
xiii
TABLE B-8 TWO STAGE ORC CYCLE, 90°C GEOTHERMAL FLUID. ........................................... 71
TABLE B-9 TWO STAGE ORC CYCLE, 100°C GEOTHERMAL FLUID. ......................................... 72
TABLE B-10 TWO STAGE ORC CYCLE, 110°C GEOTHERMAL FLUID .......................................... 72
TABLE C-1 YEARLY COST OF SPARE PARTS, MAINTENANCE AND INSURANCES ............................ 75
TABLE C-2 ANNUAL WELL REPLACEMENT COST ............................................................... 75
TABLE C-3 ANNUAL COST OF PERSONNEL ...................................................................... 75
TABLE C-4 ANNUAL O&M COST ................................................................................. 75
TABLE C-5 SINGLE STAGE ORC CYCLE PRODUCTION COST ESTIMATE, DIFFERENT PUMPING DEPTHS. 75
TABLE C-6 TWO STAGE ORC CYCLE PRODUCTION COST ESTIMATE, DIFFERENT PUMPING DEPTHS.... 75
xiv
1 Introduction
This report was prepared in November 2013 - September 2014 by Verkís Consulting Engineers and
is funded by the Icelandic International Development Agency (ICEIDA). It is intended to
contribute to discussions on the possibilities for electricity generation from geothermal resources
in East Africa Rift Valley States, as a part of the ICEIDA and NDF funded Geothermal Exploration
Project. The objective is to explore the feasibility, and factors that influence feasibility, of electricity
production from binary power plants in the context of low temperature (<150°C) geothermal
areas, providing a reference point for further discussions once the resource potentials in the
various countries are recognized.
1.1 Geothermal energy and the binary technology

Geothermal energy is thermal energy which is generated and stored in the Earth. Utilization of
geothermal resources has been known for over 2000 years. The utilization of geothermal energy
depends highly on the resource temperature as is shown in Figure 1-1 below.
Figure 1-1 Geothermal utilization (adapted from the Lindal diagram)
Geothermal resources are usually divided into two categories:

 Low temperature <150°C at the depth of 1000 m.
 Intermediate-temperature 150-200 °C at depth of 1000 m.
 High-temperature >200°C at the depth of 1000 m.
Figure 1-1 shows the Lindal diagram where utilization at different resource temperature is
presented. Utilization of geothermal water 20 – 50°C for bathing has been well known for ages.
Geothermal water at temperature 50 – 100°C is well suited for space heating and as tap water.
Water in the same temperature range is also suitable in various kinds of farming, green houses
etc.
The utilization of geothermal energy for the generation of electricity is more recent, with the first
geothermal power plant established in 1904 in Lardarello.High temperature resources are suitable
for generation of electricity by steam condensing turbines, i.e. similar types of turbines as in
conventional coal and oil fired power plants. The technology for harnessing geothermal energy is
now considered mature and geothermal energy offers nowadays one of the most competitive
sources of renewable energy. As a result, the world installed geothermal power capacity has
increased rapidly over the past decade and in 2012, installed geothermal power plant production
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capacity in the world was approximately 11.200 MW (Jennejohn, Hines, Gawell, & Blodgett, 2012).
Contribution from geothermal steam condensing power plants to energy production worldwide is
expected to grow significantly in the next 20 years. The locations of such plants will however be
limited to high temperature areas, i.e. where the temperature of the geothermal resource is higher
than 200°C. Medium to low temperature geothermal fields, with temperatures between 100°C and
200°C, can be found all over the world. Such fields cannot be utilized for power generation with
steam condensing turbines. However binary technology has opened up new opportunities for
producing electricity from low and medium temperature geothermal fluids. The technology is based
on the use of a working fluid with a low boiling point where the geothermal water is used to heat
up the organic fluid.
The first binary units for generation of electricity by geothermal resources were installed around
1980. The production cost in binary plants is higher than that of conventional steam plants and
therefore such power plants have long been uncompetitive compared to coal and oil fired plants.
However, both conventional and binary production technology have recently become more
competitive due to higher energy prices and subsidies to electricity production from geothermal
resources.
Geothermal fluid at temperatures as low as 75°C can be used in binary power plants. The binary
cycle technology is also a viable option where the chemical composition of the geothermal brine is
not suitable for direct use in steam turbines. The use of binary cycles has also increased in high
temperature geothermal field where reinjection of geothermal fluid is essential to manage the
reservoir over time or if reinjection is mandatory.
Low temperature fields are more common than high temperature fields and often more accessible
and/or closer to potential end-users. Binary technology is expected to play a significant part in the
future development of power generation from geothermal resources. Binary units can be as small
as 250 kW and can even be provided as container modules, contributing to reduced risks related
to the geothermal resource.
Utilization of the binary technology for production of power from geothermal energy is therefore
an option worth assessing for project developers having medium or low temperature geothermal
resource fields in their portfolio. This report is meant to explore this option.
Report context and case study

High temperature fields with great potential for electricity generation with steam turbines can be
found in the northern part of the Great Rift Valley in East Africa, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Eritrea and
Kenya. Geothermal fields with lower temperature are located in the south-western part of the Rift
Valley and might be suitable for power production from binary cycles given that the temperature
and size of the reservoirs are sufficient.
The Icelandic International Development Agency (ICEIDA) and the Nordic Development Fund
(NDF) launched in 2012 a project to support geothermal exploration in East Africa. The report has
been prepared in this context.
The report features a case study where the temperature of the geothermal resources and the plant
production capacity are variable parameters. The geothermal resource parameter range selected
is 90-150°C and the production capacity (installed generator capacity) varies from 250 kW – 10
MW.
The report is structured to present an overview of the main elements of a geothermal binary power
project and present results from the case study:
• Overview of the binary technology
• Description of the main elements of a geothermal binary power plant project
• Process Diagrams
• Capital Cost Estimate
• Operation and Production cost estimate
• Environmental and risk management
• Project implementation
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For clarification, a few definitions are convenient to keep in mind while reading the report:
Gross Power is the rated generated power produced, generator size.
Net Power is the power from the power plant left when the plants own consumption (parasitic
loads) has been substracted from the gross power (does not include well pumping).
Power to the grid is the net power produced by the power plant where the well pumping
power has also been subtracted.
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2 Overview of the binary technology

In this chapter a general description of the binary power plant cycle and the design premises used
in the case study are described. The chapter also covers the main factors, plant parameters and
environmental conditions, which may affect the cost and efficiency of the plants.
2.1 Binary Process Description

The binary technology allows for production of electricity from low temperature resources that
otherwise could not be used for such a purpose. In a conventional steam power plant, the turbine
is driven directly by the steam for power production whereas in a binary plant, the geothermal
fluid is used indirectly. It vaporizes in a closed-loop a working fluid that is then used to drive the
turbine for power generation. Various working fluids are available and are presented further in the
section on cycles.
Typical heat sources suitable for electricity production with binary plants are:
• Geothermal two phase source;
• Geothermal water between 90-200°C, and even with temperatures as low as 75°C
depending on the cooling potential of the cold end
• Waste heat from industrial processes and geothermal single flash cycles (bottoming
plants)
The binary technology is usually split into two categories:
• Organic Rankine cycle (ORC)
• Kalina cycle
The Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) technology is commonly used for electricity production from low
enthalpy reservoirs or for bottoming plants in steam power plants. Most of the geothermal binary
cycle power plants currently in operation in the world are of the ORC type.
Figure 2-1 below features the most basic binary cycle. The diagram describes a single stage ORC
cycle with an air cooled condenser.
Working Fluid Vapour
Brine Generator
90-150°C
Boiler Turbine
Preheater
Air cooled
Working Fluid Condensate Condenser
Reinjection
Pump Cycle Condenser
Pump
Well Pump(s)
Production Reinjection
Well Well
Figure 2-1 Single stage ORC cycle
In an ORC plant where geothermal fluid is the heat source, the fluid is passed through a closed
heat exchanger. The geothermal fluid is used to heat the working fluid on the other side, which
vaporizes during the process. The vapour created is admitted to and expanded in a turbine, similar
to the geothermal steam in a steam plant turbine, producing shaft power to a generator. After
this step, the working fluid is exhausted to a condenser where the working fluid/vapour is
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condensed and then pumped back to the heat exchangers for the cycle to be repeated. The
condenser is a closed heat exchanger in which the cooling medium is usually cold water or air.
The thermal efficiency of binary cycles is typically between 7-15%, that is 7-15% of the heat
supplied to the system by the geothermal fluid is converted to electrical energy compared to 10-
23% in single flash plants. The thermal efficiency of a single stage ORC cycle can be improved by
adding another cycle with lower pressure. This type of cycle is called a two-stage cycle or a
cascade cycle and is presented in Figure 3
Turbine
Generator
Vaporizer
Recuperator
Preheater
Air Cooled
Condenser
Circulation Pump
Well Pump
Turbine
Generator
Vaporizer
Recuperator
Preheater
Air Cooled
Condenser
Circulation Pump
Reinjection Pump
Figure 2-2 Two stage ORC cycle with an air cooled condenser
The Kalina cycle utilizes ammonia and water as working fluids where the concentration of ammonia
is changing during the process. It is based on a closed cycle in which a mixture of water and
ammonia (NH3-H2O) serves as the heat transfer medium (refrigerant). The Kalina process is most
suitable at 100-140°C. Only few Kalina plants have been built worldwide despite an advantageous
thermodynamic efficiency. Plant and equipment manufacturers have few references and some of
the plants put into operation using the Kalina cycle have encountered severe start-up and/or
operational problems. Due to such limited experience of the process and the equipment, the Kalina
process will not be discussed further in this report.
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2.2 Case study

The report covers 5 different plant sizes defined as generator net outputs,
• 250 kW
• 1000 kW
• 2500 kW
• 5000 kW
• 10000 kW
Each plant was simulated with different geothermal fluid temperatures

• 90°C
• 100°C
• 110°C
• 120°C
• 130°C
• 150°C
Part of the generator net output is required for the plant’s own consumption. In wells which
require pumping power, requirements can vary between locations. Effects of well pumping on
production will be introduced in chapter 7.3 for a 5 MWgross plant.
The working cycles were optimized so as to use as little geothermal fluid as possible. Heat loss
in well field piping is neglected in the calculations.
The working fluid used in the calculations is isopentane, which is the most common working
fluid used in binary applications.
It was decided to use air cooled condensers as a base case in this study although water cooling
is the best cooling source if it is available. The reason is that access to cooling water in remote
areas can be costly in terms of installation costs and energy demand, especially when pumping
is required and access to water might also be limited or restricted in the areas chosen.
The ambient temperature chosen for the case study is 30°C and the effect of temperature
fluctuations between day and night is neglected.
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3 Geothermal field
As in all geothermal projects, the characteristics of the geothermal resource are fundamental
issues for binary power plants and will be the basis for the design of the power plant. Detailed
investigations of the geothermal field before decision making is therefore of utmost importance.
An investigation starts with surface exploration followed by test drilling. Geothermal exploration
has to be carried out before drilling can start. Typical information gathered by field investigations
includes (list non exhaustive):
• Extent of the geothermal field.
• Capacity of the geothermal resource.
• Temperature of the resource.
• Estimated flow rate from each well v.s drawdown in the well or well head pressure.
• Estimated distance between wells.
• Chemical composition of the geothermal fluid.
• Influence of reinjection on flow rates from well and field capacity.
3.1 Geothermal Exploration

The exploration phase is extremely important for evaluation of the field capacity and successful
siting of wells. The exploration process might be lengthy but is relatively cheap compared to drilling
and the construction of a plant. The phases related to identification and exploration of the
geothermal field are aimed at confirming the existence of a geothermal reservoir suitable for power
production. This subject will not be discussed any further here as it is not directly related to binary
technology. As described in section 7.1 on project development phases and planning, the
bankability of the project will be assessed during these phases since the extent, characteristics
and expected output of the geothermal resource are key elements for the project.
Geothermal exploration has to be carried out before drilling can start. Geothermal exploration
assesses the subsurface of a geothermal area. The goal of the exploration is to estimate the extent
of the utilization area, locate permeable fractures, possible production locations and capacity.
Major geothermal exploration activities are listed in Table 3-1 (list non exhaustive)
Table 3-1 Geothermal Exploration Summary
Exploration Activity Details
Geological mapping Mapping of:
 Hot springs, fumaroles and other surface manifestations
which might indicate geothermal activity
 Mapping of strike and dip of lava piles
 Mapping of dykes, faults and fissures
Chemical analysis Chemical analysis of cold groundwater, hot spring water and
rocks.
Ground magnetic measurements To estimate locations of faults and fractures in the rock.
Resistivity measurements Changes in resistivity in the rock indicating flow lines and
distribution of water in the system.
Test drilling Drilling of temperature gradient wells in an effort to estimate
temperature of the reservoir and possible flow rate.
Soil temperature measurements Indicators of geothermal activity.
3.2 Production Wells

Drilling is one of the most expensive operations in preparing a geothermal power plant. It is also
related to the development phase that is the most risky from the financial point of view due to
uncertainty in acquiring hot fluid.
The technique of geothermal well drilling is initially adapted from the oil-and gas drilling industry.
The depth of conventional high temperature geothermal well varies from 500 to 3000 m and even
up to 5.000 m. Most of the wells are 1.000 to 2000 m in depth. The wells are lined with casings
which have the purpose of sealing off unwanted aquifers and support the well walls. The material
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cost, building and set up of the casing is high. An increased casing depth can increase the price
dramatically.
Low temperature drilling is slightly less complicated due to a lower pressure in the reservoir and
less risk of steam blowouts during drilling.
Low temperature wells are nowadays cased down to an approximately 300-800 meter depth. If
the water level in the well is lowered, the well needs to be cased further down. There are three
main types of casing in low temperature wells
• Surface casing 4-20 m
• Anchor casing 60-100 m
• Production casing 100-800 m
Figure 3-1 below features a typical casing program for a low temperature well, showing the casing
structure and levels of depth.
Figure 3-1 Casing program for a low temperature well
On the top of the well are a flange and a valve. The water can either flow freely from the well or
require pumping. Flow from a self-flowing well is sometimes enhanced by adding a pumping unit.
Well pumps are classified in two categories:
• Submersible pumps
• Deep well pumps (line shaft turbine pump).
Both submersible and deep well pumps are centrifugal pumps. The main difference is the location
of the motor. In submersible pumps, the pump and the motor are submerged in the well. This
makes it possible to pump water from deeper levels, and in inclined wells.
The motor used in deep well pumps is placed on a flange on the wellhead. The motor is used to
drive a pump on a composite shaft which can reach a few hundred meters down the well. The deep
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well pumps are suitable at higher temperatures (200°C). Figure 3-2 presents the main components
of a deep well pump where the line shaft bearings are lubricated with geothermal water.
In this study, it is assumed that a line shaft deep well pump is used because of the temperature
range.
Figure 3-2 Line shaft deep well pump
The pump height and the flow of water decide the amount of power needed to drive the pump.
The power for the pump is taken from the production and thus decreases the amount of salable
power. Figure 3-3 shows the effect the pumping height has on the pump power and the net
power in a 5 MW power plant with a geothermal resource temperature of 120°C. Increased
pumping height results in a decrease in a net output of the plant and an increased startup cost
due larger pumps.
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Figure 3-3 Effect of pumping height on net output of 5 MW binary plant. Geothermal
resource temperature 120°C.
3.3 Reinjection Wells

Reinjection of geothermal fluid into a reservoir after its utilization has become a subject of debate.
The idea of reinjection is to sustain pressure in the reservoir and to prolong its lifetime. The choice
of location for reinjection wells is a delicate matter due to the cooling effects that reinjection may
have on the reservoir or its effects if coming in contact with groundwater.
In some countries reinjection is required by law. In some cases it is necessary to reinject the
geothermal fluid due to its chemical composition and the effect of its disposal on nearby
ecosystems.
Reinjection wells are similar to production wells. In some places free flow down the reinjection
wells is possible whereas it might be necessary to pump the water down elsewhere. Determination
of necessary wellhead pressure at the reinjection wells has to be based on exploration and well
testing.
3.4 Chemical Composition

The chemical composition of the geothermal water has to be taken into account when designing a
geothermal binary power plant. The concentrations of minerals will affect the design of the heat
extraction process. Upon cooling and/or degassing of the geothermal fluid, minerals can precipitate
and cause scaling in the equipment. The scaling can clog equipment and injection wells, making
them inoperable. Also, high salinity solutions may be corrosive especially at low pH and when put
in contact with atmospheric oxygen.
Geothermal brine usually contains non condensable gases which escape from the brine when the
pressure decreases. These gases are commonly, in order of concentration, Carbon dioxide (CO2),
hydrogen sulphide (H2S), methane (CH4), hydrogen(H2), Argon (Ar)and nitrogen (N2). The escape
of the latter two does not affect the acidity of the fluid. A common scaling problem is the formation
of calcite. Calcite scale is highly dependent on the pH of the brine which is mostly controlled by
the concentrations of CO2 and H2S. CO2 is usually in higher concentration and therefore has a
greater effect on the pH. Degassing of CO2 from the brine increases with lower pressure. Escape
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of CO2 from the fluid will elevate the pH, thus inducing the formation of calcite. If the degassing
begins inside the production well, the well may clog up and become inoperable and if the pressure
in the surface equipment drops below water saturation pressure, the geothermal fluid will boil
inside the equipment. The steam and CO2 are then separated from the fluid, leaving the fluid
supersaturated with calcite. The calcite will accumulate in the surface equipment which may result
in damage and/or decrease the efficiency of the heat exchangers.
It is technically possible to prevent or minimize calcite scaling. There are three main methods:
• Firstly, alkalinity of the fluid can be reduced by addition of acid.
• Secondly, the pressure can be controlled to avoid degassing of CO2.
• Thirdly, calcite scaling can be inhibited by addition of specific inhibitors prior to
degassing.
The solubility of calcite increases with lower temperature. Therefore calcite scaling in the
reinjection system is not likely to become a problem. The situation is different regarding silica
scaling where the solubility decreases with lower temperature. High temperature geothermal liquid
often has a high silica content. When the geothermal liquid is cooled down it may become
supersaturated with consequent scaling problems. The silica content of the geothermal liquid often
puts a limit on how much the liquid may be cooled down, i.e. how much energy it is possible to
extract from the geothermal resource. For the temperature range dealt with in this report silica
scaling is not likely to become a problem.
Proper design and availability of relevant chemical data are key factors to handle scaling and avoid
operational problems.
3.5 Well Field Piping

The most economical way of well field planning and plant location is to locate the plant in the
middle of the field. Such configuration minimizes distances between gathering and reinjection
pipes. It results in a lower capital cost and a minimized temperature drop in the pipeline.
In this report the average distance between the wells is assumed to be 250 m. Locations of the
wells and the topography of the field are among the main parameters impacting the well field
piping systems. If the wells are drilled in line, it is possible to have one collective pipe with branches
connecting each well to the main pipe. If however they are distributed around the power plant,
the pattern will be more complicated.
The gathering and reinjection pipes can be both above ground and underground. Pre-insulated
steel pipes are available for underground piping with temperatures up to 150°C. The most common
surface pipes are steel pipes isolated with rock wool and aluminium cladding.
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4 Power Plant
This section presents the main components of geothermal binary power plants and describes the
design premises used in the case study.
A simple layout of a binary power plant is shown in Figure 4-1. This layout describes a single cycle
plant which has two turbines and a joint generator in the middle. Double flow turbines are used to
minimize the effect of forces on the support which can be a problem with larger single flow turbines
where the flow is only in one direction. The large green area represents the air cooled condensers
which occupy the largest area of the plant site. A more detailed layout drawing is shown in
Appendix A.
Figure 4-1 Typical layout of a 10 MW two stage cycle binary power plant
4.1 Preheater and Vaporizer

Both the preheater and vaporizers are closed heat exchangers, meaning there is no contact
between the geothermal fluid and the working fluid. They can either be shell & tube or plate heat
exchangers. The shell and tube heat exchangers are preferred for the binary application because
they are easier to operate. The pressure at the shell and tube heat exchangers is easier to control,
an important property to control to avoid escape of gases from the geothermal fluid and
precipitation. They are furthermore easier to clean. Shell and tube heat exchangers are however
more expensive and take up more space than the plate type.
4.2 Heat Exchanger Pinch

Pinch temperature in the heat exchanger is the minimum temperature difference which can be
attained between the two sides on a certain heat exchanger area, i.e. the minimum temperature
difference between the working fluid and the geothermal brine.
Low pinch values will contribute to higher plant efficiency but at the same time as it will contribute
to higher capital costs. The lower the pinch value, the higher the price of the heat exchangers. A
low pinch value implies a larger heat exchanger area and eventually the selection of more
expensive material.
For the case study featured here, a heat exchanger pinch of 7,5°C has been assumed to reflect
the most common value used for binary plants
In practice, the choice of pinch temperature is an optimization exercise, between cost and
efficiency and the final choice is in the hands of plant vendor.
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4.3 Turbine
Although buying and installing individual equipment is an option, most binary plants are nowadays
supplied as turn-key plants, i.e one company supplies the equipment: heat exchangers, turbine(s),
generator, cooling system, control and instrumentation. As introduced in section 9, there are more
and more equipment manufacturers able to supply binary plants.
The choice of material depends on the working fluid used in the loop. The case study features
relatively small plants ranging from 250 to 10.000 kW. Standard turbines are available on the
market for this range and it is common to have a single or a double flow turbine, the single/double
flow corresponding to the number of inlets. Single flow is usually considered sufficient for smaller
power plants. Double flow turbines are often used for larger plants and have the advantage of
allowing for shutdown of one inlet without a complete production shutdown. It is common to have
two turbines to drive one generator installed on one shaft between the turbines for binary plants
larger than 5 MW.
4.4 Working Media

The boiling point of the working fluid in an ORC cycle has to be lower than the temperature of the
geothermal fluid. The most common working fluids used for binary application are hydrocarbons
such as isopentane and isobutane. Others include ammonia, R134a and R245fa, the last two being
hydrofluorcarbons well known in the refrigeration industry as they are mainly used in refrigeration
equipment.
In Figure 3.2 a comparison of fluids is shown, for each fluid the process is optimized for maximum
net output in a 5 MW plant.
Isopentane and isobutane are the most widely used organic working fluids for binary applications
despite their high flammability.
Figure 4-2 Working fluid comparison
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4.5 Cooling Systems

Access to a cold sink is as important as access to a heat source for a binary power plant. The
temperature of the cold source influences the power output of the plant significantly: the greater
the temperature difference between the two media, the more the energy can be extracted from
the system.
All condensers in binary plants are closed, with no contact between the working fluid and the
cooling agent. There are three main types of cooling: direct water cooling, evaporative cooling
towers and air cooled condensers. They all involve a closed heat exchanger due to the closed
working fluid loop.
4.5.1 Air Cooled Condenser

Air cooled condensers are used in places where no water is available or in places where water
cannot be used due to environmental restrictions. The efficiency of air cooled condensers is highly
dependent on the ambient conditions. Such cooling systems present good efficiency in places
where the weather is cold. They are suitable where ambient air (dry bulb) temperatures are low
and are most effective during winter when temperatures are below 0°C.
The largest drawback of air cooled condensers is their dependency on air temperature and humidity
level. Variation in the outdoor condition over the year may cause the output of the plant to drop
for instance during hot summer days due to insufficient cooling capacity of the cold sink. Their
function is hampered during hot summer days when humidity is low. Losses in cooling capacity of
the condenser decrease the production capacity of the power plant. In locations where continental
climate is dominant the output drop can be up to 50% during the day due to insufficient cooling.
Air cooled condensers furthermore occupy a large area. They also require high fan power to run
the system, and this might affect the performance of the plant. The size of the heat exchanger
area is a matter of optimization after the design requirements have been set.
It is possible to increase the cooling capacity by adding water spraying equipment. The water spray
system is added to increase the humidity of the incoming air, therefore lowering its wet bulb
temperature. This method can be useful when air temperatures are high and relative humidity is
low. It is however only feasible if access to water is already in place.
4.5.2 Wet Cooling

Water cooled condensers provide better cooling than air-cooled condensers during warm summer
days. There are two types of wet cooling:
• Direct cooling
• Cooling tower
Direct cooling is in general the most efficient type of cooling for a binary plant. It requires access
to a large amount of cooling water at a low temperature, usually from a river or a lake. The water
is pumped through the condenser and then back to the cold sink. In order to minimize the energy
required to pump the cold water, a binary plant using direct cooling should ideally be located as
close as possible to the cold sink.
A binary plant with direct water cooling will heat up the cooling water by 15°C and use 90 l/s pr.
MW. If enough water is available and it is allowed to release it to the surroundings at additional
15°C, direct water cooling is the most economically feasible cooling method.
The efficiency of cooling towers is in between air cooling and direct wet cooling. The cooling water
is circulated between the cooling tower and the condenser. Such systems are highly efficient.
Access to makeup water is however required. Various types of cooling towers are available
although they are all based on the same principle, i.e. to cool the water with an air stream passed
through the tower by fans or natural draft. The cooling towers require steady supply of make-up
water which is used to compensate for water which is evaporated or blown down in the cooling
tower.
There are a few things to take into account when considering the use of a cooling tower. The water
in the cooling tower may have to be chemically treated to prevent the growth of fungi or algae in
the tower. Environmental issues such as visible steam plums could be an issue for the
implementation of a binary plant.
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Selection of the type of cooling system should be assessed on a case by case basis. The case study
featured here is based on air cooling because it is available everywhere despite the fact that it is
not very effective in warm areas.
4.6 Efficiency
Various elements impact the efficiency of a binary power plant:
• Temperature of the geothermal fluid
• Depth to water level
• Cooling technology and ambient temperature
• Size of the plant
Thermal efficiency of the cycles is typically 9-15% depending on size and equipment quality. The
efficiency decreases as the source temperature decreases. As explained in section 4.5, the cooling
system also plays an important role in the thermal efficiency of the plant. Fluctuations in
temperature of cooling fluid, be it air or water depending on the cooling devices selected, might
significantly impact the plant output.
Keeping the pressure drop over the turbine as high as possible without excessive use of geothermal
fluid is one of the most important parameters impacting the power plant efficiency. Excessive use
of geothermal fluid compared to the plant output may imply high pumping power from the
production wells or for reinjection, resulting in uneconomical operation of the plant.
Efficiency of plant equipment used in the case study:
• Isentropic efficiency of the turbine: 80%. Isentropic efficiency describes the ratio
between the actual work of the turbine and the maximum theoretical work as if the
entropy during the process would remain constant during the process
• Generator efficiency: 95%. It includes the losses in the generator and gears
• Efficiency of pumps and motors: 70%
4.7 Auxiliary systems

Presence of hydrogen sulfide H2S is often a problem in geothermal areas due to its effect on the
electrical equipment. In order to limit the effect of H2S on the equipment, the concentration in the
air surrounding it may not be higher than 3 ppb. To be able to keep the concentration down, the
equipment is placed in an overpressurized container supplied with purged air from the pressurized
air system. The air is filtered in with coil filters in an effort to remove H2S from the air.
4.8 Electricals and Controls
4.8.1 Generator
The turbine generator in geothermal power plants are generally, three phase, 2 pole, synchronous
50 Hz, enclosed, self-ventilated and closed cycle air cooled type with air to water heat exchangers
or air to air heat exchangers.
The generator should be sufficiently rated with contingencies above the Maximum Continuous
Rating (MCR) of the turbine and be able to operate over the power factor range required by defined
grid interference conditions without the loss of stability and control. The generator nominal voltage
is in the range between 10 kV and 14 kV for generator sizes above 2 MVA. For smaller generators
a voltage range between 400 V and 690 V is commonly used. The output circuit comprises a
generator circuit breaker and an isolated phase busbar system. The generator circuit breaker is
used for synchronizing the generator with the grid; prior to synchronization the parasitic power
used for operation of the cooling system and other auxiliary systems necessary for no-load
operation of the turbine is drawn from the grid. The basic layout of the electrical equipment is
shown in Figure 4-3.
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Figure 4-3 Basic layout of electrical equipment
4.8.2 Transformers
For each geothermal powered steam generator there is a respective step up power transformer.
The generator transformer is a 3-phase, two winding, oil immersed, air cooled suitable for outdoor
operation. The transformer voltage ratio depends on the generator voltage and the network
voltage. The auxiliary transformers for a parasitic load is a 3-phase, two winding, oil immersed,
air cooled suitable for outdoor operation. The voltage ratio of auxiliary transformers is typically
11/0.4 kV, size is a matter of detail design.
4.8.3 Medium Voltage System

The medium voltage basic design is metal clad switchgear. Each cubicle will consists of four
compartments, a cable- and measuring transformer compartment, a switching device
compartment and a low-voltage for secondary equipment. The voltage level of a main medium
voltage distribution system is typically 11 kV.
4.8.4 Low Voltage System

The low voltage system serves the plant auxiliaries e.g. condenser fans, feed pumps and other
auxiliaries. The voltage level of a low voltage distribution system is typically 400 V. The low voltage
basic design is metal enclosed switchgear.
4.8.5 Direct Current System

The DC system supplies power to the plant control system. The DC system basic design is standard
station type batteries connected to switch mode charging devices. UPS devices are also commonly
used. The capacity of the batteries will be based on a DC system load. The voltage level of a DC
system is in the range between 24 VDC to 110 VDC.
4.8.6 Control and Protection

The power plant level of automation depends on whether the plant is unmanned or manned, i.e.
whether skilled operators will be at the power plant at all times. All processes critical to the
production of electricity are to be controlled by PLCs. The plant shall be equipped with necessary
30
protection systems to ensure that the plant primary equipment turbine, generator and etc. are
protected against overload and breakdown.
4.9 Plant Electrical Production Options

The requirements to the control of the electrical production are dependent on the type of electrical
network the generator is connected to. It is assumed that there could be three types of electrical
networks the plant would be connected to:
• Parallel operation with a large and stable network (National or regional grid). The plant
is then normally operating at full output.
• Island operation where the plant is alone supplying electricity to a small isolated network,
small town or a village. The plant is operating with variable output depending on the
network load.
• Parallel operation with diesel generators. This could apply to small networks with diesel
generators already installed. The plant is operating at full or partial loads.
For a binary plant the most feasible operating mode is parallel operating with a large strong
network where the network takes care of frequency control and reactive power control. The plant
can be continuously operated at full output. This operating mode does not require fast and accurate
speed and load control. As the plant output is constant, the binary media and heat input will also
be quite stable.
There are mainly four parameters that determine the electrical output of a binary plant:
• The heat input to the binary media from wells by brine or steam. This is controlled by
well pumps, control valves and in some cases reinjection pumps.
• Evaporation of binary media. To keep a constant turbine inlet pressure the binary system
has to control the heat input to the evaporators and release the excess heat in the binary
media directly to the air cooled condensers.
• Opening of turbine inlet valves controls the power output of the generator and speed
when running in an island operation (frequency control).
• Generator excitation current controls the generator voltage and reactive power.
Island operation is the least feasible operating mode for a binary plant as the plant output is
continuously changing with the load. Sudden load changes affect all four parameters mentioned
above. The thermal systems, encompassing both the geothermal fluid and the working fluid, must
therefore always operate with extra capacity to be able to quickly react to load changes. Binary
plants are furthermore not able to start up without external power for their auxiliaries. In practice
the binary power plant is proven to be most suitable for generating base load power.
A combination of binary plants and diesel generators could be an attractive solution for small
isolated networks. In this case the binary plants would generate base load power and the diesel
generators would handle the load changes and frequency control thanks to their ability to respond
quickly to changes. This could in practice be implemented by coordinating the governor control of
the binary plant and diesel generator. The layout of a binary plant and diesel generator combination
can be seen in Figure 4-4.
31
Figure 4-4 Binary plant and diesel generator combination
Key findings:
It is recommended to operate the plant in parallel with a strong network or in a smaller isolated
network in combination with a diesel generator. Island operation is not regarded suitable for a
binary power plant.
4.10 Buildings and Roads

Geothermal fields are often far from developed areas and often in rugged volcanic terrains. This
requires site preparation before drilling can begin. Drill site preparation involves construction of
roads that can carry heavy equipment and handle transportation of employees on site. The drill
pad can be a few dozen meters long.
It is assumed for the case study that the turbine will be located in a weather shield and the
electrical equipment is situated in a container or a building close to the turbine.
Figure 4-5 Weather shield over a turbine at the Olkaria field in Kenya
32
Service facilities will also be included in the container. Service facilities include an operation station
with office space for operators, sanitary facilities and storage for spare parts. Air cooled
condensers will be located on a concrete basin. The whole area will be fenced off to shield it from
animals and fend off trespassers.
Figure 4-6 presents a simple binary plant layout with 150°C geothermal fluid and 10 MW installed
power. The layout is also included in Appendix A.
Figure 4-6 Simple layout of a 10 MW plant, 150°C geothermal fluid.
33
5 Process diagram
The results of a heat and mass balance calculation for the case study are presented here. The
design premises are listed in Table 5-1.The vaporizer pressure is optimized using the method of
quadratic approximations where the process is optimized for minimum uptake of geothermal fluid
in order to minimize the required well pump size and deliver the highest net output
Table 5-1 Design premise of the ORC cycles.
Design parameter Units Value
Geothermal fluid temperature °C 90,100,110,120,130,140,150
Well depth m 1400
Water level depth m 150
Generator output kW 250, 1000, 2500, 5000, 10000
Isentropic efficiency of the turbine % 80
Generator efficiency % 95
Cycle pump efficiency % 70
Air cooled condenser fan efficiency % 60
Outdoor temperature °C 30
5.1 Single Stage ORC Cycle

A sample of a heat and mass balance diagram used in the calculations is shown in Figure 5-1.
Figure 5-1 Heat and mass balance diagram of a 10 MW single stage ORC cycle.
Geothermal fluid temperature is 120°C.
Details concerning the case study simulations and the amount (mass flow) of geothermal fluid
needed for generation of electricity at temperatures 90°C, 100°C, 110°C, 120°C, 130°C, 140°C
34
and 150°C respectively are presented in Appendix B. The tables also show various parameters in
the process cycle and the electricity delivered to the grid (net power production)
The net power delivered to the grid and accordingly the economy of the power production depends
highly on the temperature of the geothermal fluid. A guideline for the economy may be to have at
least 50% of generated power as net power. Other factors that influence the efficiency of the plants
are:
• Size of the plant
• Depth to water level and pumping requirements.
• Cooling technology and ambient temperature.
As shown in Table 5-1 the water level is assumed to be at 150 m depth, outdoor temperature 30°C
and air cooling. The net production under these conditions is shown in Figure 5-3
5.2 Two-Stage Cycle

A sample of a heat and mass balance diagram used in the calculations is shown in Figure 5-2.
Figure 5-2 Heat and mass balance diagram for a 10 MW two stage ORC cycle.
Geothermal fluid temperature is 120°C.
Details concerning the case study simulations and the amount (mass flow) of geothermal fluid
needed for generation of electricity at temperatures 90°C, 100°C, 110°C, 120°C, 130°C, 140°C
and 150°C respectively with a two stage ORC cycle are presented in Appendix B.
35
5.3 Results
The net power is the power remaining when parasitic loads of the plant itself have been subtracted
from the total generated power. In Figure 5-3, the net power is plotted against temperature of the
heat source for each generator unit.
It is likely that utilization of water at this temperature for power production will only be feasible if
the water flow is artesian and the energy price is very high or feeds in tariffs are available from
governmental organizations.
Figure 5-3 Net power as a function of temperature. The colored lines indicate the
generator size (gross product)
In Figure 5-4 the mass flow of geothermal fluid required for each unit is shown for both working
cycles. The thermal efficiency of the two stage cycle is greater than efficiency of the single stage
cycle. The mass flow of geothermal fluid required in the two stage cycle is lower and also the
reinjection temperature.
36
Figure 5-4 Mass flow of geothermal fluid in kg/s required per each unit. The colored
lines indicate the generator size (gross product)
The ratio of net power to generated power is higher in the two stage cycle, due to a more efficient
use of geothermal fluid. If pumping is required to extract water from the well, the ratio between
net power and generated power is lowered due to power consumed by the well pump. It is possible
to increase the overall efficiency, and therefore the net power sale, by gaining access to a better
cooling system. If accessible, direct cooling with water from a nearby river will likely provide better
cooling than the air cooled condenser.
37
6 Capital Cost Estimate

The capital cost estimate is based on European prices and Verkís’ experience from similar projects.
The following cost items were not assessed for the purpose of this report on the binary technology
because it is either not possible or not practicable to include them in a generic case study:
• HV- Transmission Line(s)
• Access roads
• Fresh water, sewage
• Land/concession
• Official Permits
• Taxes, duties, connection fee to the grid
• Additional cost because of environmental constraints
All other costs are included in the cost estimate.
• Direct cost (well, steam/water gathering system, power plant), divided into cost of
geothermal field and cost of power plant
• Indirect cost such as engineering and commissioning and general contingency.
The price basis is October 2013.
The case study currency is US dollars (USD).
6.1 Geothermal Field – cost estimates

Cost estimates for the geothermal field include:
• Production and reinjection wells, including deep well pumps
• Gathering and reinjection system
The cost of drilling, pumping and gathering system may vary a lot from one field to another. It
depends on the depth of wells, flow rate from each well, distance between wells and depth to water
level in the wells. The base case for the cost of the geothermal field is based on the following
assumptions set forth in consultation with Iceland GeoSurvey, ISOR:
• Depth of wells: 1.400 m.
• Average output from each well: 40 l/s.
• Depth of water level in wells: 150 m.
• Line shaft pump installed at: 200 m depth.
• Average distance between wells: 250 m.
• One reinjection well will be drilled for each 2 production wells.
Table 6-1 below presents the detailed cost estimates for individual wells, including supply and
installation of a line shaft pump.
Table 6-1 Capital cost of individual well, incl. pump

Item Total (MUSD)
Well, 1.400 m deep 2,00
Line shaft pump 0,25
Miscellaneous, 15% 0,20
Design, supervision, commissioning 0,15
Total, one well 2,60
Cost of exploration of geothermal fields varies a lot. The average cost of exploration of harnessed
geothermal fields is assumed to be included in the figure above. The cost of exploration of
unsuccessful fields is not included and has to be handled as a sunken cost.
The average cost for a gathering system is estimated 80.000 USD pr. well.
38
Table 6-2 proposes cost estimates related to the geothermal field for 40 l/s supplied for production
to the binary power plant. The cost estimates are given for the base case, 40 l/s, and cover the
production and reinjection wells and piping required for each production well as defined in the case
study.
Table 6-2 Capital cost for 40 l/s supplied from the geothermal field
Item Total
(MUSD)
1 production well with installed pump 2,60
0,5 reinjection well 1,30
Gathering system+ 0,08
Reinjection system 0,04
Total, for 40 l/s 4,02
On this basis, the case study will use the total capital cost for the geothermal field development:
100.500 USD per l/s supplied from the geothermal field
The cost estimates above are assumed to be independent of the temperature of the geothermal
fluid assessed in the case study, or 90°C – 150°C.
Figure 6-1 and Figure 6-2 show the cost of field development (wells and gathering system) pr. net
kW generated in the power plant, for different plant sizes and resource temperature, for a single
stage cycle and a 2 stage cycle respectively.
Figure 6-1 Cost of field development per net kW generated - single stage cycle. The
39
Figure 6-2 Cost of field development per net kW generated - two stage cycle. The
The cost calculation is based on a calculated mass flow of geothermal fluid according to previous
sections and a unit price pr. l/s 100.500 USD. As may be expected the cost goes significantly down
as the temperature goes up. The cost of net power for the field development is also lower for a
large unit compared to small one due to higher efficiency.
As mentioned before the cost may vary a lot from one place to another. As a rough estimate,
deviation up to + 50% from the calculated base cost is to be expected.
Details of the field development costs pr. kW are provided for both installed generator power and
net power in appendix C.
6.2 Cost of Power Plant

The power plant cost estimates are based on quotations, purchasing prices and experience from
other geothermal projects.
The cost estimates for different binary plants are based on the design premises and the preliminary
concept design presented in previous sections. The power plant cost is divided into:
• Mechanical equipment
• Electrical & control
• Civil work.
The elements included in the power plant cost estimates are detailed in Table 6-3 below.
40
Table 6-3 Elements included in the main cost items

Direct Cost
Mechanical Equipment Turbine, generator, incl. lube oil unit, control etc.
Heat exchangers (vaporizers, preheaters and recuperators)
Air cooled condensers (excl. foundations)
Cycle pump
Auxiliary systems
Compressed air systems
Valves and controls
Firefighting system
Piping, materials and installation, not icl. in other
Electrical & Control Transformers (main and auxiliary)
Local connection to the grid
MV switchgear
Control, protection and MCC‘a
Sensors and transmitters
Cables, materials and installation not incl. in other
Civil Work Excavation
Foundations
Service facilities
Indirect cost
Engineering, supervision and commissioning, 10% of direct cost
General Contingency, 15% of direct cost
Figure 6-3 and Figure 6-4 show the power plant cost pr. net kW generated, for different plant sizes
and resource temperature, for a single stage cycle and a 2 stage cycle respectively.
Figure 6-3 Cost of power plant per net kW generated - single stage cycle. The colored
lines indicate the generator size (gross product).
41
Figure 6-4 Cost of power plant per net kW generated - 2 stage cycle. The colored lines
indicate the generator size (gross product).
Details of the plant costs pr. kW are provided for both installed generator power and net power in
Appendix C. The main cost items have been detailed per kW for different plant sizes and resource
temperature, both for installed generator power and net power.
6.3 Total Investment Cost

The total cost is divided into:
• Cost of field development
• Cost of power plant
The cost is detailed in Table 6-4 where total cost is also summed up
42
Table 6-4 Investment cost of power plant and steam field (base case)
Total Investment Cost
Generated Cost, MUSD Cost MUSD

Power
kW Power Steam Total Power Steam Total
Plant Field Plant Field
250 1,6 8,2 9,7 1,9 5,3 7,2
1000 5,2 21,6 26,9 6,3 16,3 22,6
90°C
2500 10,8 54,2 65,0 13,0 40,8 53,7

5000 19,0 103,2 122,1 22,7 78,7 101,4
10000 35,0 201,0 236,0 42,0 154,9 196,9
250 1,5 5,3 6,8 1,8 5,3 7,1
1000 5,0 16,3 21,3 6,0 13,5 19,5
100°C
2500 8,6 37,9 47,1 12 29,8 40,7
5000 14,6 70,6 86,4 20,4 54,2 73,3

10000 30,9 135,8 166,7 37,1 103,2 140,3
250 1,4 5,3 6,7 1,6 5,3 7,0

1000 4,7 13,5 18,2 5,6 8,2 13,8
110°C
2500 9,0 24,5 33,4 10,8 21,6 32,4

5000 14,7 48,9 63,7 17,7 37,9 55,6
10000 26,1 95,0 121,1 31,3 73,4 104,7
250 1,3 5,3 6,7 1,6 5,3 6,9
1000 4,4 8,2 12,6 5,3 8,2 13,5
120°C
2500 8,3 21,6 29,9 9,9 16,3 26,3

5000 13,1 37,9 51,0 15,7 29,8 45,4
10000 24,0 70,6 94,5 28,8 57,1 85,9
250 1,3 5,3 6,6 1,5 5,3 6,8
1000 4,2 8,2 12,3 5,0 8,2 13,2
130°C
2500 7,6 16,3 23,9 9,2 13,5 22,6

5000 12,2 29,8 42,0 14,6 24,5 39,1
10000 22,6 54,2 76,9 27,2 46,1 73,3
250 1,2 5,3 6,5 1,4 5,3 6,8
1000 3,9 8,2 12,0 4,6 5,3 10,0
140°C
2500 6,6 13,5 20,1 7,9 13,5 21,4

5000 11,5 24,5 36,0 13,8 21,6 35,5
10000 21,9 46,1 68,0 26,3 37,9 64,2
250 1,2 5,3 6,5 1,4 5,3 6,8
1000 3,6 5,3 8,9 4,3 5,3 9,7
150°C
2500 6,1 13,5 19,6 7,3 8,2 15,5

5000 11,2 21,6 32,8 13,4 16,3 29,8
10000 21,7 37,9 59,6 26,0 29,8 55,8
43
Figure 6-5 andFigure 6-6 show the total investment cost pr. net kW generated, for different plant
sizes and resource temperature, for a single stage cycle and a 2 stage cycle respectively.
Figure 6-5 Total investment cost per kW generated - single stage cycle. The colored
lines indicate to the generator size (gross product).
Figure 6-6 Total investment cost per net kW generated - 2 stage cycle. The colored
lines indicate the generator size (gross product).
44
Details of the total cost pr. kW are provided for both installed generator power and net power in
Appendix C. The main cost items have been detailed per kW for different plant size and resource
temperature, both for installed generator power and net power.
The cost of high voltage transmission line(s) for connection of the plant to an electrical grid is not
included in the calculated investment cost. That cost may vary a lot due to distance to the grid,
voltage and terrain. To give an idea on such a cost a HV-line or cable for small plants may cost
0,1 – 0,2 million USD pr. km and for larger plants 0,2 – 0,3 million USD.
45
7 Operation and Production

7.1 Plant Operation and Maintenance Overview
The power plant will use its own electricity to cover the parasitic load. The parasitic load is not
listed as an operational cost; it only reduces the net amount of energy.
7.1.1 Personnel
The operation of a geothermal binary power plant will require the following staff:
• Operators who perform operation and maintenance.
• Workers who provide general labor and assistance to operators.
• Security personnel to guarantee safety at the plant.
Plant operators need to be skilled and trained for specific tasks. Both electricians and mechanics
should be capable of performing on-line supervision, maintenance and repair work. The operators
need to divide night stand-by duties between them.
In small ORC plants it is not necessary to have operators and workers full time. Security personnel
is on the other hand considered necessary to prevent trespassers from entering dangerous areas
and/or damage the plant. It may be an outsourced task.
In advanced plants the production is automatic and there is not much need for full time employees
except security personnel. All maintenance services for the plant can be purchased from a service
provider with adequate education and experience. Security personnel will have to be on site 24-
hours with back-up to seal off unwanted visitors. In Table 7-1 a likely requirement for employees
is listed per shift. It is assumed that to be able to maintain a 24-hour shift, the manning of 5 shifts
is required.
Table 7-1 Requirement for employees per shift
Plant size Operators Skilled Workers Security Support Total number of
(kW) (24 hours) (8-hours, (24 hours) services employees
weekdays)
250 1 1 10
1.000 1 1 10
2.500 2 1 1 17
5.000 2 2 1 1 18
10.000 2 2 1 2 19
Managers and office employees fall under the category of management staff. In plants smaller
than 5 MW, it is assumed that management will be shared with other companies. In the cost
schedule it is assumed that the management cost will be 50% of the cost estimated for larger
plants.
Cost per employee includes salary and related expenses is listen in Table 7-2
Table 7-2 Yearly cost of per employee
$USD/year
Management staff total 40.000
Operators 24.000
Workers 12.000
Security 4.500
46
7.1.2 Spare Parts and Plant Consumables

A decision on spare parts is made during final plant tendering and pre-contract meetings with the
manufacturer. In addition the plant will require some consumables, working fluid refill due to
leakage, lubrication oil replacement etc. That cost will increase if inhibitors or acid are required to
avoid scaling of the geothermal fluid in the heat exchangers.
7.1.3 Scheduled Maintenance

Experience shows that it is reasonable to plan for a week long annual stop of the ORC plant to
perform maintenance that cannot be performed with the plant in operation. It includes both
maintenance of the plant and of the well field equipment. Since scaling is assumed not to be a
problem, taken into consideration in the plant design, there is no single item that requires periodic
shutdown of the plant except the mechanical shaft seal of the turbine that needs to be replaced
every 5-10 years. Then the stop can be expected to last somewhat longer, 10 days or so, because
the seal replacement requires the turbine to be opened.
About one week a year should be set aside for external contractor services, mainly associated with
heat exchanger cleaning, but also for assistance with other maintenance areas.
The annual maintenance cost inclusive spare parts and consumables is estimated as 1,6% of the
capital cost per.
7.1.4 Well Replacement

Usually the geothermal well flow rate can be expected to decrease slowly or not at all. In the case
study, no scaling is assumed and all the geothermal fluid is to be re-injected so that well flow rate
can be expected to decrease slowly or not at all.
Well replacement is assumed to be 1% of well cost per year.
7.1.5 Total Operation and Maintenance Cost

Items included in the plants operation and maintenance cost is listed in the cost schedule in Table
7-3.
Table 7-3 Cost schedule for plant operation and maintenance cost
Definition
Capacity factor 96%
Fixed costs
Personnel See table 7.1.11
Temporary contractors Production stops one week per year.
Maintenance
Inclusive spare parts and 1,6% total capital cost of the plant and well
consumables pump.
Production wells
Well replacement 1% capital cost of wells
47
In Table 7-4 the operation and maintenance cost for each unit is listed on an annual basis.
Table 7-4 Operation and maintenance cost for each unit

O&M cost
Power Cost /Year $USD Power Cost /Year $USD
250 276.076 250 292.936

1.000 587.165 1.000 663.733
90°C
2.500 1.321.952 2.500 1.504.022

5.000 2.335.037 5.000 2.690.739
10.000 4.332.870 10.000 5.039.152
250 243.063 250 258.339
1.000 470.919 1.000 525.075
100°C
2.500 999.167 2.500 1.151.623

5.000 1.690.733 5.000 1.979.310
10.000 3.119.315 10.000 3.608.816
250 226.078 250 237.957
1.000 400.402 1.000 441.291
110°C
2.500 838.316 2.500 937.879

5.000 1.362.863 5.000 1.547.551
10.000 2.380.444 10.000 2.743.083
250 215.717 250 225.524
1.000 352.892 1.000 389.297
120°C
2.500 726.563 2.500 804.611

5.000 1.129.885 5.000 1.274.669
10.000 1.935.287 10.000 2.222.278
250 208.323 250 216.651
1.000 323.315 1.000 353.805
130°C
2.500 645.191 2.500 707.801

5.000 979.076 5.000 1.099.554
10.000 1.639.270 10.000 1.874.585
250 202.749 250 209.962
1.000 300.330 1.000 322.040
140°C
2.500 581.838 2.500 636.797

5.000 873.837 5.000 974.103
10.000 1.438.357 10.000 1.635.162
250 199.313 250 205.839
1.000 279.072 1.000 301.550
150°C
2.500 540.768 2.500 583.330

5.000 798.953 5.000 885.079
10.000 1.295.664 10.000 1.465.604
48
7.1.6 Financial cost

The financial cost includes depreciation, loan interest and return on equity. For simplification the
annual financial cost is defined as a percentage of the investment cost. The percentage is based
on depreciation period, estimated interest rate, required rate of return and equal distribution of
total financial cost, annuity. Two alternatives are presented for financial cost, see Table 7.5.
Table 7-5 Financial Cost Assumptions

Financial Cost I Financial Cost II
Equity 30% 15%
Return on equity 15% 15%
Loan ratio 70% 85%
Depreciation rate 25 years 25 years
Average Interest rate (loan 3,71% 7,1% 5,40%
and equity 15%)
7.1.7 Total annual Cost

Table 7-6 shows the total annual cost i.e the annual operation cost according to table 7.4 and
financial cost as defined in table 7.5 (2 alternatives).
49
Table 7-6 Total Annual cost

Generated
Power Cost, MUSD /Year Cost, MUSD /Year
kW O&M Fin. Fin. Total Total O&M Fin. Fin. Total Total
Cost Cost Cost I II Cost Cost Cost I II
I II I II
250 0,3 0,6 0,5 0,9 0,8 0,3 0,7 0,6 1,0 0,9
1000 0,6 2,3 2,0 2,9 2,5 0,7 2,8 2,4 3,4 3,0
90°C
2500 1,3 5,6 4,7 6,9 6,1 1,5 6,7 5,7 8,2 7,2
5000 2,3 10,9 9,3 13,2 11,6 2,7 13,1 11,1 15,7 13,8
10000 4,3 21,5 18,3 25,8 22,7 5,0 25,8 22,0 30,9 27,0
250 0,2 0,4 0,4 0,7 0,6 0,3 0,5 0,4 0,8 0,7
1000 0,5 1,7 1,4 2,1 1,9 0,5 2,0 1,7 2,5 2,2
100°C
2500 1,0 3,8 3,2 4,8 4,2 1,2 4,6 3,9 5,7 5,0
5000 1,7 7,4 6,3 9,1 8,0 2,0 8,9 7,6 10,8 9,5
10000 3,1 14,9 12,7 18,0 15,8 3,6 17,9 15,3 21,5 18,9
250 0,2 0,3 0,3 0,6 0,5 0,2 0,4 0,3 0,6 0,6
1000 0,4 1,3 1,1 1,7 1,5 0,4 1,5 1,3 2,0 1,7
110°C
2500 0,8 2,9 2,5 3,8 3,3 0,9 3,5 3,0 4,5 3,9
5000 1,4 5,6 4,8 7,0 6,1 1,5 6,7 5,7 8,3 7,3
10000 2,4 10,9 9,3 13,3 11,7 2,7 13,1 11,2 15,8 13,9
250 0,2 0,3 0,2 0,5 0,5 0,2 0,3 0,2 0,6 0,5
1000 0,4 1,0 0,9 1,4 1,2 0,4 1,2 0,9 1,6 1,3
120°C
2500 0,7 2,3 2,0 3,1 2,7 0,8 2,8 1,9 3,6 2,7
5000 1,1 4,3 3,7 5,5 4,8 1,3 5,2 3,6 6,5 4,9
10000 1,9 8,5 7,3 10,4 9,2 2,2 10,2 7,1 12,4 9,3
250 0,2 0,2 0,2 0,4 0,4 0,2 0,3 0,2 0,5 0,5
1000 0,3 0,9 0,7 1,2 1,1 0,4 1,0 0,9 1,4 1,2
130°C
2500 0,6 1,9 1,6 2,5 2,3 0,7 2,3 1,9 3,0 2,6
5000 1,0 3,5 3,0 4,5 4,0 1,1 4,2 3,6 5,3 4,7
10000 1,6 6,9 5,9 8,5 7,5 1,9 8,3 7,1 10,2 8,9
250 0,2 0,2 0,2 0,4 0,4 0,2 0,2 0,2 0,5 0,4
1000 0,3 0,7 0,6 1,0 0,9 0,3 0,9 0,7 1,2 1,1
140°C
2500 0,6 1,5 1,3 2,1 1,9 0,6 1,9 1,6 2,5 2,2
5000 0,9 2,9 2,5 3,8 3,4 1,0 3,5 3,0 4,5 4,0
10000 1,4 5,8 4,9 7,2 6,4 1,6 7,0 5,9 8,6 7,6
250 0,2 0,2 0,2 0,4 0,4 0,2 0,2 0,2 0,4 0,4
1000 0,3 0,6 0,5 0,9 0,8 0,3 0,8 0,6 1,1 0,9
150°C
2500 0,5 1,3 1,1 1,9 1,7 0,6 1,6 1,3 2,2 1,9
5000 0,8 2,5 2,2 3,3 3,0 0,9 3,1 2,6 3,9 3,5
10000 1,3 5,0 4,3 6,3 5,6 1,5 6,0 5,1 7,5 6,6
50
7.2 Production cost

The production cost per kWh electricity net is calculated from the total annual cost presented in
Table 7-6 divided by the net annual energy production. The net energy production is defined as
the net power presented in Figure 5-3 multiplied by maximum annual production time defined as
0,96 x 8760 = 8.410 hours. This is the maximum production which can only be received if the
plant is operated as a base plant connected to a large grid compared to plant size.
Table 7-7 shows the production cost based on the annual operation cost only and the total
production cost that includes annual operation and finance cost (two alternatives) as presented in
Table 7-5
51
Table 7-7 Production cost per net kWh

Power Plants - Cost of Net Energy Production
Generated Annual Cost, UScent/kWh Cost, UScent/kWh

Power Energy Annual
kW sale O&M Total Total Energy O&M Total Total
kWh Cost I II sale Cost I II
kWh
250 1.596.983 17,3 54,7 49,2 1.632.135 17,9 61,9 55,4
1000 6.893.349 8,5 41,9 37,0 7.032.948 9,4 48,7 42,9
90°C
2500 17.483.558 7,6 39,3 34,6 17.836.762 8,4 45,8 40,3

5000 35.135.309 6,6 37,6 33,1 35.816.486 7,5 44,0 38,6
10000 70.447.219 6,2 36,7 32,2 71.675.021 7,0 43,0 37,7
250 1.661.737 14,6 40,7 36,8 1.680.406 15,4 46,3 41,7
1000 7.152.365 6,6 29,7 26,3 7.227.210 7,3 34,7 30,7
100°C
2500 18.131.098 5,5 26,5 23,4 18.318.632 6,3 31,2 27,5

5000 36.438.797 4,6 24,9 21,9 36.808.819 5,4 29,4 25,9
10000 73.037.376 4,3 24,7 21,7 73.785.830 4,9 29,1 25,6
250 1.681.920 13,4 33,4 30,4 1.712.026 13,9 37,4 33,9
1000 7.233.097 5,5 23,1 20,5 7.351.672 6,0 26,8 23,7
110°C
2500 18.332.928 4,6 20,6 18,3 18.633.992 5,0 24,0 21,2

5000 36.834.048 3,7 18,9 16,7 37.439.539 4,1 22,1 19,5
10000 73.844.698 3,2 18,0 15,8 75.030.451 3,7 21,1 18,5
250 1.706.308 12,6 28,8 26,4 1.732.966 13,0 32,1 26,8
1000 7.328.966 4,8 18,8 16,7 7.435.768 5,2 21,8 17,0
120°C
2500 18.576.806 3,9 16,4 14,6 18.843.391 4,3 19,1 14,5

5000 37.321.805 3,0 14,7 13,0 37.855.814 3,4 17,1 12,9
10000 74.803.392 2,6 14,0 12,3 75.871.411 2,9 16,4 12,2
250 1.723.968 12,1 25,6 23,6 1.746.842 12,4 28,4 26,1
1000 7.399.607 4,4 15,9 14,2 7.493.795 4,7 18,4 16,4
130°C
2500 18.753.408 3,4 13,5 12,0 18.982.149 3,7 15,6 13,9

5000 37.666.598 2,6 12,0 10,6 38.141.741 2,9 14,0 12,3
10000 75.509.798 2,2 11,3 10,0 76.451.674 2,5 13,3 11,7
250 1.736.582 11,7 23,3 21,6 1.757.018 11,9 25,7 23,7
1000 7.450.906 4,0 13,8 12,3 7.532.479 4,3 15,8 14,1
140°C
2500 18.879.552 3,1 11,3 10,1 19.083.905 3,3 13,1 11,6

5000 37.927.296 2,3 10,1 8,9 38.336.003 2,5 11,8 10,4
10000 76.022.784 1,9 9,5 8,4 76.838.515 2,1 11,2 9,8
250 1.745.833 11,4 21,8 20,3 1.763.577 11,7 24,0 22,2
1000 7.488.749 3,7 12,1 10,9 7.558.212 4,0 14,0 12,5
150°C
2500 18.972.058 2,9 9,8 8,8 19.149.500 3,0 11,3 10,1

5000 38.120.717 2,1 8,8 7,8 38.459.624 2,3 10,2 9,1
10000 76.401.216 1,7 8,3 7,3 77.701.340 1,9 9,6 8,5
52
Figure 7.1 shows the total production cost (Fin 1) pr. net kWh according to table 7.6 and a
comparison of the production cost per kWh of electricity produced with a diesel generator.
Figure 7-1 Comparison of total production cost per net kWh produced in a binary plant
and and the corresponding cost for each produced kWh in a diesel plant.
The colored lines indicate the generator size (gross product).
Figure 7.2 shows the operation cost pr. net kWh in a binary power plant and the cost of oil for
production in a diesel plant. The graph shows that the operation of a binary plant costs less than
the oil in a diesel plant in all cases expect for a 250 kW plant using 90°C water. Therefore if a
diesel plant and a binary plant have been installed it is beneficial to produce as much electricity as
possible in the binary plant.
53
Figure 7-2 Operation cost per net kWh in a binary plant and the corresponding
operational cost of a diesel plant. The colored lines indicate the generator
size (gross product).
7.3 Influence of Well Pumping on Production Cost

A considerable amount of power may be required for well pumping. The well pump consumption
of power is subtracted from the net output of the plant. The net production cost increases as the
water level sinks as more energy is required to pump from the greater depth.
Figure 7-3 Effect of water level and well pumping on production cost of energy
delivered to the grid in a 5 MW plant. The colored lines indicate the water
level depth.
54
In Tables C-5 and C-6 in appendix C, energy consumption of well pumps is listed in order to make
the reader easier to estimate the production cost under different pumping conditions.
Figure 7-4 shows the cost of power to the grid for the base case defined in Table 5-1. The pumping
depth is 200 m and the water level at 150 m. It can be concluded that low temperature and smaller
units are less economical than the larger ones and performance rises with rising temperature of
the geothermal fluid.
Figure 7-4 Production cost of electricity delivered to the grid for a case where the well
pumping depth is 200 m and water level at 150 m.
See Appendix C for more detailed costs schedules

 Annual cost of spare parts, maintenance and insurances
 Annual well replacement cost
 Annual cost of personnel
 Annual operational and maintenance cost
 Production cost at different pump depths
55
8 Environmental and Risk Management

8.1 Environmental Impact
The development of a binary power plant will always be subject to local regulations with regard to
environmental impacts. Table 8-1 gives an overview of the most common environmental aspects
related to geothermal power plants with a focus on aspects specific to the binary technology.
Table 8-1 Typical Environmental Impacts.
Environmental Stage Possible Impact
aspect
Visual impact Operation The power plant complex and associated power transmission
lines imply changes in the landscape appearance.
Air Operation Possible H2S released. The geothermal fluid will most likely
be held under pressure in the heat exchangers, not allowing
the gases to escape the fluid. Minor releases might occur in
specific circumstances leading to emergency release.
The binary plant uses working fluid under vacuum. During

operation, some working fluid is purged to the atmosphere in
order to prevent air from entering and accumulating in the
system.
Flora Construction Disruption due to well pad and construction of the power
plant complex.
Operation Brine released to a pond during plant start/stops during e.g.

maintenance.
Fauna Construction Nuisance due to well pad and construction of the power plant
complex, possible loss of habitat.
Operation Obstruction to terrestrial animals’ right of way mainly in

relation to roads, pipelines or transmission lines.
Noise Construction Noise from construction and from blasting wells
Operation Noise from the plant in operation, especially near air cooled
condensers where it might reach 90 dB(A) which is above
acceptable exposure limits.
Water Construction Water used during drilling
Operation Possible impact on surface and ground water.

Land and soil Construction Possible soil erosion due to land disruption.
Operation Possible soil erosion and land subsidence.

Archaeology Construction Depending on location of the power plant complex, possible
impact on archaeological artefacts.
Tourism Construction Possible disturbance due to traffic.
Operation Possible benefit if the plant is an attraction for tourists.
Economy Operation Positive impact on economy.
Social Construction Job creation. Temporary residents. Provision of services
Operation Cohabitation with other activities. Provision of services
Land acquisition Construction Resettlement might be an issue.
56
Environmental impacts will in all cases need to be further investigated in light of the local law and
regulation for any geothermal project. Results and recommendations from the environmental
impact assessment have to be taken into account in the design of the plant. Furthermore, an
environmental and social management plan is usually required for construction and operation of
the power plant. The management plan may tackle training of staff with regard to implementation
of mitigation measures and monitoring of aspects relevant to the defined environmental impacts.
8.2 Risk Management

As in any power generation project connected to the grid, a geothermal binary power plant will be
exposed to general risks related to:
• Project implementation: delays, changes, design issues, permit issues, etc.
• Market demand and price fluctuation
• Operation: not meeting the demand, blackouts, reliability etc.
• Environment
• Regulation.
These risks will not be discussed further here. Additionally, geothermal power plant projects are
exposed risks related to:
• Exploration of the geothermal resource: uncertainty on output from drilled wells and
depth leading to uncertainty regarding bankability of the project during the exploration
phase.
• Financing risks: long lead time for development of a geothermal project and uncertainty
regarding bankability of the project due to difficulty in predicting the productivity of the
geothermal resource.
Risk management is considered a good management practice and is generally put into practice by
project developers. Such systems include identification and assessment of the project risks,
development and implementation of a risk management plan with detailed risk treatment and
monitoring.
A list of major technical risks specifically related to the binary technology is proposed in Table 8-2
together with indication of possible risk treatment measures.
57
Table 8-2 Typical risks related to geothermal binary power plant projects
Risk title Description Risk treatment
Oversizing of Brine flow rate and/or temperature Exploration risk to be tackled by
the power plant overestimated resulting in either a implementing a sound exploration
project not viable from the financial plan and development of the plant in
point of view or unsustainable incremental steps.
extraction rates.
Unsuccessful Inabilty to acquire hot geothermal Thorough geothermal exploration
drilling fluid, well collapse and drilling techniquies.
Chemistry of Project basis is to keep the gas Exploration plan with among others
the brine dissolved in the brine by keeping the confirmation by tests a sufficient
pressure up. While escape of the gas level of pressure to prevent release
to the atmosphere is not in itself a of gases from the brine.
problem, scaling due to
degasification is a problem.
Operation and Heat exchangers fouling on the brine Select fouling factors for the heat
maintenance of side. Geothermal fluid contains exchangers taking into account the
the heat mineral that can precipitate and fouling properties of the brine.
exchangers cause fouling in the heat exchanger.
Increased operation and
maintenance costs.
Nature of the The most common ORC working Design the plant to fulfill relevant
binary working fluids, isobutane and isopentane are fire safety and explosion standards
fluid highly flammable. in relation to the selected working
NB: the working fluids R134a and fluid. Develop and implement safety
R245fa are not flammable and rank management plan for the operation
on par with a hydro power plant in and maintenance of the plant.
regards of fire hazard. Access to the plant should be
restricted.
Technology Selection of a plant with Kalina cycle Should the Kalina cycle be an option
selection - limited experience on the process for the project, its selection should
and the equipment. be the object of a thorough
assessment.
Vandalism Unauthorized access on the plant Construct an inpenetrable fence and
site is especially risky if flammable keep under surveillance with 24-
working fluids are used. Also theft hour security back-up.
could be a problem.
Selling tariff Selling tariff is a sensitive item, even Vulnerability to changes in
if set and decided for a few years to government and economic
come. Instability in government and development depends on the selling
economy can swiftly change contract and its clauses on revision.
assumptions made in the beginning.
58
9 Project Implementation
9.1 Project Development Phases and Planning
Geothermal projects are usually developed in successive phases. The development phases can be
divided into 4 major phases: 1) identification, 2) Exploration, 3) Design and construction, 4)
Operation and maintenance. They are further described in the figure below with an indication of
the main activities undertaken under each phase and the time required for their implementation.
Year 1 2 3 4 5 6
Licence for exploration

Surface exploration
Prefeasibility report x
Drilling and exploration (production) wells
Environmental impact of the power plant
Feasibility report x
Decision on construction x
Design and construction of the power plant
Operation
Figure 9-1 Rough draft of a typical development plan for a binary plant.
Identification and exploration of the geothermal resource constitute the most important part of a
geothermal project as they are seen as the riskiest part of the project development. Apart from
the aspects related to the assessment of the geothermal field, its size, characteristics and expected
output, the bankability of the project will be assessed during these phases. The harnessing
technology will inter alia be pre-selected during these stages.
The procurement strategy is one of the tools used by project developers to manage project
implementation risks and it is also drafted during the feasibility stage. Well field development and
the power plant complex construction can be procured in various manners depending among other
things on project characteristics and the project developer’s approach to risk.
• Drilling is usually allotted to a specific package
• Development of the well field (piping, mechanical equipment together with equipment
for the control and electrical systems) can be split into individual packages - i.e. design,
equipment supply, installation – or be included in one turn-key package. It might in some
cases be included in the power plant package.
• Construction of the geothermal power plant is often included in a turn-key package
consisting of having one contractor design, construct and deliver a fully operational plant
and being responsible for all stages of the design and construction phase. The water /
steam gathering system (wells, deep well pumps and pipelines) may be included in the
power plant package or procured separately. The same applies to buildings, site
preparation, roads etc.
There are several potential contractors for a turnkey binary geothermal power plant:
• ORC power plant equipment manufacturers: they can provide complete solutions and
design.
• Consulting engineers specializing in geothermal power, that design, prepare and tender
out all necessary project packages and deliver an operating plant
• Consortium consisting of engineering firms, contractors, manufactures, experienced
energy companies etc.
It is most practical to at least procure the power plant as a one package including heat exchangers,
turbine, generator, electrical and control equipment and cooling system. Lead time for supply of a
binary unit is currently 12-24 months depending on size.
59
9.2 Overview of Technology Suppliers

There is an increasing number of companies that offer complete binary power plants. The list is
not exhaustive.
Atlas Copco (Germany)

Atlas Copco is an industrial group producing compressors, construction and mining equipment,
power tools and assembly systems. They provide turbo expanders for various uses and were
commissioning their first geothermal ORC plant, a 45 MW plant in Turkey at the end of 2013.
Cryostar (France)
Cryostar is a France based company that has produced various cryogenic equipment for decades.
They have among other things developer turbo expanders that can be used as turbine/generator
units for ORC plants. Cryostar can provide only the turbo expander generator or also procure the
whole closed loop binary system. Cryostar has produced equipment for two geothermal projects,
a 1,5 MW plant in France and a 3,3 MW plant in Germany.
Exergy (Italy)
Exergy is a producer of modules for heat and power production. It specializes in heat recovery
power units, combined heat and power and low temperature geothermal (90-180°C) ORC units.
Fuji Electric (Japan)

Fuji Electric has produced steam turbine generators since 1959. They are one of the most
experienced manufacturers of geothermal steam turbines worldwide and have built the largest
geothermal steam turbines in the world. They have recently entered the market for ORC power
plants, utilizing their extensive knowledge of geothermal steam turbines. They can provide turbines
up to 10 MW in size.
Nooter/Eriksen (USA)
Has been a supplier of heat recovery steam generators for over 10 years. It proposes a wide range
of boiler types and is expanding to more custom-made solutions. Based in USA and Italy.
Opcon (Sweden)
Opcon is a Swedish energy and environmental technology group that develops, produces and
markets systems and products for low resource energy utilization. It produces Opcon Powerboxes
which are mobile stand-alone units that transform low and waste heat into emission free power
production and new revenues.
Ormat (Israel /USA)

Ormat is an Israel/USA based company. Ormat not only provides binary power equipment but also
operates power plants in different locations. Ormat is the most experienced plant vendor in the
ORC sector, having built over 1400 MW of geothermal power plants worldwide. These are mostly
ORC units but also combined steam and ORC cycles. Ormat has been supplying equipment to
geothermal power plants for over 25 years.
TAS (USA)
TAS Energy was founded in the early 1980s and at first specialized in industrial chillers. From 2005
their primary focus has been on low – and waste heat energy solutions such as ORC. TAS has
designed and built equipment for an 8,6 MW ORC system at San Emidio Nevada and a 13,2 MW
ORC in Turkey
60
Turboden (Italy)
Turboden has since the 1980’s focused on the development and production of ORC equipment to
generate heat and power from renewable resources and heat recovered in industrial processes.
Turboden is now a part of the Mitsubishi Heavy Industry group. The Turboden ORC units are up to
15 MW. They have built over 200 ORC plants, a total of over 300 MW, mostly biofuel, but 4
geothermal power plants and 3 more that were under construction in 2013. The largest geothermal
plant supplied by Turboden so far is 5,6 MW.
9.3 Overview of Installed Binary Power Stations

In this section there is a list of geothermal binary power stations (Bertani, 2010)
Table 9-1 Overview of installed Binary Power Stations (Bertani,2010)
Country Plant Unit Capacity Operator Manufacturer
El Salvador Berlin 4 9,4 LaGeo/Enel Enex
Green Power
France Soultz-sous- 1 1,5 European EGS UTC/Turboden
Forets Interest
Germany Unterhaching 1 3,4 Municipality Siemens
Germany Landau 1 3 Municipality ORMAT
Guatemala Amatitlán 1 24 ORMAT ORMAT
Japan Hatchobaru 1 2 Kyushu Electric ORMAT
Power
New Zealand Ngawha 2 1 15 Top Energy ORMAT
New Zealand KA24 1 8,3 ORMAT ORMAT
New Zealand Mokai 2 1-5 20 Tuaropaki Power ORMAT
Co
New Zealand Mokai 2 15-17 14 Contact Energy ORMAT
Portugal Pico Vermelho 1 13 Electricidade dos ORMAT
Azores
Turkey Kizildere Binary 1 6,8 BEREKET ORMAT
Turkey Dora 1 7,4 MB ORMAT
USA Faulkner 1 50 Nevada ORMAT
Geothermal
USA Lahendong 3 20 PLN Fuji
USA Stillwater 1-2 48 Enel Green Mafi Trench
Power
USA Salt Wells 1 24 Enel Green Mafi Trench
Power
USA North Brawley 1-7 49 ORMAT ORMAT
USA Thermo Hot 1-50 10 Raster UTC/Turboden
springs Technologies
USA Galena III 1 30 ORMAT ORMAT
USA Raft River 1 13 US Geothermal ORMAT
USA Heber South 1 10 ORMAT ORMAT
USA Galena II 1 13 ORMAT ORMAT
USA Blundell I 2 11 Pacific ORMAT
Corporation
USA Desert Peak II 1 23 ORMAT ORMAT
USA Gould 1-2 10 ORMAT ORMAT
USA Richard Burdett 1-2 30 ORMAT ORMAT
61
9.4 Operation and Training

One of the basie of a successful operation are skilled operators and workers that operate and
maintain the power plant. Geothermal binary power plant operators have to be trained with regard
to issues specific to geothermal projects and binary technology.
Operation of geothermal binary power plants includes:
 Supervision of machines
 Operation supplies required for operation of the plant such as inhibitors in cooling towers,
oil and grease
 Maintenance of the system
 Maintenance supplies, mainly spare parts
 Supervision of the geothermal resource and reservoir
The operation and maintenance activities might significantly impact the lifetime of a plant. It is
important for a plant owner to be aware of this and adopt a strategy for operation and maintenance
accordingly. The strategy adopted by the plant owner for operation and maintenance will depend
on its internal structure, its staff capability, knowledge and experience in operation of geothermal
binary power plants. The size and location of the power plant will also have to be taken into
account. For instance, it might not be feasible to have a full operation team for a small power plant
located in a remote place. A collaboration with other plant (diesel) owners should be examined.
When planning a geothermal binary power plant, the plant owner should make sure that his
operating team will receive appropriate training. Training will first of all be conducted during the
commissioning phase and during the first months of operation. The equipment manufacturers
usually provide training and operation assistance for the equipment they supply. Training and
transfer of knowledge can also be provided by the design team. This is particularly relevant to all
matters related to the geothermal resources, its management, monitoring and impact on the
equipment operation and maintenance. Another possibility for the plant owner is to send his
operation team to places where such plants are already in operation in order to receive training
from other operators.
62
10 Conclusions
The main conclusion of this study is that the economy of a binary power plant depends highly on
the characteristics of the geothermal area, i.e. depth to the water level and pumping
requirements. Binary technology is feasible for the production of electricity from geothermal
resources at temperatures 120° and up. However plants may be viable for temperature down to
90°C if the circumstances are favorable. Larger plants are more economical than smaller units
Binary power plants are best suited as base load plants connected to a large grid, but can also be
operated for a small grid in combination with a diesel power plant. Binary power plants are not
feasible as the only plant connected to a small grid (island operation).
For a successful geothermal binary power plant project it is important to verify all the main
characteristics of the geothermal resource prior to the final design of the plant and selection of
equipment. The main characteristics are:
• Extent of the geothermal field.
• Capacity of the geothermal resource.
• Temperature of the resource.
• Estimated flow rate from each well v.s drawdown in the well or wellhead pressure.
• Estimated distance between wells.
• Chemical composition of the geothermal fluid.
• Influence of reinjection on flow rates from wells and field capacity.
For a successful operation of a geothermal field and a power plant it is of utmost importance to
have skilled, trained operators and maintenance staff.
63
11 Bibliography
Jennejohn, D., Hines, B., Gawell, K., & Blodgett, L. (2012). Geothermal: International Market
Overview Report. Washington, D.C.: Geothermal Energy Association.
Bertani Ruggero. (2010). Geothermal Power Generation in the World: 2005-2010 Update Report.
Enel Green Power. Geothermal Energy Association.
64
Appendices
65
Appendix A Simple layout of a binary plant, 150°C geothermal fluid and 10 MW
Appendix B Process Diagrams – Detailed simulation results
Single Stage ORC Cycle
The tables below show the amount (mass flow) of geothermal fluid needed for generation of electricity
at temperatures 90°C, 100°C, 110°C, 120°C, 130°C, 140°C and 150°C respectively. The tables also
show various parameters in the process cycle and the net power production.
Table B-1 Single stage ORC cycle, 90°C geothermal fluid.
90°C
Gross Mass Flow Reinjection Mass Flow Vaporizer Condenser Net Power
output Geothermal Fluid Temperature Working Fluid Pressure Pressure Production
[kg/s] [°C] [kg/s] [bar-a] [bar-a] [kW]
250 48,33 64,41 14,15 2,765 1,42 189,9

1000 193,3 64,41 56,62 2,765 1,42 819,7
2500 483,3 64,41 141,5 2,765 1,42 2079
5000 966,6 64,41 283,1 2,765 1,42 4178
10000 1933 64,41 566,2 2,765 1,42 8377

100°C
250 32,16 70 10,9 3,348 1,42 197,6
1000 128,6 70 43,58 3,348 1,42 850,5
2500 321,6 70 109 3,348 1,42 2156
5000 643,2 70 217,9 3,371 1,42 4333
10000 1286 70 435,8 3,371 1,42 8685
Table B-3 Single stage ORC cycle, 110°C geothermal fluid

110°C
250 22,65 71,29 9,855 3,651 1,42 200
1000 90,62 71,29 39,42 3,651 1,42 860,1
2500 226,5 71,29 98,55 3,651 1,42 2180
5000 453,1 71,29 197,1 3,651 1,42 4380
10000 906,2 71,29 394,2 3,651 1,42 8781
120°C
[kg/s] [°C] [kg/s] [bar-a] [kW]
[bar-a]
250 16,82 74,34 8,555 4,183 1,42 202,9
1000 67,26 74,34 34,22 4,183 1,42 871,5
2500 168,2 74,34 85,55 4,183 1,42 2209
5000 336,3 74,35 171,1 4,183 1,42 4438
10000 672,6 74,35 342,2 4,183 1,42 8895

130°C
250 12,93 77,12 7,554 4,788 1,42 205
1000 51,7 77,12 30,21 4,788 1,42 879,9
2500 129,3 77,12 75,53 4,788 1,42 2230
5000 258,5 77,12 151,1 4,788 1,42 4479
10000 517 77,12 302,1 4,788 1,42 8979

140°C
250 10,2 79,61 6,754 5,478 1,42 206,5
1000 40,81 79,61 27,02 5,478 1,42 886
2500 102 79,61 67,54 5,478 1,42 2245
5000 204 79,61 135,1 5,478 1,42 4510
10000 408,1 79,61 270,2 5,478 1,42 9040
150°C
Heat Source Mass Flow Reinjection Mass Flow Vaporizer Condenser Net Power
Temperature Geothermal Fluid Temperature Working Fluid Pressure Pressure Production
[°C] [kg/s] [°C] [kg/s] [bar-a] [bar-a] [kW]
250 8,22 81,8 6,099 6,272 1,42 207,6
1000 32,88 81,8 24,39 6,272 1,42 890,5
2500 82,2 81,8 60,98 6,272 1,42 2256
5000 164,4 81,8 122 6,272 1,42 4533
10000 328,8 81,8 243,9 6,272 1,42 9085
Figure B-1 Mass flow of geothermal fluid required per kWnet in a one stage binary cycle. The
Figure B-2 Percentage of net power of total generated electricity in the one stage ORC
cycle plant. The colored lines indicate the generator size (gross product).
Two-Stage Cycle
The tables below show the amount (mass flow) of geothermal fluid needed for generation of electricity
at temperatures 90°C, 100°C, 110°C, 120°C, 130°C, 140°C and 150°C respectively with two stage ORC
cycle. The tables also show various parameters in the process cycle and the net power production.
Table B-8 Two stage ORC cycle, 90°C geothermal fluid.

90°C
Generator Mass Flow Reinjection Mass Flow Vaporizer Condenser Net Power Net Net Power
Output Geothermal Temperature Working Fluid Pressure Pressure per unitary Power/ Production
Fluid [°C] [kg/s] [bar-a] [bar-a] well flow Generated -Well
[kg/s] [kw / kg/s] power pump
[kW]
250 37,16 58,22 7,11/6,24 3,42/2,28 1,42 5,22 0,78 194,08
1000 148,6 58,22 28,42/24,97 3,42/2,28 1,42 5,63 0,84 836,3
2500 371,6 58,22 71,06/62,42 3,42/2,28 1,42 5,71 0,85 2121
5000 743,2 58,22 142,1/124,8 3,42/2,28 1,42 5,73 0,85 4259
10000 1486 58,22 284,2/249,7 3,42/2,28 1,42 5,74 0,85 8523
Table B-9 Two stage ORC cycle, 100°C geothermal fluid.
100°C
Fluid [°C] [kg/s] [bar-a] [bar-a] well flow Generated [kW]
[kg/s] [kw / kg/s] power
250 24,91 60,77 5,96/4,94 4,08/2,53 1,42 8,02 0,80 199,82
1000 99,63 60,77 23,85/19,75 4,08/2,53 1,42 8,63 0,86 859,4
2500 249,1 60,77 59,62/49,37 4,08/2,53 1,42 8,74 0,87 2178,3
5000 498,1 60,77 119,2/98,75 4,08/2,53 1,42 8,79 0,88 4377
10000 996,3 60,77 238,5/197,5 4,08/2,53 1,42 8,81 0,88 8774
Table B-10 Two stage ORC cycle, 110°C geothermal fluid

110°C
250 17,87 63,24 5,19/4,01 4,83/2,80 1,42 11,39 0,81 203,58
1000 71,47 63,24 20,76/16,03 4,83/2,80 1,42 12,23 0,87 874,2
2500 178,7 63,24 51,91/40,08 4,83/2,80 1,42 12,40 0,89 2215,8
5000 357,4 63,24 103,8/80,16 4,83/2,80 1,42 12,46 0,89 4452
10000 714,7 63,24 207,7/160,3 4,83/2,80 1,42 12,48 0,89 8922

120°C
250 13,45 65,64 4,64/3,31 5,67/3,11 1,42 15,32 0,82 206,07
1000 53,81 65,64 18,57/13,22 5,67/3,11 1,42 16,43 0,88 884,2
2500 134,5 65,54 46,53/33,09 5,67/3,11 1,42 16,66 0,90 2240,7
5000 269,1 65,64 92,85/66,11 5,67/3,11 1,42 16,73 0,90 4501,5
10000 538,1 65,64 185,7/132,2 5,67/3,11 1,42 16,77 0,90 9022

130°C
250 10,5 67,96 4,241/2,747 6,62/3,45 1,42 19,78 0,83 207,72
1000 41,99 67,96 16,97/10,99 6,62/3,45 1,42 21,22 0,89 891,1
2500 105 67,96 42,41/27,47 6,62/3,45 1,42 21,50 0,90 2257,2
5000 210 67,96 84,83/54,94 6,62/3,45 1,42 21,60 0,91 4535,5
10000 419,9 67,96 169,7/109,9 6,62/3,45 1,42 21,65 0,91 9091
140°C
250 8,421 70,22 3,94/2,27 7,67/3,82 1,42 24,81 0,84 208,93
1000 33,69 70,21 15,77/9,42 7,67/3,82 1,42 26,59 0,90 895,7
2500 84,21 70,21 39,43/22,86 7,67/3,82 1,42 26,95 0,91 2269,3
5000 168,4 70,21 78,85/45,72 7,67/3,82 1,42 27,07 0,91 4558,6
10000 336,9 70,21 157,7/91,44 7,67/3,82 1,42 27,12 0,91 9137

150°C
250 6,903 72,38 3,72/1,90 8,83/4,23 1,42 30,38 0,84 209,71
1000 27,61 72,38 14,87/7,58 8,83/4,23 1,42 32,55 0,90 898,76
2500 69,03 72,38 37,17/18,95 8,83/4,23 1,42 32,99 0,91 2277,1
5000 138,1 72,38 74,35/37,89 8,83/4,23 1,42 33,12 0,91 4573,3
10000 276,1 72,38 148,7/75,79 8,83/4,23 1,42 33,46 0,92 9239,6
Figure B-3 Mass flow of geothermal fluid required per kWnet in the two stage binary cycle
plants. The colored lines indicate the generator size (gross product).
Figure B-4 Percentage of net power of total generated electricity in the two stage ORC
cycle plants. The colored lines indicate the generator size (gross product).
Appendix C – Cost Results
Table C-15 Yearly cost of spare parts, maintenance and insurances
Spare parts, maintainence and insurances
250 33.587 250 34.449

1.000 104.542 1.000 117.086
90°C
2.500 227.063 2.500 249.054

5.000 407.757 5.000 443.304
10.000 765.142 10.000 831.179
250 27.568 250 32.245
1.000 96.440 1.000 108.199
100°C
2.500 174.717 2.500 221.184

5.000 304.499 5.000 381.130
10.000 633.016 10.000 698.557
250 26.067 250 30.444
1.000 87.777 1.000 98.641
110°C
2.500 168.711 2.500 193.253

5.000 285.987 5.000 320.601
10.000 513.193 10.000 575.681
250 25.361 250 29.597
1.000 79.003 1.000 93.131
120°C
2.500 153.508 2.500 175.845

5.000 246.441 5.000 279.836
10.000 454.899 10.000 519.112
250 24.409 250 28.455
1.000 75.195 1.000 88.561
130°C
2.500 136.558 2.500 156.341

5.000 224.476 5.000 259.334
10.000 416.570 10.000 480.645
250 23.357 250 27.192
1.000 70.245 1.000 78.438
140°C
2.500 118.417 2.500 139.591

5.000 209.494 5.000 242.191
10.000 396.005 10.000 457.641
250 23.200 250 27.003
1.000 62.120 1.000 73.707
150°C
2.500 110.137 2.500 125.473

5.000 200.191 5.000 231.865
10.000 384.641 10.000 445.676
Table C-2 Annual well replacement cost
Annual Well replacement cost
250 79.989 250 95.987

1.000 320.123 1.000 384.147
90°C
2.500 800.390 2.500 960.468

5.000 1.600.779 5.000 1.920.935
10.000 3.201.228 10.000 3.841.473
250 52.995 250 63.594
1.000 211.980 1.000 254.376
100°C
2.500 529.950 2.500 635.940

5.000 1.059.734 5.000 1.271.681
10.000 2.119.799 10.000 2.543.759
250 37.511 250 45.013
1.000 150.125 1.000 180.150
110°C
2.500 375.105 2.500 450.126

5.000 750.376 5.000 900.451
10.000 1.500.751 10.000 1.800.902
250 27.855 250 33.427
1.000 111.389 1.000 133.667
120°C
2.500 278.555 2.500 334.266

5.000 556.944 5.000 668.333
10.000 1.113.888 10.000 1.336.666
250 21.413 250 25.696
1.000 85.620 1.000 102.744
130°C
2.500 214.133 2.500 256.959

5.000 428.100 5.000 513.720
10.000 856.200 10.000 1.027.440
250 16.892 250 20.271
1.000 67.585 1.000 81.102
140°C
2.500 168.921 2.500 202.706

5.000 337.843 5.000 405.412
10.000 675.852 10.000 811.022
250 13.613 250 16.336
1.000 54.452 1.000 65.343
150°C
2.500 136.131 2.500 163.357

5.000 272.262 5.000 326.714
10.000 544.523 10.000 653.428
Table C-3 Annual cost of personnel
Personnel cost
250 162.500 250 162.500

1.000 162.500 1.000 162.500
90°C
2.500 294.500 2.500 294.500

5.000 326.500 5.000 326.500
10.000 366.500 10.000 366.500
250 162.500 250 162.500
1.000 162.500 1.000 162.500
100°C
2.500 294.500 2.500 294.500

5.000 326.500 5.000 326.500
10.000 366.500 10.000 366.500
250 162.500 250 162.500
1.000 162.500 1.000 162.500
110°C
2.500 294.500 2.500 294.500

5.000 326.500 5.000 326.500
10.000 366.500 10.000 366.500
250 162.500 250 162.500
1.000 162.500 1.000 162.500
120°C
2.500 294.500 2.500 294.500

5.000 326.500 5.000 326.500
10.000 366.500 10.000 366.500
250 162.500 250 162.500
1.000 162.500 1.000 162.500
130°C
2.500 294.500 2.500 294.500

5.000 326.500 5.000 326.500
10.000 366.500 10.000 366.500
250 162.500 250 162.500
1.000 162.500 1.000 162.500
140°C
2.500 294.500 2.500 294.500

5.000 326.500 5.000 326.500
10.000 366.500 10.000 366.500
250 162.500 250 162.500
1.000 162.500 1.000 162.500
150°C
2.500 294.500 2.500 294.500

5.000 326.500 5.000 326.500
10.000 366.500 10.000 366.500
Table C-4 Annual O&M cost
O&M cost
250 276.076 250 292.936

1.000 587.165 1.000 663.733
90°C
2.500 1.321.952 2.500 1.504.022

5.000 2.335.037 5.000 2.690.739
10.000 4.332.870 10.000 5.039.152
250 243.063 250 258.339
1.000 470.919 1.000 525.075
100°C
2.500 999.167 2.500 1.151.623

5.000 1.690.733 5.000 1.979.310
10.000 3.119.315 10.000 3.608.816
250 226.078 250 237.957
1.000 400.402 1.000 441.291
110°C
2.500 838.316 2.500 937.879

5.000 1.362.863 5.000 1.547.551
10.000 2.380.444 10.000 2.743.083
250 215.717 250 225.524
1.000 352.892 1.000 389.297
120°C
2.500 726.563 2.500 804.611

5.000 1.129.885 5.000 1.274.669
10.000 1.935.287 10.000 2.222.278
250 208.323 250 216.651
1.000 323.315 1.000 353.805
130°C
2.500 645.191 2.500 707.801

5.000 979.076 5.000 1.099.554
10.000 1.639.270 10.000 1.874.585
250 202.749 250 209.962
1.000 300.330 1.000 322.040
140°C
2.500 581.838 2.500 636.797

5.000 873.837 5.000 974.103
10.000 1.438.357 10.000 1.635.162
250 199.313 250 205.839
1.000 279.072 1.000 301.550
150°C
2.500 540.768 2.500 583.330

5.000 798.953 5.000 885.079
10.000 1.295.664 10.000 1.465.604
Table C-5 Production Cost Estimate (different pumping depths)
Production Cost: 1. Stage Cycle - Power requirements of pumps
Generator size Net Power Total Production Well pump Well pump Well pump
[kW] Production Cost Power [kW] Power [kW] Power [kW]
[kW] [USD] 0m 100m 200m
250 189,9 874.293 0 79,02 158,04
1000 819,7 2.887.590 0 316,1 632,2
90°C
2500 2079 6.876.604 0 790,2 1580,4

5000 4178 13.216.050 0 1580 3160
10000 8377 25.843.025 0 3161 6322
250 197,6 675.520 0 52,31 104,62
1000 850,5 2.125.895 0 209,3 418,6
100°C
2500 2156 4.800.012 0 523,1 1046,2

5000 4333 9.070.925 0 1046 2092
10000 8685 18.034.217 0 2093 4186
250 200 561.032 0 370,4 740,8
1000 860,1 1.674.086 0 148,2 296,4
110°C
2500 2180 3.780.742 0 370,4 740,8

5000 4380 6.970.326 0 740,8 1481,6
10000 8781 13.299.898 0 1482 2964
250 202,9 491.121 0 27,49 54,98
1000 871,5 1.378.129 0 110 220
120°C
2500 2209 3.052.029 0 274,9 549,8

5000 4438 5.474.684 0 549,9 1099,8
10000 8895 10.441.974 0 1100 2200
250 205 441.388 0 21,13 42,26
1000 879,9 1.179.199 0 84,53 169,06
130°C
2500 2230 2.529.697 0 211,3 422,6

5000 4479 4.506.548 0 422,6 845,2
10000 8979 8.541.607 0 845,3 1690,6
250 206,5 404.019 0 16,68 33,36
1000 886 1.025.321 0 66,72 133,44
140°C
2500 2245 2.129.831 0 166,8 333,6

5000 4510 3.821.870 0 333,6 667,2
10000 9040 7.233.641 0 667,2 1334,4
250 207,6 380.807 0 13,44 26,88
1000 890,5 906.922 0 53,76 107,52
150°C
2500 2256 1.854.674 0 134,4 268,8

5000 4533 3.340.722 0 268,8 537,6
10000 9085 6.316.644 0 537,6 1075,2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 [𝑈𝑆𝐷]

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 [USD/kWh] =
(𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 − 𝑊𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 )𝑘𝑊 ∙ 8409 ℎ
Table C-6 Production Cost Estimate (different pumping depths)
Production cost: 2. Stage Cycle - Power requirements of pumps
Generator size Net Power Total Production Well pump Well pump Well pump
[kW] Production Cost Power [kW] Power [kW] Power [kW]
[kW] [USD] 0m 100m 200m
250 194,08 1.010.797 0 55,94 111,88
1000 836,3 3.424.243 0 223,7 447,4
90°C
2500 2121 8.169.604 0 559,4 1118,8

5000 4259 15.747.955 0 1119 2238
10000 8523 30.851.338 0 2237 4474
250 199,82 777.287 0 38,67 77,34
1000 859,4 2.511.046 0 154,7 309,4
100°C
2500 2178,3 5.712.637 0 386,7 773,4

5000 4377 10.835.541 0 773,3 1546,6
10000 8774 21.506.700 0 1547 3094
250 203,58 639.901 0 28,89 57,78
1000 874,2 1.969.712 0 115,5 231
110°C
2500 2215,8 4.468.789 0 288,9 577,8

5000 4452 8.276.507 0 577,7 1155,4
10000 8922 15.846.428 0 1155 2310
250 206,07 556.008 0 22,9 45,8
1000 884,2 1.619.582 0 91,59 183,18
120°C
2500 2240,7 3.595.171 0 229 458

5000 4501,5 6.488.428 0 458 916
10000 9022 12.430.303 0 915,9 1831,8
250 207,72 496.329 0 19,04 38,08
1000 891,1 1.380.866 0 76,18 152,36
130°C
2500 2257,2 2.969.208 0 190,4 380,8

5000 4535,5 5.332.520 0 380,9 761,8
10000 9091 10.157.390 0 761,8 1523,6
250 208,93 451.487 0 16,49 32,98
1000 895,7 1.192.030 0 65,97 131,94
140°C
2500 2269,3 2.494.388 0 164,9 329,8

5000 4558,6 4.511.743 0 329,9 659,8
10000 9137 8.589.504 0 659,7 1319,4
250 209,71 423.632 0 14,79 29,58
1000 898,76 1.054.970 0 59,16 118,32
150°C
2500 2277,1 2.160.017 0 147,9 295,8

5000 4573,3 3.935.202 0 295,8 591,6
10000 9239,6 7.490.780 0 591,6 1183,2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 [𝑈𝑆𝐷]

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 [USD/kWh] =
(𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 − 𝑊𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 )𝑘𝑊 ∙ 8409 ℎ

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Geothermal Binary Power Plants

Preliminary study of low

With funding from

Preliminary study of low temperature utilization,

Prepared by Verkis Consulting Engineers 2014, www.verkis.is

Working Fluid Vapour

Figure 1 One stage binary cycle

Figure 2 Two stage binary cycle

Figure 3 Net power as a function of temperature. The colored lines

Figure 4 Investment Cost of the plants, USD/kW generated

Table 1 Total annual cost

Power Plants - Total Annual Cost

Cost, MUSD /Year Cost, MUSD /Year

Table 2 Production Cost pr. kWh of net energy production

250 1.596.983 17,3 54,7 49,2 1.632.135 17,9 61,9 55,4

2500 17.483.558 7,6 39,3 34,6 17.836.762 8,4 45,8 40,3

2500 18.131.098 5,6 26,8 23,7 18.318.632 6,2 31,4 27,7

2500 18.332.928 4,6 20,6 18,3 18.633.992 5,0 24,0 21,2

2500 18.576.806 3,9 16,4 14,6 18.843.391 4,3 19,1 14,6

2500 18.753.408 3,5 13,6 12,1 18.982.149 3,7 15,7 14,0

2500 18.879.552 3,1 11,3 10,1 19.083.905 3,3 13,1 11,6

2500 18.972.058 2,9 9,8 8,8 19.149.500 3,0 11,3 10,1

TABLE 3-1 GEOTHERMAL EXPLORATION SUMMARY............................................................ 21

TABLE B-1 SINGLE STAGE ORC CYCLE, 90°C GEOTHERMAL FLUID......................................... 68

1.1 Geothermal energy and the binary technology

Figure 1-1 Geothermal utilization (adapted from the Lindal diagram)

Geothermal resources are usually divided into two categories:

Report context and case study

2 Overview of the binary technology

2.1 Binary Process Description

Figure 2-1 Single stage ORC cycle

2.2 Case study

Each plant was simulated with different geothermal fluid temperatures

3.1 Geothermal Exploration

3.2 Production Wells

Figure 3-1 Casing program for a low temperature well

Figure 3-2 Line shaft deep well pump

3.3 Reinjection Wells

3.4 Chemical Composition

3.5 Well Field Piping

4.1 Preheater and Vaporizer

4.2 Heat Exchanger Pinch

4.4 Working Media

Figure 4-2 Working fluid comparison

4.5 Cooling Systems

4.5.1 Air Cooled Condenser

4.5.2 Wet Cooling

4.7 Auxiliary systems

4.8 Electricals and Controls

Figure 4-3 Basic layout of electrical equipment

4.8.3 Medium Voltage System

4.8.4 Low Voltage System

4.8.5 Direct Current System

4.8.6 Control and Protection

4.9 Plant Electrical Production Options

Figure 4-4 Binary plant and diesel generator combination

4.10 Buildings and Roads

Figure 4-6 Simple layout of a 10 MW plant, 150°C geothermal fluid.