Unit–8

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHIES AND

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Written by: Dr. Farkhanda Rashid

Reviewed by: Dr. Fazal ur Rahman
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Foundations are the basis for curriculum developing process. Philosophical foundation provides teachers,
educators, and curriculum makers a framework for planning, implementing and evaluating curriculum in
schools. It facilitates in answering what schools are for, what subjects are important, how students should
learn and what materials and methods should be used? Philosophy provides the starting point in decision-
making, and is used for the succeeding decision-making. Educational Philosophies lays the strong
foundation of any curriculum. A curriculum planner or specialist, implementer or the teacher, school
heads, evaluator anchors his/her decision making process on a sound philosophy.

Curriculum is used for the modification of the behavior of the students and philosophy helps in the
process of finding new ways and basis for teachers and curriculum planner to modify their behavior.
Philosophy also helps in the exploring new methods of teaching and how to apply in the classroom
situation for better achievement of the teaching learning process. It also provides new ways and methods
for the evaluation of student’s achievement and evaluation of curriculum.

Philosophers of the past have made major influence in clarifying the association in the nature of
knowledge and curriculum development process and also provide a foundation for curriculum. Today the
world economics and societies are changing very rapidly. Therefore, the emphasis on finding new ways
through which man develops new concepts of reality and knowledge and to form a new structure of
knowledge in this dynamic and changing time therefore a high value is given to discovery, invention and
restructuring of knowledge and curriculum in new patterns. Now the new curriculum is open to new
experiences, logical and critical thinking, and to bring about the concept of knowledge out of interpreted
experience.

Philosophy and ideology of education provide rules and principles which lead decision-making regarding
educational practices and polices planning. It Guides the curriculum planner on the basses of the
philosophical and ideological belief of the society in the constructing of subject matter keeping in view
the future demands and needs of the schools and help in the promoting of human life through social
change in the behavior of the students.

The contemporary philosophies support social theory for a philosophy of education, training students to
be independent and critical thinkers. The contemporary philosophies lay stress on schools to play a central
role in the life of students and the community. Educational institutions must function as a bridge between
teachers, students, parents, the business community, and politicians. The contemporary philosophies
emphasize that curriculum must address the emotional and physical needs of students, providing them
with a balance of social and technical skills. Therefore curriculum planner must introduce such
curriculum in education system, which inculcate true knowledge and preserve the culture of society in
new generation.

8.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, students will be able to:
1. Explain role of contemporary philosophies in education

2. Identify the suitable philosophy for a particular curriculum

3. Compare different philosophies for curriculum development

4. Develop their own philosophy for particular discipline

8.3 PERENNIALISM
Perennial means "everlasting," like a perennial flower that comes up year after year. The educational
philosophy of perennialism is derived from both idealism and realism. From idealism comes the
combination of ideas that truth is universal and unchanging. It is independent of time, place, and the
immediate physical reality that surrounds us. From realism comes an emphasis on rationality and the
importance of education in training of intellect in the search for truth. The roots of perennialism lie in the
philosophy of Plato and Aristotle, as well as that of St. Thomas Aquinas. Advocates of this educational
philosophy are Robert Maynard Hutchins who developed a Great Books program in 1963 and Mortimer
Adler, who further developed this curriculum based on 100 great books of western civilization.

According to Perennialists, when students are immersed in the study of those profound and enduring
ideas, they will appreciate learning for its own sake and become true intellectuals. For Perennialists, the
aim of education is to ensure that students acquire understandings about the great ideas of Western
civilization. These ideas have the potential for solving problems in any era. The focus is to teach ideas
that are everlasting, to seek enduring truths which are constant, not changing, as the natural and human
worlds at their most essential level, do not change. Teaching these unchanging principles is critical.
Perennialists believe that the focus of education should be the ideas that have lasted over centuries. They
believe the ideas are as relevant and meaningful today as when they were written. Humans are rational
beings, and their minds need to be developed. Thus, cultivation of the intellect is the highest priority in a
worthwhile education.

8.3.1 Perennialists Curriculum

The focus in the curriculum is classical subjects, literary analysis and considers curriculum as constant.
The demanding curriculum focuses on attaining cultural literacy, stressing students' growth in enduring
disciplines. The loftiest accomplishments of humankind are emphasized– the great works of literature and
art, the laws or principles of science.

Perennialism maintains that the purpose of schools is to prepare children to accept their places in a society
built upon a long and tested tradition. Society has a natural order, and schools should operate as testing
grounds to determine where children will fit in this order. To do this, schools should offer all children an
academic curriculum based on the classics, compendiums of human knowledge that have been tested over
time. The purpose of such a curriculum is to train the intellect in a broad, general way. As a result, it will
become evident who are the brightest and best, who will be fit to be the leaders in society. Perennialism
contends that schools should not address either the fleeting, narrow interests of students or the immediate
needs of society. These concerns are left to other social institutions.

8.3.2 Role of Teacher

The role of the teacher, who has been trained in the same type of academic curriculum, is that of moral
and intellectual authority figure. Perennialists hold that courses in academic subjects are a far more
important part of teacher education than courses in how to teach. Teachers should be role models of
educated people. Perennialism has its roots in the Greek classics.

Perennialists recommend that students learn from reading and analyzing the works by history's finest
thinkers and writers. Perennialist classrooms are also centered on teachers in order to accomplish these
goals. The teachers are not concerned about the students' interests or experiences. They use tried and true
teaching methods and techniques that are believed to be most beneficial to disciplining students' minds.
The perennialist curriculum is universal and is based on their view that all human beings possess the same
essential nature. Perennialists think it is important that individuals think deeply, analytically, flexibly, and
imaginatively. They emphasize that students should not be taught information that may soon be outdated
or found to be incorrect. Perennialists disapprove of teachers requiring students to absorb massive
amounts of disconnected information. They recommend that schools spend more time teaching about
concepts and explaining to make these concepts meaningful for students.

Self-Assessment Questions 8.1

Q. 1 Fill in the blanks.
1. Perennial means "……………………”.

2. The educational philosophy of perennialism is derived from both…………………. and realism.

3. For Perennialists, the aim of education is to ensure that students acquire understandings about the
………………… of Western civilization.

4. The focus is to teach ideas that are ……………………….

5. Perennialistsbelieve the ideas are as ………………… and meaningful today as when they were
written.

6. Perennialism maintains that the purpose of schools is to prepare children to accept their places in a
………………… built upon a long and tested tradition.

7. Perennialists hold that courses in academic subjects are a far more important part of
………………… education than courses in how to teach.

8. The perennialist curriculum is…………… and is based on their view that all human beings possess
the same essential nature.

9. Perennialists think it is important that………………… think deeply, analytically, flexibly, and

imaginatively.

10. Perennialists ………………… of teachers requiring students to absorb massive amounts of

disconnected information.

8.4 PROGRESSIVISM
The Progressive education philosophy was established in America from the mid 1920s through the mid
1950s. The philosophical base of progressivism is “pragmatism”. John Dewey was its foremost proponent
began to channel his interests toward education, challenging the long-standing grip of perennialism on
American education. Although such individuals as Rousseau and the Swiss educational reformer Johann
Pestalozzi were forerunners of progressive views of education, it was Dewey who systematically
developed and tested the tenets of American progressivism. As the chairman of the departments of
psychology, philosophy, and pedagogy at the University of Chicago, Dewey established his famous
laboratory school in 1895. The two announced purposes of the school were to exhibit, test, and criticize
ideas about how children learn and to watch children to discover how they learn. Such an approach was in
Stark contrast to the static, tradition-oriented views of perennialism. One of these tenets was that the
school should improve the way of life of citizens through experiencing freedom and democracy in
schools. Shared decision making, planning of teachers with students, student-selected topics are all
aspects. Books are tools rather than authority.

Progressivism purports that the purpose of education is to prepare children to live in society, but that
since society is in a constant state of change, schools should prepare students to confront the changing
world. Dewey rejected the notion that reality and ways of knowing and behaving are absolute and of
divine origin. Rather, he argued, reality is continually reconstructed, based on an ever-changing universe
and the changing needs and interests of human beings. This, progressivism maintains, is the world for
which children should be prepared. Whereas the curriculum emphasized by perennialists is academic and
teacher centered, that proposed by progressives is highly social and student centered. Rejecting the notion
that the function of schools is simply to train the intellect, Dewey argued that children should acquire
knowledge through meaningful activities and apply it to real social situations. Thus, progressivism rejects
classroom practices that involve children passively learning information "poured" into them by
authoritarian teachers or from books.

Further, progressivism stresses the importance of addressing the needs and experiences of the whole
child, not just a child's intellect. As much as possible, what a child studies should be determined by
his/her own experiences and interests. Moreover, the best method of intellectual training is through
helping children learn to work cooperatively to solve problems, not through studying a flexed body of
knowledge. In short, progressive educators see cooperation and problem solving as the key to human
adaptation in an ever-changing world.

Progressivists believe that education should focus on the whole child, rather than on the content or the
teacher. This educational philosophy stresses that students should test ideas by active experimentation.
Learning is rooted in the questions of learners that arise through experiencing the world. It is active, not
passive. The learner is a problem solver and thinker who makes meaning through his or her individual
experience in the physical and cultural context. Effective teachers provide experiences so that students
can learn by doing.

8.4.1 Progressivists Curriculum

The content of progressivists curriculum is derived from student interests and questions. The scientific
method is used by progressivist educators so that students can study matter and events systematically and
first hand. The emphasis is on process-how one comes to know. Progressivists curriculum involves the
application of human problems and affairs. Interdisciplinary subject matter is used. Activities and projects
are also important part of progressivists curriculum.

8.4.2 Role of Teacher

Teacher is a guide for problem solving and scientific inquiry. Progressivism maintains that the role of the
teacher is as a facilitator who helps children to examine their experiences as they interact with the
physical and social worlds and to sort out for themselves a satisfactory role in society. Teachers are not
considered authority figures handing down knowledge and precepts by which children should live.
Rather, it is important that they prepare a wide repertoire of classroom activities to stimulate and satisfy
the interests of all their students. They need to give students as much contact with real-life situations as
they possibly can so students can test their ideas, and learn from their experiences.

Self-Assessment Questions 8.4

Q. 1 Fill in the blanks.
1. The philosophical base of progressivism is “…………………….”.

2. The two announced purposes of the school were to exhibit, test, and criticize ideas about how
children learn and to watch children to ………………. how they learn.

3. One of the tenets was that the school should improve the way of life of citizens through
experiencing freedom and …………………. in schools.

4. Progressivism purports that the purpose of education is to prepare children to live in

……………………., but that since society is in a constant state of change.

5. Dewey ……………………. the notion that reality and ways of knowing and behaving are absolute
and of divine origin.

6. Progressivism rejects classroom practices that involve children …………………. learning

information.

7. Progressivism stresses the importance of addressing the needs and ………………. of the whole
child, not just a child's intellect.

8. Progressivists believe that education should focus on the ………………………. child, rather than
on the content or the teacher.
9. The content of progressivists curriculum is derived from interests and questions.

10. Activities and …………………. are also important part of progressivists curriculum.

8.5 ESSENTIALISM
Beginning in the 1930s and reemerging with increased strength in the 1950s and 1980, essentialism has
criticized progressivism's focus on how children learn rather than on what children learn. Essentialism
began to protest against the downfall of the standards of the schools. Essentialist often bases their
critiques of American education standards from other counties like Japan and Germany. They criticized
progressivists for not teaching American culture.

Essentialism is a kind of neo perennialism with roots in both idealism and realism. Essentialism maintains
that the purpose of schools is both to preserve the knowledge and values of the past and to provide
children with the skills essential to live successful and meaningful lives in present society. An educational
theory that focuses on an essential set of learning prepares individuals for life by concentrating on the
culture and traditions of the past. Essentialism, which in the post-World War era has come to replace
perennialism as the dominant educational philosophy in American public schools, holds that the purpose
of the schools is to prepare students for their roles in society through a curriculum focused on basic skills
and traditional academic content, taught by teachers who expect respect for authority and discipline.
William C. Bagley (1874–1946) was the founder of existentialism. The proponents of Essentialism are:
James D. Koerner (1959), H. G. Rickover (1959), Paul Copperman (1978), and Theodore Sizer (1985).

Academic subject matter has priority in the curriculum, but its primary purpose is to transmit useful skills.
In response to the growing progressive movement, essentialism argued that teachers must be returned to
their traditional authoritarian place in the classroom as dispensers of knowledge and skills and as role
models of useful and competent citizens. Essentialism view that schools should conserve important social
traditions and the curriculum should be teacher and subject centered. But there is more emphasis in
essentialism on education's relevance in preparing individuals to live in the current society and less on
absolutism and enduring issues. However, Perennialism focuses more on the value of studying the
classics for their own sake, because they help individuals to become liberally educated. Essentialism
focuses more on the utilitarian value of these great works that helps individuals develop high-order
thinking skills and acquire knowledge. In the last few decades, there have been several well-publicized
manifestations of essentialism.

Essentialists believe that there is a common core of knowledge that needs to be transmitted to students in
a systematic, disciplined way. The emphasis in this conservative perspective is on intellectual and moral
standards that schools should teach.

Essentialism is based off of the philosophies of idealism and realism. Essentialism refers to the
"traditional" or "Back to the Basics" approach to education. It contends that schools should not try to
radically reshape society. Its named comes from the striving to instill students with the "essentials" of
academic knowledge and character development. Essentialism is grounded in a conservative philosophy
that accepts the social, political, and economic structure of American society. It contends that schools
should not try to radically reshape society. Essentialists believe that teachers should instill such traditional
American virtues as respect for authority, perseverance, fidelity to duty, consideration for others, and
practicality.

8.5.1 Essentialist Curriculum

The core of the curriculum is essential knowledge and skills and academic rigor. Although this
educational philosophy is similar in some ways to Perennialism, Essentialists accept the idea that this core
curriculum may change. Essential skills (Three Rs) and essential subjects (English, arithmetic, science,
history and foreign language) are part of essentialist’s curriculum. Schooling should be practical,
preparing students to become valuable members of society. It should focus on facts-the objective reality
out there--and "the basics," training students to read, write, speak, and compute clearly and logically.
Schools should not try to set or influence policies. Students should be taught hard work, respect for
authority, and discipline.

Essentialism as an education philosophy seeks to instill essential topics and character traits that make
students productive members of society. Essentialism stresses the importance of the core topics such as
mathematics, reading, foreign languages, science, and history while also advocating respect for authority,
discipline, and duty as desirable character traits. Essentialism is primarily teacher centered; teachers
impart traditional knowledge to students because they have mastery of the subject, and they are also
examples to students through their exemplary character. Essentialism often advocates the use of
summative assessment and standardized tests to determine students’ mastery of topics and to gauge their
ability levels; students who have not mastered the topics of one grade must repeat this subject before they
can progress to the next because they have not gained information that is essential to their continued
learning. While essentialism has existed for some time, it gained the specific name and identity as
opposition to the progressivism movement. Similar to perennialism, essentialism stresses the “essential”
knowledge and skills that productive citizens should have, rather than a set of external truths. William
Bagley became famous as one of the first essentialists because he was the “founder of the Essentialistic
Education Society and author of Education and Emergent Man,” a journal that defended the essentialist
practice and discussed how progressivism was harmful to education and the country.

Essentialist believe that we must know the essentials of life; survival, how to be productive, and how to
live as proper civilians. As we get older there should be more advanced subjects added to the curriculum
being taught. It is also thought that only the basic subjects need to be taught. There should not be
impractical subjects added to the curriculum. Morals and character should be an important factor to the
curriculum as well.

8.5.2 Role of Teacher

Teacher is authority in his or her field, explicit teaching of traditional values are the main focus of
teaching. Essentialists urge that the most essential or basic academic skills and knowledge be taught to all
students.

Traditional disciplines such as math, natural science, history, foreign language, and literature form the
foundation of the essentialist curriculum. Elementary students receive instruction in skills such as writing,
reading, measurement, and computers. Even while learning art and music, subjects most often associated
with the development of creativity. The students are required to master a body of information and basic
techniques, gradually moving from less to more complex skills and detailed knowledge. Moreover,
essentialists maintain that classrooms should be oriented around the teacher, who ideally serves as an
intellectual and moral role model for the students.

Self-Assessment Questions 8.5

Q.1 Fill in the blanks.
1. Essentialism has ……………………. progressivism's focus on how children learn rather than on
what children learn.

2. Essentialism maintains that the purpose of schools is to ……………… the knowledge and values of
the past.

3. Essentialism is a kind of………………… with roots in both idealism and realism.

4. Essentialism maintains that the purpose of schools is to provide children with the skills
…………………… to live successful and meaningful lives in present society.

5. Essentialism argued that teachers must be returned to their traditional …………………… place in
the classroom as dispensers of knowledge and skills and as role models of useful and competent
citizens.

6. Essentialism focuses more on the utilitarian value of these great works that helps individuals
develop ……………… thinking skills and acquire knowledge.

7. Essential skills such as …………………… and essential subjects such as English, arithmetic,
science, history and foreign language are part of essentialists curriculum.

8. Essentialism is primarily ……………… centered; teachers impart traditional knowledge to students

because they have mastery of the subject, and they are also examples to students through their
exemplary character.

9. Similar to perennialism, essentialism stresses the “essential” knowledge and skills that
…………………citizens should have, rather than a set of external truths.

10. Essentialism often advocates the use of ………… assessment and standardized tests to determine
students’ mastery of topics and to gauge their ability levels.

11. Essentialists maintain that classrooms should be oriented around the teacher, who ideally serves as
an intellectual and …………………… role model for the students.

8.6 DECONSTRUCTIONISM
That word can only refer to other words; and attempts to demonstrate how statements about any
text weaken their own meanings.

Derrida's thinking was influenced by the Phenomenologist’s Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger.
Although the early work of Derrida's was mainly an elaborate critique of
the limitations of Phenomenology. He also claimed that Friedrich Nietzsche was a forerunner of
Deconstruction in form and substance.

The term “Deconstructionism” has been used by others to describe Derrida's particular methods of “textual
criticism”, which involve discovering, recognizing and understanding the underlying assumptions (unspoken
and implicit), ideas and frameworks that form the basis for belief and thought.

Deconstructionism is not destructive at all, but rather simply a question of being alert to the implications,
historical deposits of the language we use. In other words, deconstruction seeks to peel away the multiple,
layered connotations and meanings of language and thought to get at the meanings underneath the
shallow interpretations of normal analysis. Without deconstruction, we cannot make way for new and
different ways of thinking.

The English Departments in US higher education included deconstruction as a major literary theory.
Deconstruction subsequently affected literary interpretation and analytical philosophy. The result was a
profound change in understanding. While language itself may be endlessly self-referential, it is still
possible to continue thinking linguistically, grammatalogically but only with uncertainty. Thereby, all
meanings are destabilised and better understandings are those which acknowledge this instability in
meaning. In other words, deconstruction aims at revealing the differences in concepts. Deconstruction is
an effort to crack open the nut, to go beyond the boundary, to disrupt the presence and allow the other as
difference to come about. Deconstruction aims at exposing the fallacy of any metaphysics of presence and
identity. Deconstruction, therefore, according to Derrida is to put a concept “under erasure” (sous rature).
It is to write a word, cross it out, and then print both the word and the deletion. It is so, because the word
or signifier does not contain the full meaning. The full meaning is not present. Hence, the word is
inadequate. To place a word under erasure, therefore, is to say that the meaning signified by the words
which we use cannot easily be pinned down. Meaning and essence can never be fully present in any one
sign. This implies that meanings have histories of textual relations. All meanings are necessarily occupied
by residual traces of other meanings. No meaning is ever simply present or present; every meaning is
derived from and owes its significance to meanings that exceed the immediacy of any setting. With the
question of meaning there is, therefore, always a difference, an occurrence of difference.

The basic assumptions of deconstruction can, therefore, be said to be the following:

• That language is ineradicably marked by instability and indeterminacy of meaning;
• That given such instability and indeterminacy, no method of analysis can have any special claim to
authority as regards textual interpretation;
• That interpretation is, therefore, a free-ranging activity more akin to game-playing than to analysis.

8.6.1 Deconstructionism Curriculum

Deconstructionists in curriculum theory aim to create new 'spaces' for meaning and understanding through
phenomenological or post structural investigations. Deconstructionism involves demystifying a text to
reveal internal arbitrary hierarchies and presuppositions. Deconstructionism is about the deconstruction of
tangible artifacts or about the public deconstruction of a concept. Deconstructionist texts can, in turn,
easily be deconstructed, highlighting the infinite regress, constant deferral and indeterminacy of meaning.

8.6.2 Role of Teacher

The teacher engages the students in discussing the main communicative purpose and the main ideas of a
text and how the writer organizes these ideas systematically through different stages in order to achieve
the main communicative purpose. The focus is on guiding students to notice the global genre structure of
the text and to see how the academic content (i-e field) unfolds through the different stages of genre.
When the teacher jointly reads the text with the students, the teacher does the “Deconstruction” or
analysis of the text together with the students by drawing the student’s attention to these global genre
stages of the text.

Self-Assessment Questions 8.6

1. Write the examples of deconstructionist’s curriculum.
2. What is the role of teacher in deconstruction?
3. In what sort of curricula deconstructionist philosophy can be applied?
8.7 PRAGMATISM
The word Pragmatism has Greek roots (pragma, matos = deed, from prassein = to do).Pragmatism means
action, from which the words practical and practice have come. In late 19th century American philosophy,
the focus is on the reality of experience. Unlike the Realists and Rationalists, Pragmatists believe that
reality is constantly changing and that we learn best through applying our experiences and thoughts to
problems, as they arise. The universe is dynamic and evolving, a "becoming" view of the world. There is
no absolute and unchanging truth, but rather, truth is what works. Pragmatism is derived from the
teaching of Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914), who believed that thought must produce action, rather
than linger in the mind and lead to indecisiveness.

It is the product of practical experiences of life. It arises out of actual living. It does not believe in fixed
and eternal values. It is dynamic and ever-changing. It is a revolt against Absolutism. Reality is still in the
making. It is never complete.
For pragmatists, only those things that are experienced or observed are real. John Dewey (1859-1952)
applied pragmatist philosophy in his progressive approaches. He believed that learners must adapt to each
other and to their environment. Schools should emphasize the subject matter of social experience. All
learning is dependent on the context of place, time, and circumstance. Different cultural and ethnic groups
learn to work cooperatively and contribute to a democratic society. The ultimate purpose is the creation of
a new social order. Character development is based on making group decisions in light of consequences.

For Pragmatists, teaching methods focus on hands-on problem solving, experimenting, and projects, often
having students work in groups. Curriculum should bring the disciplines together to focus on solving
problems in an interdisciplinary way. Rather than passing down organized bodies of knowledge to new
learners, Pragmatists believe that learners should apply their knowledge to real situations through
experimental inquiry. This prepares students for citizenship, daily living, and future careers.

The key characteristics of pragmatism in education are to apply personal or realistic experiences to a
subject to make it more relatable. The curriculum should incorporate the necessary activities, vocation
and experiences. Preparing students for adult life through group activities centered around hands on
exploration. The pragmatist lays down standards which are attainable. Pragmatists are practical people.

The emphasis of pragmatism is on action rather than on thought. Thought is subordinated to action. It is
made an instrument to find suitable means for action. That is why pragmatism is also called
Instrumentalism. Ideas are tools. Thought enlarges its scope and usefulness by testing itself on practical
issues.

Since pragmatism advocates the experimental method of science, it is also called Experimentalism thus
stressing the practical significance of thought. Experimentalism involves the belief that thoughtful action
is in its nature always a kind of testing of provisional conclusions and hypotheses.

In the present world pragmatism has influenced education tremendously. It is a practical and utilitarian
philosophy. It makes activity the basis of all teaching and learning. It is activity around which an
educational process revolves.

It makes learning purposeful and infuses a sense of reality in education. It makes schools into workshops
and laboratories. It gives an experimental character to education. Pragmatism makes man optimistic,
energetic and active. It gives him self-confidence. The child creates values through his own activities.

According to pragmatism, education is not the dynamic side of philosophy as advocated by the idealists.
It is philosophy which emerges from educational practice. Education creates values and formulates ideas
which constitute pragmatic philosophy.

Pragmatism is based on the psychology of individual differences. Pragmatists want education according
to aptitudes and abilities of the individual. Individual must be respected and education planned to cater to
his inclinations and capacities. But individual development must take place in social context. Every
individual has a social self and individuality can best be developed in and through society.

Thus pragmatism has brought democracy in education. That is why it has advocated self-government in
school. The children must learn the technique of managing their own affairs in the school and that would
be a good preparation for life.

Education is preparation for life. Pragmatism makes a man socially efficient. The pragmatists are of the
opinion that the children should-not be asked to work according to predetermined goals. They should
determine their goals according to their needs and interests.
Teaching-learning process is a social and bi-polar process. Learning takes place as an interaction between
the teacher and the taught. While idealism gives first place to the teacher, pragmatism gives the first place
to the taught. Similarly, between thought and action, they give first place to action. The pragmatists decry
verbalism and encourage action. Today pragmatism occupies the most dominant place in the United
States of America.

According to pragmatism the theory and practice of education is based on two main principles, viz:
(i) Education should have a social function, and
(ii) Education should provide real-life experience to the child.

Pragmatism does not lay down any aims of education in advance. It believes that there can be no fixed
aims of education. Life is dynamic and subject to constant change, and hence the aims of education are
bound to be dynamic. Education deals with human life. It must help the children to fulfill their biological
and social needs.

The only aim of education, according to pragmatism, is to enable the child to create values in his life. In
the words of Ross, education must create new values: “the main task of educator is to put the educand into
a position to develop values for himself’.

The pragmatist educator aims at the harmonious development of the educand physical, intellectual, social
and aesthetic. The aim of education, therefore, is to direct “the impulses, interests, desires and abilities
towards ‘the satisfaction of the felt wants of the child in his environment.”

Since the pragmatists believe that man is primarily a biological and social organism, education should aim
at the development of social efficiency in man. Every child should be an effective member of the society.
Education must fulfill his own needs as well as the needs of the society.

The children should be so trained that they may be able to solve their present-day problems efficiency and
to adjust themselves to their social environment. They should be creative and effective members of the
society. Their outlook should be so dynamic that they can change with the changing situations.

What pragmatism wants to achieve through education is the cultivation of a dynamic, adaptable mind
which will be resourceful and enterprising in all situations, the mind which will have powers to create
values in an unknown future. Education must foster competence in the children that they may be able to
tackle the problems of future life.

8.7.1 Pragmatism and Curriculum

The aims of education are reflected in the curriculum. The pragmatic aims can only be reflected in a
pragmatic curriculum. The curriculum should be framed on the basis of certain basic principles. These are
utility, interest, experience and integration. Practical utility is the watchword of pragmatism.

Hence those subjects, which have utility to the students should be included in the curriculum. The
subjects which carry occupational or vocational utility should find a place in the curriculum. Language,
hygiene, history, geography, physics, mathematics, sciences, domestic science for girls, agriculture for
boys should be incorporated in the curriculum.

While deciding the subjects of curriculum the nature of the child, his tendencies, interests, impulses at the
various stages of his growth and multiple activities of daily life should be taken into consideration. The
subjects like psychology and sociology which deal with human behaviour should be included in the
curriculum.
The pragmatists advocate that the pupils should not be taught dead facts and theories because these may
not help them to solve the problems of life. The subjects which help to solve the practical problems of life
should be included in the school curriculum, particularly at the elementary stage.

The pragmatic aim of education is to prepare the child for a successful and well- adjusted life. He must be
fully adjusted to his environment.

The pragmatists hold the view that the students should acquire that knowledge which is helpful to them in
solving the present-day problems. They should learn only those skills which are useful to them in
practical life. With this end in view the elementary school curriculum should include subject’s life
reading, writing, arithmetic, nature study, hand-work and drawing.

According to pragmatism, all education is “learning by doing”. So it must be based on the child’s
experiences as well as occupations and activities. Besides the school subjects, free, purposive and
socialised activities should be in the curriculum. The pragmatists do not allow the inclusion of cultural
activities in the curriculum, because they think these activities have no practical value. But this view is
somewhat narrow and biased.

The pragmatists believe in the unity of all knowledge and skill. They prefer to give integrated knowledge
round a particular problem of life. They do not like to divide subjects of instructions into water-tight
compartments. Life is the subject matter of instruction. Its various problems studied in complete
perspective are fit subjects of instruction.

Only activities, experiences and subjects should be included in the curriculum which are useful to the
needs of the student and also meet the future expectations of their adult life. It condemns the principle of
cramming and encourages original thinking and freedom to develop social and purposeful attitude. This
school of philosophy favors the project method and considers it active and dynamic. The curriculum is all
about what experiences the students will have. Students learn through their own activities and
experiences. The teacher only guides and suggests whenever a student needs help. They believe learning
by doing. Importance of child and they put a heavy emphasis on activity’s. Pragmatists curriculum
emphasis on education as continues reconstruction of experience, education as growth, education as a
social process

The principle of philosophy of pragmatic method of teaching is practical utility. The child is the central
figure in this method. Pragmatic method is an activity-based method. The essence of pragmatic method is
learning through personal experience of the child. To a pragmatist education means preparation for
practical life.

The child should know the art of successful tackling of practical problems and real situations of life.
Pragmatic method is thus a problem-solving method. The child has to be placed in real situations which
he has to tackle.

The pragmatists are not interested in lectures or theoretical exposition. They want the children to do
something. Action rather than contemplation figures prominently in pragmatic education. The child
should learn by doing. “Learning by doing” is the great maxim of pragmatic education.

To the pragmatist — “education is not so much teaching the child things he ought to know, as
encouraging him to learn for himself through experimental and creative activity”. Learning by doing
makes a person creative, confident and cooperative. The pragmatic method is socialistic in nature. His
learning should be thoroughly purposive. He should learn to fulfill the purpose of his life.
The method employed by the pragmatist teacher is experimental. The pupil is required to discover the
truth for himself. To facilitate this discovery the application of the inductive and heuristic methods of
teaching is necessary. Experiences should, therefore, be planned to arouse the curiosity of children to
acquire knowledge.

The business of the teacher, therefore, is to teach his pupils to do rather than to know, to discover for
themselves rather than to collect dry information. It is the business of the teacher to arouse “interest” in
children. Interest is a watchword in pragmatic education.

Textbooks and teachers are not so much important in pragmatic education. Their position is secondary in
the teaching- learning process. They are required to suggest and prompt only. The teacher suggests
problems, indicates the lines of active solution and then leaves the students to experiment for themselves.
The child learns for himself. Pragmatic education is thus auto-education or self-education.

Pragmatic method is a Project Method which is of American origin. “A project is a whole-hearted

purposeful activity, proceeding in a social environment.” This definition is given by Kilpatrick, a follower
of Dewey. A project has also been defined in other ways.

According to Dr. Stevenson a project is “a problematic act carried to completion in its natural setting.”
Thorndike defines a project as “The planning and carrying out of some practical accomplishment.” A
“project is a voluntary undertaking which involves constructive effort or thought and eventuates into
objective results.”

The school tasks, therefore, should be such that arouse the eagerness of the children to do them. Such
tasks are real, purposeful and related with life. The projects involve participation in social relationships,
division of labor, and willing acceptance of responsibility to the community “and they afford valuable
preparation for playing a worthy part in a complex society.”

8.7.2 Role of Teacher

In Pragmatism the teacher is not either of the two. He stands midway. According to Pragmatism a teacher
is useful, even though not indispensable.
The position of the teacher is of a guide and adviser. He is the helper and prompter. He should teach “his
pupils to think and act for themselves to do rather than to know, to originate rather than to repeat.”

His importance lies in the fact that he has to suggest suitable problems only to his students and to
motivate them in such a way that they can solve the problems with tact, intelligence and cooperation. He
is not required to provide raw information to the students from the textbooks. The pupils will gain
knowledge and skill at their own initiative. Doing is more important than knowing.

Teacher works as a friend and guide to the children. Teacher knows students interest and understanding
regarding the conditions of changing society. The teacher puts problems in front of students which are
interesting and students are expected to solve it. Acts as a facilitator and helps guide students in the right
direction. Pragmatism believes in social discipline based on child’s interest, activities and sense of social
responsibility. It condemns enforced discipline. Schools philosophy is having students gain real
experiences of actual life which develop social sense and sense of duty towards society and the nation. It
is not only a sense of education but a sense of community. The school focuses on preparing students to be
better citizens

A pragmatist teacher requires only the child and his “physical and social environment”. Rest will follow.
The child will react to environment, will interact on and thus gain experiences. The pragmatist does not,
however, fix up his methods once and for all. His methods are dynamic, varying from time to time and
class to class. If the essentials of teaching-learning situation are present the method will automatically
follow.

The most general method of a pragmatist teacher, according to Ross, is “to put the child into situations
with which he wants him to grapple and providing him, at the same time, with the means of dealing with
them successfully.”

Pragmatism does not believe in external restraint and discipline enforced by the superior authority of the
teacher and the award of punishments. It advocates discipline based on the principles of child’s activities
and interests. It upholds discipline based on social and mutual understanding. It believes in engaging the
children in free and purposeful real activities of human life.

This process gives him a discipline which is acquired in every kind of real and creative work, as a very
natural consequence of the activity itself. Thus the discipline in pragmatic system of education is to be
self-discipline, the discipline of the pupil’s own work and purposeful and creative activity. Imposed and
rigid discipline can have no place in the pragmatic school.

“In pragmatic scheme of education the children are expected to work in cooperation with one another.
They are to take up a project on real problem, and to work at it as a team. These cooperative activities
impart to them very useful qualities of social life — sympathy, give and take, fellow-feeling, spirit of
sacrifice and toleration — which constitute an invaluable moral training for them.”

The school is the representative of the greater community. It is a society in miniature. Therefore, the
school has to provide for all those activities which constitute the normal life of the community. It has to
provide for the socialized, free and purposive activities. These activities provide the pupils a very useful
training in citizenship.

Self-Assessment Questions 8.7

Q.1 Fill in the blanks.
1. Pragmatism means …………., from which the words practical and practice have come.

2. Pragmatists believe that reality is constantly ………………… and that we learn best through
applying our experiences and thoughts to problems, as they arise.

3. For pragmatists, only those things that are experienced or ………………… are real.

4. For pragmatists, curriculum should bring the disciplines together to focus on solving problems in an
………………way

5. The only aim of education, according to pragmatism, is to enable the child to ……………………
values in his life

6. The pragmatist educator aims at the harmonious development of the educand — physical,
intellectual, ………………… and aesthetic.

7. pragmatist suggests that those subjects, which have ………………… to the students should be
included in the curriculum.

8. The subjects which carry occupational or ………………utility should find a place in the
curriculum.

9. Pragmatic method is a ………………… Method which is of American origin.

10. Pragmatism does not believe in ………………… restraint and discipline enforced by the superior
authority of the teacher and the award of punishments.

8.8 EXISTENTIALISM
Existentialism in the broader sense is a 20th century philosophy that is centered upon the analysis of
existence and of the way humans find themselves existing in the world. The notion is that humans exist
first and then each individual spends a lifetime changing their essence or nature. The philosophical base
of existentialism is “idealism and realism”.

In simpler terms, existentialism is a philosophy concerned with finding self and the meaning of life through
free will, choice, and personal responsibility. The belief is that people are searching to find out who and what
they are throughout life as they make choices based on their experiences, beliefs, and outlook. And personal
choices become unique without the necessity of an objective form of truth. An existentialist believes that a
person should be forced to choose and be responsible without the help of laws, ethnic rules, or traditions.

The nature of reality for Existentialists is subjective, and lies within the individual. The physical world
has no inherent meaning outside of human existence. Individual choice and individual standards rather
than external standards are central. Existence comes before any definition of what we are. We define
ourselves in relationship to that existence by the choices we make. We should not accept anyone else's
predetermined philosophical system; rather, we must take responsibility for deciding who we are. The
focus is on freedom, the development of authentic individuals, as we make meaning of our lives.

There are several different orientations within the existentialist philosophy. Soren Kierkegaard (1813-
1855), a Danish minister and philosopher, is considered to be the founder of existentialism. Another
group of existentialists, largely European, believes that we must recognize the finiteness of our lives on
this small and fragile planet, rather than believing in salvation through God. Our existence is not
guaranteed in an afterlife, so there is tension about life and the certainty of death, of hope or despair.
Unlike the more austere European approaches where the universe is seen as meaningless when faced with
the certainty of the end of existence, American existentialists have focused more on human potential and
the quest for personal meaning. Values clarification is an outgrowth of this movement. Following the
bleak period of World War II, the French philosopher, Jean Paul Sartre, suggested that for youth, the
existential moment arises when young person’s realize for the first time that choice is theirs, that they are
responsible for themselves. Their question becomes "Who am I and what should I do?
Existentialism takes into consideration the underlying concepts:
 Human free will
 Human nature is chosen through life choices
 A person is best when struggling against their individual nature, fighting for life
 Decisions are not without stress and consequences
 There are things that are not rational
 Personal responsibility and discipline is crucial
 Society is unnatural and its traditional religious and secular rules are arbitrary
 Worldly desire is futile

Existentialism is broadly defined in a variety of concepts and there can be no one answers as to what it is,
yet it does not support any of the following:
 Wealth, pleasure, or honor make the good life
 Social values and structure control the individual
 Accept what is and that is enough in life
 Science can and will make everything better
 People are basically good but ruined by society or external forces
 “I want my way, now!” or “It is not my fault!” mentality
There is a wide variety of philosophical, religious, and political ideologies that make up existentialism so
there is no universal agreement in an arbitrary set of ideals and beliefs. Politics vary, but each seeks the
most individual freedom for people within a society.

One of the greatest criticism of Essentialism in Education is the fact that this idea stresses solely on
teaching the traditional basic subjects to the maximum level, meaning there is less capacity to teach more
contemporary and creative education and "manufacturing" students that do not think by themselves.

Contribution of essentialism to primary education has been greatly considered. It pinpoints the key
importance of early childhood learning and how it is positively affected by essentialism. Essentialism
states that a sound body of basic knowledge has to be attained before further learning can take place.
Young students who develop a strong educational foundation can learn better at higher levels of school
and college.

8.8.1 Existentialist Curriculum

Related to education, the subject matter of existentialist classrooms should be a matter of personal choice.
Teachers view the individual as an entity within a social context in which the learner must confront
others' views to clarify his or her own. Character development emphasizes individual responsibility for
decisions. Real answers come from within the individual, not from outside authority. Examining life
through authentic thinking involves students in genuine learning experiences. Existentialists are opposed
to thinking about students as objects to be measured, tracked, or standardized. Such educators want the
educational experience to focus on creating opportunities for self-direction and self actualization. They
start with the student, rather than on curriculum content.

Existential curriculum content is focused on individuals and relationships: relationships between learners,
learner-teacher relationships, and even the learners’ relationships with historical individuals, who
demonstrate possible actions and choices for the learner to model their own life after. The primary aim of
the curriculum is to help learners develop their own values and understand themselves within their own
cultural context: rather than being dense with facts to learn, an existential curriculum includes activities
that will help learners explore and express their own values and identities.

Choice and freedom are fundamental to existentialist philosophy. One object of a curriculum will be to
expose learners to a wide range of options from which to choose their own identity, goals, and values.
Learners should be given a great deal of freedom to pursue areas of interest, and to engage with peers in
discussions that help them shape and clarify their individual values in a social context.

The humanities play an important role in the existentialist’s curriculum because they help to see
humankind as it really is. There are no definite rules for curriculum content because much of the content
should be centered around the need of children. The curriculum should revolve around the standpoint of
the learner rather than be a collection of discrete subjects. The disciplines involved in the curriculum
should provide learners with opportunities to make sense of the world around them. Literature has an
important role in this instance because learners can use the various genres as a way to interpret the
experiences of others.

The Essentialism in Education focuses on numerous disciplines of learning and education. These include
Reading, Art, Literature, Writing, Foreign Languages, Mathematics, History, Science, and also Music.

Existentialist’s curriculum focuses on social studies and humanities. The existentialists appear to believe
that knowledge exists as it relates to the individual’s interpretation of it. Science is not a big issue because
philosopher “Sarte” viewed science as a human creation. Kierkgarard believed that education should be
subjective and religious. Whereas Buder considered that there should be a sharing of knowledge used for
the good of man which will only happen in a subject to subject relationship where individuals should not
be treated as objects.

8.8.2 Role of Teacher

An existentialist classroom typically involves the teachers and school laying out what they feel is
important and allowing the students to choose what they study. All students work on different, self-
selected assignments at their own pace. Teachers act as facilitators, directing students in finding the most
appropriate methods of study or materials, and are often seen as an additional resource, alongside books,
computers, television, newspapers, and other materials that are readily available to students. The teacher
creates an environment for independent action and enables students to make choices and accept
responsibility for behavior.

By focusing on student-centered philosophies school systems and educators will be able to make
necessary changes to create effective and life transforming environments for students.

Activities
1. List down disciplines which offer contributions of Essentialism on Education.

2. Describe which general or world view philosophy best fits with your own views of reality? Why?

3. Reflect upon all above described philosophies and write down which educational philosophy is
most compatible with your beliefs? Why?

4. In your point of view which of these educational philosophies would you describe as authoritarian?
Which as non-authoritarian? Why?

Self-Assessment Questions 8.8

Q.1 Fill in the blanks.
1. The philosophical base of existentialism is…………………….. and realism.

2. Existentialism is a philosophy concerned with finding self and the meaning of life
through……………………….. , choice, and personal responsibility.

3. An existentialist believes that a person should be forced to choose and be ………………. without
the help of laws, ethnic rules, or traditions.

4. The nature of reality for Existentialists is……………, and lies within the individual.

5. the subject matter of existentialist classrooms should be a matter of…………….. choice.

6. Choice and …………………….. are fundamental to existentialist philosophy.

7. Existentialists curriculum focuses on ………………….. studies and humanities.

8. The humanities play an…………….. role in the existentialists curriculum.

9. Existential curriculum content is focused on……………………..and relationships.

10. Existentialists are opposed to thinking about students as ………………. to be measured, tracked, or
standardized.

Q. 2 Which disciplines offer contributions of essentialism on education?

Q. 3 What is essentialism in education's strongest criticism?

Q. 4 What is the contribution of essentialism to primary education?

Q. 5 What are the views of parents about child centered education?

Q. 6 What is the major essentialism contribution to the education?

Q. 7 Can you briefly tell me about essentialism in education and family role in it?

Q. 8 What is the importance of a teacher’s role in essentialism in education?

Q. 9 What is the history of essentialism in education?

Key Points
1. The educational philosophy of perennialism is derived from both idealism and realism.

2. The focus of Perennialists is to teach ideas that are everlasting.

3. The perennialist curriculum is universal and is based on their view that all human beings possess
the same essential nature.

4. The focus of Perennialist curriculum is on classical subjects, literary analysis and considers
curriculum as constant.

5. The philosophical base of progressivism is “pragmatism”.

6. Progressivism purports that the purpose of education is to prepare children to live in society, but
that since society is in a constant state of change.

7. The content of progressivists curriculum is derived from student interests and questions.

8. Essentialism is a kind of neo-perennialism with roots in both idealism and realism.

9. Essentialism focuses more on the utilitarian value of these great works that helps individuals
develop high-order thinking skills and acquire knowledge.

10. Essential skills (Three Rs) and essential subjects (English, arithmetic, science, history and foreign
language) are part of essentialists curriculum.

11. The term “Deconstructionism” has been used by others to describe Derrida's particular methods
of “textual criticism”.

12. Deconstructionism emphasizes that words can only refer to other words; and attempts to
demonstrate how statements about any text weaken their own meanings.

13. Deconstructionists in curriculum theory aim to create new 'spaces' for meaning and understanding
through phenomenological or poststructural investigations.

14. Pragmatism means action, from which the words practical and practice have come.

15. The only aim of education, according to pragmatism, is to enable the child to create values in his
life.

16. Pragmatic method is a project method.

17. The philosophical base of existentialism is “idealism and realism.

18. The nature of reality for Existentialists is subjective, and lies within the individual.

19. The subject matter of existentialist classrooms should be a matter of personal choice.

20. Existential curriculum content is focused on individuals and relationships.

8.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
Answers of Self-Assessment Questions
Self-Assessment Questions 8.3
1. Everlasting
2. Idealism
3. Great ideas
4. Everlasting
5. Relevant
6. Society
7. Teacher
8. Universal
9. Individuals
10. Disapprove

Self-Assessment Questions 8.4

1. Pragmatism
2. Discover
3. Democracy
4. Society
5. Rejected
6. Passively
7. Experiences
8. Whole
9. Student
10. Projects

Self-Assessment Questions 8.5

1. Criticized
2. Preserve
3. Neoperennialism
4. Essential
5. Authoritarian
6. high-order
7. Three Rs
8. Teacher
9. Productive
10. Summative
11. Moral

Self-Assessment Questions 8.6

Q.1-3 Read the relevant section

Self-Assessment Questions 8.7

1. Action
2. Changing
3. Observed
4. Interdisciplinary
5. Create
6. Social
7. Utility
8. Vocational
9. Project
10. External

Self Assessment Questions 8.8

Q.1
1. Idealism
2. Free will
3. Responsible
4. Subjective
5. Personal
6. Freedom
7. Social
8. Important
9. Individuals
10. Objects

Q.2-9 Read the relevant section

8.10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Education (2nd ed.) New York. McGraw –Hill Higher Education.

Arthur Zilversmith, Changing Schools: Progressive Education Theory and Practice, 1030-1960 (Chicago:
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Breithorde, M., & Swiniarski, L. (1999). Constructivism and Reconstructionism: Educating Teachers for
World Citizenship. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 24(1).
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Cohen, L.M. (1999). Philosophical Perspectives in Education. Oregon State University School of Education.
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Derrida, J. (1972). Structure, Sign and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences. In R. Macksey & E.
Donate (eds.), The Languages of Criticism and the Sciences of Man: the Structuralist Controversy,
223-224. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press.

Dewey, John. The Child and the Curriculum. (New York: Macmillan, 1916)

Elias, John L. & Merriam, Sharan (1984).Philosophical Foundations of Education. Krieger Publishing
Company. Malabar, Florida.

Giroux, Henry A. and Mclaren, Peter L. eds; Critical Pedagogy, the State, and the Cultural Struggle. (New
York: State University of New York Press, 1989)

Gutek, Gerald L. Philosophical and Ideological Perspectives on Education, 2nd ed. (Boston, Allyn and
Bacon, 1997).

Higgs, P.( 2002), Deconstruction and Re-thinking Education, South African Journal of Education,, EASA
Vol. 22(3) 170 – 176
Heslep, Robert D. Philosophical Thinking in Educational Practice (Westport, Conn,: Praeger Publishers).

Ornstein, Allan C. (2006). Foundations of Education. Houghton Mifflin Company: New York.

Parkay, F., & Hass, G., eds. (2000). Curriculum Planning [Abstract]. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc.
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Papastephanou, P., Koutselini, M. (2006). Reason, Language and Education: Philosophical Assumptions
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Rousseau, Jean Jacques. Emile

Simon, L.H. (2000). Essentialism. Elon College School of Education. Retrieved from
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Web Resources
http://oregonstate.edu/instruction/ed416/PP3.html
www.utm.edu/research/iep(TheInternet Encyclopedia of Philosophy)