The philosophical Basis for the Curriculum Theories

https://oer.pressbooks.pub/curriculumessentials/chapter/philosophical-
foundations-of-curriculum /
Introduction
Philosophy is at the heart of curriculum development. It helps educators in
formulating beliefs, arguments, and assumptions and in making value
judgments. Philosophy develops a broad outlook, and it also helps in answering
what schools are for, what subjects are important, how students should learn,
and what materials and methods should be used. Philosophy provides the
starting point . . . in decision making about education in its totality (Ogwara, et.
al, 2013).

Essential Questions 
 How is philosophy a “crucial determinant” in curriculum trends and
development?
 What are the broad categories of philosophy, and what beliefs are
espoused in each?
 What do you perceive as the pros and cons of each philosophy?
 What is your philosophy of teaching and learning as it relates to
curriculum?
 How does your philosophy of teaching and learning drive your future
personal and professional choices?

Philosophical Foundations

Welcome to the philosophical foundations of curriculum. We will explore

idealism, realism, pragmatism, existentialism, and educational philosophies
which are perennialism, essentialism, progressivism, and reconstructionism.

Many sources consider philosophy to be “the study of basic ideas about

knowledge, truth, right and wrong. . . and the nature of meaning of life.”
(Merriam-Webster Dictionary). Locke defines philosophy as a “process of
liberation from ignorance and prejudice” (Curriculum Studies, 2020.)

According to Doll (1992: 28), philosophy has the multifaceted effect of helping
us to:

 indicate in general what we mean,

 make what we mean more specific and definite, and
  develop what we mean into a useful construct.

Thus, philosophy is a crucial determinant of curriculum trends and the

curriculum development process by helping clarify our thought process. And,
because philosophy is a process of the mind, there are a variety of philosophical
thoughts that need consideration.

To start with, there are two broad categories of philosophy: the traditional and
modern philosophies. In each of those categories, there are major philosophies
such as idealism, realism, pragmatism, and existentialism, as well as educational
philosophies arising from those major philosophies. These include perennialism
and essentialism in the traditional category, while progressivism and
reconstructionism fall under the modern philosophies.

Realism
The realist’s school of thought is traced back to Aristotle, another main, Greek
philosopher. According to this philosophy, matter or objects that we see exist
by themselves, i.e., they exist absolutely with or without man. In other words,
matter is not a construct of the human mind.
The following principles are therefore upheld:
 the principle of independence of matter,
 the principle of orderliness of the world behind its organization, this
means that law and order prevail in the universe,
 the principle of the world as real as discovered by the scientist.
Thus, it is possible to have objective knowledge of the world. Our senses are
also a source of knowledge. The philosophy also advocates that values exist
objectively; they are absolute and eternal.
What then are the educational implication of realism? Following are a few:
 The ultimate educational aim is achievement of knowledge of nature
and inner workings of the universe.
 Education is essentially transmission of inherited culture from one
generation to another.
 Disciplines of curriculum should contain certain elements of culture.
 Students should learn disciplines to develop intellectual skills to discover
important principles and theoretical insights.
Based on this philosophy, there should be a core curriculum for every learner.
Pragmatism
The main proponent of pragmatism was John Dewey (1859 -1952). The
proponents of pragmatism were reacting against what they considered as
failures or shortcomings of the traditional school system, supported by
idealism and realism. Some of the criticisms included:
 Traditional curriculum content included a lot of meaningless and
needless content.
 Traditional curriculum did not give a “utility education.”
 The curriculum was rigid and did not cater to individual needs of
particular learners.
Pragmatists, therefore, advocated for reality being considered as instrumental,
i.e., used as an instrument to solve problems. Philosophy is therefore built on
practical usefulness, i.e., “cash value of ideas.” Hence, truth is what works.
Truth also should be the idea that has been tested, verified, and found
effective in solving problems.
What are the educational implications of pragmatism?

Learning from Experience

If experience is the source of knowledge, it is also a source of education. We
learn by doing. However, not every experience is educative; experience must
be productive, i.e., produce growth.
Educational Aim: Develop Learners’ Ability to Deal with Future Problems
That is, to develop intelligence to solve problems. According to Dewey, the
process involves:
 identifying the problem,
 formatting a hypothesis(es),
 gathering or collecting data and tools to solve the problem,
 testing each hypothesis, and
 storing the unity of knowledge for use in some similar situations.
Curriculum
Pragmatists propose a curriculum based on problems that arise out of daily
living. School is the therefore an extension of home and community.
Methods of Study
These should include:
 problem-solving,
 activity,
 projects, and
 group involvement.
Teachers should be a resource and guide; thus a motivator. Teaching must be
child-centered.
For pragmatists, all subjects are vital. However, sciences are favoured because
the child is able to explore new knowledge.

Existentialism
According to Akinpelu (1981), existentialism is defined as “the philosophy of
existence.” Sartre (1957) also states that “man is nothing else but what he makes
of himself.” A person is therefore free to choose the type of life to live and is in
control of his/her destiny. An individual is thus free to make choices and be
responsible for them.

Reality, therefore, is subjective. Values emphasized are those that the individual
chooses freely according to his/her perception.

Implications of Existentialism on Education and Curriculum

The main implication is an emphasis on knowledge and abilities for personal

choice. Hence, the need to acquire knowledge and principles of the human
condition and acts of choice-making.
Curriculum should have a broad range of subject matter from which learners
can choose, i.e., electives, and an inclusion of subjects that involve:

 human emotions,
 aesthetics, and also,
 philosophical subjects.

Most important is that philosophy can free learners to expand their learning and
what they believe. Thus, there should be no standard guides for teachers to
follow, given that learners are unique.

The following video links philosophies to curricular designs and design

considerations:

Educational Philosophies
Based on the major philosophies so far discussed, certain educational
philosophies were developed by various scholars.

We begin by pointing out that there are two broad categories of educational
philosophies: the traditional and the modern philosophies.

Traditional educational philosophies include perennialism and essentialism;

while modern educational philosophies include progressivism and
reconstructionism.

Perennialism
Perennialism draws from both idealism and realism. The perennialists believe
that the “cement of education, is the common nature of man” (Doll, 1992:29).
With that focus, education should be the same for everyone.

Education must therefore pursue perennial truths. These truths are absolute and
universal. The philosophy presupposes that there are permanent studies and
knowledge that is available, particularly from the great books, which should be
taught to all students.

The stress is on significance of reason and intellectual development. Curriculum

is expected to contain “important” subjects taught in their customary separate
form, e.g., history as history, geography as geography, and civics as civics,
rather than combining them and naming them “Social Studies” for example.

Other subjects emphasized on include literature, philosophy, and theology

because of their ability to “sharpen the mind.”
Essentialism
Essentialism focuses on traditional subjects, reading, writing, and mathematics.
This philosophy aims to instill students with the “essentials” of academic
knowledge and character development.

As with perennialism, essentialism is also on the major traditional philosophies

of idealism and realism. Essentialist’s educational aims are to develop
intellectual powers, as well as educate competent persons. Schools should
therefore not be side-tracked into catering to the personal problems and social
needs of students. Cultural heritage needs should be considered for curriculum
making. Essential skills especially reading, writing, and arithmetic (three Rs)
and academic subjects such as English, science, and mathematics are given
priority in the education process with an emphasis on mastery of concepts and
principles of subject-matter.

As with perennials, the curriculum is subject-centered and emphasized separate

organized disciplines as opposed to integrated subjects. The teacher in this case
is considered an authority in his/her subject field.

Progressivism
Progressivism is one of the educational philosophies originating from
pragmatism. Hence all that we discussed earlier about pragmatism holds true for
progressivism.

Besides Dewey’s contribution, other scholars in this area include Montessori,

Cornelius, and Rousseau. Their studies and research were geared towards
identifying the most appropriate type and nature of curriculum for learners.

Progressivists education seeks to promote democratic schooling as well as

social living. The other major emphasis is on a child or learner-centered
curriculum. The curriculum therefore is based on the learners’ interests, needs,
abilities, and aspirations, among other characteristics of the learners.

Progressive education curriculum emphasized five approaches to the

teaching/learning process, namely:

 teacher-pupil planning of curriculum activities,

 flexible curriculum and individualized instruction, and
 learner-centered teaching and learning methodology.
Selection of study material in line with the expressed interests and concerns of
the learner. Non-formal curriculum activities and physical training in areas like
games, related hobbies, and other co-curricular areas are emphasized.

The aim of this form of education is to provide a learning atmosphere that

allows children maximum self-direction and to reduce teacher domination in the
teaching/learning process.

Concerning progressivism, the emphasis is on a child-centered curriculum,

which necessitates a flexible and broad curriculum. There is also an emphasis
on practical skills.

In general, it is possible to identify elements of past education in the present-day

curricula in many education systems within the United States and the rest of the
world, depending on the past history.

The following video shows a real classroom of 4th- and 5th-grade students who
are participating in a constructivist social studies lesson. Constructivism is
often considered to be an offshoot of progressivism.

Reconstructionism
Reconstructionists hold on to an anthropological–sociological philosophy that
would put schools at the forefront of remaking society. Reconstructionism
evolved from a critical perspective of the work of the progressivists who put
much emphasis on the needs of the child, sometimes at the expense of societal
needs.

Reconstructionists’ educational aims are to improve and reconstruct society as

need be, as well as education for change and social reform. Thus, the study of
contemporary social problems become the centrepiece of curriculum content.

The critical social problems might be national or global including such issues as
oppression, poverty, hunger, racial/ethnic strife, war, and health issues such as
HIV/Aids.

The reconstructionists believe that resources are available to solve these

problems and the education profession could be the catalyst to prepare and
organize future generations to make this possible. They, however, try to avoid
indoctrinating children; rather, they seek to lead them in rational discussion and
critical analysis of issues.

Reconstructionists use multiple teaching materials, and they consider the

inclusion of subject matter that would be useful to serve the central cause of the
issue of concern. Planning of curriculum often involves various stakeholders
including learners, parents, and community leaders.

Table 3.1 below summarizes the various educational philosophies. The summary highlights
the philosophical base of each of the educational philosophies, the educational aims, the
knowledge emphasized, the educational role, and it suggests what the curriculum should
focus on as advocated for by each of the respective philosophies.

Table 3.1 Overview of Educational Philosophies

 
Educational Philosophic Educatio Knowledg Education Curriculum
Philosophy al Base n Aims e Focus al Roles Focus
Perennialism Idealism Educate Focus on Teacher Classical
the rational past and helps subjects
Realism person. permanent students
studies, think Constant
Cultivate mastery of rationally. curriculum
the facts, and
intellect. timeless Explicit
knowledge. teaching of
traditional
values.
Essentialism Idealism Promote Essential Teacher is Essential skills
the skills and an authority (three Rs –
Realism intellectual academic in his or her reading, writing,
growth of subjects subject field. and arithmetic)
the
individual.Mastery of Explicit Essential
concepts teaching of subjects
Educate and traditional (English, scienc
the principles of values. e, history, math)
competent subject
person. matter
Progressivism Pragmatism Promote Knowledge Teacher is a Based on
democratic leads to guide for students’
, social growth and problem- interests.
living. developmen solving and
t. scientific Involves the
inquiry. application of
Focus on human
active and problems and
relevant affairs.
learning.
Interdisciplinary
subject matter;
activities and
projects.
Reconstructivis Pragmatism Improve Skills and Teacher Emphasis on
  
Educational Philosophic Educatio Knowledg Education Curriculum
Philosophy al Base n Aims e Focus al Roles Focus
m and subjects serves as an social sciences
reconstruct needed to agent of and social
society. identify and change and research
solve reform. methods.
Education problems of
is for society. Helps Examination of
change students social,
and social become economic,  and
reform. aware of political
problems problems.
confronting
humankind. 

Source: Adapted from Ornsten and Hunkins (1988).

Theories of Subject Matter

Based on the educational philosophies: perennialism, essentialism, and
progressivism, certain theories of subject matter have been advanced. The
theories, as stated below, highlight the type and purpose of subject matter in the
curriculum.

 Theory 1: Subject matter should be taught for its own sake.

 Theory 2: Subject matter should be taught for use.
 Theory 3: Subject matter is merely a medium for teaching intellectual
processes, skills, attitudes and appreciations.

Theory I

“Subject matter should be taught for its own sake.” Supporters of this theory
believe that everything has intrinsic value. They believe that each subject has
value in and of itself.

Naturally then some subjects are more valuable than others, not because they
are more useful than others but because they have greater intrinsic value.
According to this position, whether or not the pupil will ever make use of
subjects like algebra, Latin, or physical education does not matter. The
important thing is that the learner should study subjects that have the greatest
value. The task for the curriculum developer is to identify those subjects
deemed to have more value.

Theory 2
“Subject matter should be taught for use.” Supporters of this theory hold that the
value of a subject depends upon the use that is made of it. This position derives
from the philosophical belief that value is operational instrumental.

Basically, this is an essentialist’s position. According to this belief, in planning

curricula, priority should be given to those studies that the learners will most
likely need to know. In this sense these subjects are essential.

Theory 3
“Subject matter is merely a medium for the teaching of intellectual processes,
skills, attitudes, ideals, and appreciations.”

Supporters of this theory are mainly the progressivists. They believe that in this
changing world of changing values, no subject matter is essential for its intrinsic
value; and that it is very difficult to tell which subject matter is likely to be most
functional.

Therefore, the progressivists believe that it is not the subject matter but the
process of education that matters. In their view subject matter is only a medium
by which to teach students the skills they need to become independent
individuals.

Following now is a discussion on sociological foundations. Changes include:

 Family-life disintegration in many of the U.S. and other countries and

globally; which forces the schools to take on more responsibilities
previously assumed by the family.
 Movements of the population, for instance, rural-urban migration.

These issues need consideration in curriculum development. Also, some of

these issues affect formal schooling for some people necessitating the need for
other modes of education, such as distance education.

Transmission of Culture
Culture in any society incorporates valued traditions. In this context, curriculum
can be considered to be a reflection or a piece of the culture. These traditions
include those in the wider society as well as traditions upheld in the school
system.

Influence of various interest groups. Certain groups who influence school

curriculum include parents, religious groups, parent-teacher associations, school
boards, and the media. Each of these groups has certain values that they would
want incorporated into the curriculum. When aligned with accuracy and
fairness, their inputs should be considered.

Insight

There are many philosophies and entities that influence curriculum. It is

worthwhile to consider how these influences affect the education and
development of students as individuals and future members of society.

Are we teaching them the “right stuff” that is fair and presented from multiple
viewpoints?

Reflection

 In your experiences as both a student an as an educator, what educational

philosophies have been most impactful on you as an individual?
 In retrospect, do you see these experiences as positive, negative or both?
Why?

Summary
Philosophy is indeed at the heart of curriculum development. It guides educators
in formulating beliefs, arguments and assumptions, and in making value
judgments. It also helps provide a broad outlook in answering what schools and
what subjects are important, how students should learn, and what materials and
methods should be used. This is, however, just a starting point. Since there is a
strong political element involved in curriculum, it is important for us as
educators to recognize what philosophy underlies the curriculum and to decide
how curriculum in educating students who will become members and leaders in
society.

Curriculum Essentials: A Journey by Linda J. Button, Ed.D. is licensed under a Creative

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