E3S Web of Conferences 294, 02004 (2021) https://doi.org/10.

1051/e3sconf/202129402004
ICSREE 2021

Rural Electrification in Mozambique: Challenges and

Opportunities
Milagre Manhique1,* , Dominique Barchiesi2 , Raed Kouta3
1Universitéde Technologie de Troyes-LIST3N, France / Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Depto de Electrotecnia, Mozambique
2
Unitéde Recherche Génération Automatique de Maillage et Méthodes Avancées, Universitéde Technologie de Troyes, France
3
UR InSyTE, Universitéde technologie de Troyes (UTT) / Universitéde technologie Belfort-Montbéliard (UTBM), France.

Abstract. The International Energy Agency states that access to electricity is an essential condition for
sustainable human development, however, it is estimated that approximately 22% of the world population
(about 1.6 billion people) does not have access to electricity, a significant part of these people live in rural
areas of developing countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, despite the fact that Africa has enormous potential in
renewable and non-renewable energy sources. In Mozambique, approximately 50% of the population does
not have access to electricity due to the fact that 66.6% of the population lives in rural areas, where the rate
of access to electricity is even worse, paradoxically, Mozambique has a significant potential for renewable
energy sources equivalent to 23 TW, this potential when combined with factors such as commitment to
ensuring access to electricity for all, forecast of population growth and electricity demand, generates huge
investment and long term business opportunities in the electricity sector, however, there are economic, social
and cultural challenges that constitute uncertainties that should be considered in the decision-making process
for investment in rural electrification infrastructure in the specific context of Mozambique and Sub-Saharan
Africa in general. This article aims to discuss the possibilities that Mozambique has to guarantee access to
electricity for all by 2030 (emanating from United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 7) emphasizing
land use plans and education for rural electrification benefits through the use of renewable energy sources.

1. Introduction African population has effective access to electricity due

to a very low electrification rate, deficient conditions for
Access to electricity is a fundamental and indispensable the maintenance and operation of the existing
condition for ensuring the industrial and socioeconomic infrastructure, the majority of the population resides in
development of communities around the world, over 22% remote rural areas, of difficult access, with spatial
of the world population (corresponding to approximately heterogeneity, access paths with uneven pavement and
1.6 billion people) does not have access to electricity, [1– without coverage by the infrastructure of electricity
3]. According to [1, 4] it is estimated that 57% of the distribution.
African population (approximately 630 million people) It was within the global panorama of access to energy
does not have access to electricity due to the fact that about that the United Nations Organization defined the
80% of the African population lives in rural areas without Sustainable Development Goal 7 (SDG-7) declaring
electricity infrastructure, despite the availability of a huge access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern
variety of renewable and non-renewable energy sources. energy for all by 2030, it is globally proven that without
For [5] the African continent is running against clock to access to energy sources it is not possible to achieve
increase access to electricity, which on the one hand is sustainable industrial and socioeconomic development [2,
challenged by rapid population growth estimated to 7]. Despite huge efforts to ensure access to electricity in
increase from approximately 1 billion in 2016 to sub-Saharan Africa, [6] say that from the point of view of
approximately 2.4 billion in 2050, and on the other hand, current situation, trend of access to electricity by the
challenged by large-scale investments and rapid growth of populations of sub-Saharan Africa, new private and public
the extractive industry, modernization of the residential investments in electricity infrastructure, there is no clear
sector and socioeconomic development of African society, evidence that the SDG-7 defined by the United Nations
are just a few examples that challenge African leaders and will be effectively achieved in the region of sub-Saharan
governments to seriously invest in electricity infrastructure Africa by 2030.
(generation, transmission and distribution systems). The critical context of access to electricity in the in
The very low access to electricity in Africa is Sub-Saharan Africa extends to the Southern African
potentially critical in the sub-Saharan region where Development Community (SADC) region comprising 15
according to [6] less than 30% of the total Sub-Saharan member states with a total population of approximately

* Corresponding author: [email protected]

© The Authors, published by EDP Sciences. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
E3S Web of Conferences 294, 02004 (2021) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202129402004
ICSREE 2021

341 million in 2017 (expected to reach more than half a Electrification and massive access to electricity generate
billion by 2050) currently representing 33% of the total business opportunities, create value chains, develop
population of sub-Saharan Africa (more than 1 billion in economies and local communities. This article intends to
2017, [8]). In southern Africa (SADC region) the rate of discuss the real possibilities that Mozambique has to
access to electricity in 2013/2014 was around 37% of the achieve access to electricity for all taking into account that
total population of the region [9]. Mozambique is a country in Sub-Saharan Africa, a
In Mozambique (a member state of the Southern member state of the United Nations, committed to the
African Development Community (SADC) with Sustainable Development based on electricity access, the
approximately 30 million inhabitants according to 2017 discussion considers four factors:
population census, published in 2019), access to electricity (i) Rapid population growth and rural electrification
(or clean, sustainable and affordable sources of energy) for (Forecast for Mozambique);
all is a huge and challenging task, despite the progressive (ii) Power demand and consumption (Forecast for
trend, the rate of access to electricity is still very low as 6% Mozambique)
in 2004, 7% in 2005, 17% in 2010, 20% in 2014, 24% in (iii) Land use planning and electrification
2016, 25% in 2017 and 32% in 2019 [INE data, 2019] and (Mozambican reality)
[8–11] as illustrated in the graph 1 below: (iv) Education for rural electrification benefits
(Mozambican context)

3.1 Population growth and rural electrification in

Mozambique

The number of population in Mozambique grows steadily,

successive population censuses recorded 12.1 million in
1980, 16.1 million in 1997, 20.6 in 2007, 27.9 in 2017,
30.1 million in 2021, expected to reach 48.2 million in
2042 (Source: INE-Mozambique, 2017 population census
and JICA Study team).
Forecasts indicate that by 2030, 45% of the
Figure 1. Evolution of access to electricity in Mozambican population will not have access to electricity,
Mozambique [INE data, 2019] and [8–11]. this forecast challenges the government authorities of
Mozambique and Sub-Saharan Africa in general and their
2. Penalizing factors for electrification private investment partners, to redouble efforts, race
against time, act and think for tomorrow to ensure access
in Mozambique to electricity for all by 2030 as recommended by SDG-7.
According to data from the Intituto Nacional de The curves in figure 2 show forecasts for population
Estatistica-Mocamique (INE, 2017) resulting from the growth and electrification rates in Mozambique until 2042.
2017 population census, rural areas have a very low access
rate (17.43%) when compared to urban areas (82.57%),
the rural areas are deeply penalized due to a combination
of several factors such as, rural communities located in
remote areas, difficult to access, far from electricity
infrastructure (generation, transmission and distribution),
spatial heterogeneity, access roads with rough and
irregular pavement, low population density, significantly
low electricity demand, low ability to pay the electricity
bill as a result of low purchasing power, high risk of low
(or no) return on investment, high costs of operating and
maintaining the power grid due to extension as locations
are remote [12]. There is no doubt that access to electricity
is a fundamental element for sustainable industrial and Figure 2. Forecast curves for population growth and
socioeconomic development for communities [2], electrification rate in Mozambique (data from INE-
however for the investment to be economically and Mozambique, 2017 population census and JICA study
financially viable, it is important to ensure sustainability, team).
affordability, proximity between the power generation
point and the power demand and consumption market [12]. Total electrification (100% electrification rate) and
access to electricity for all in Mozambique, is deeply
challenged by the accelerated population growth which is
3. Challenges of rural electrification in expected to reach approximately 48.3 million inhabitants
Mozambique in 2042, however electrification is expected to reached just
77.5%. In this sense, if the electrification rate increases in
accordance with the forecasts, there is no guarantee that

2
E3S Web of Conferences 294, 02004 (2021) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202129402004
ICSREE 2021

the goal of access to electricity for all will be achieved by 3.3 Land use planning and electrification
2030, anticipatory action is strongly recommended. (Mozambican rural reality)

In any context, land occupation and population

3.2 Power demand and consumption (forecast distribution is influenced by physical and human factors
data for Mozambique) such as soil fertility, geographic location, existence of
essential resources, climate conditions and its variations,
In Mozambique, 66.6% of the population resides in rural
temperature, rainfall, cultural heritage, terrain conditions
areas, which less than 20% have effective access to
[14]. In the current context (of the modern era), sustainable
electricity [INE, 2017], despite multiple challenges,
human development cannot be addressed without the
constraints and limitations, electricity demand is expected
provision of basic services and resources such as water,
to grow rapidly as result of several factors such as rapid
electricity, telecommunications, domestic gas, the road
population growth, development and modernization of the
and transport network and other social equipment of public
extractive and mining industry, emergence of new urban
utility, however supplying these resources requires large
residential areas and expansion of existing ones,
investments in specific infrastructures that are expected to
improvement of living conditions and modernization of
be technically, economically and financially viable,
the residential sector, development and modernization of
therefore land use plan is a fundamental condition.
the agro processing sector, development of the
In rural areas of Mozambique, where 66.6% of the
manufacturing, trade and services sector [11].
Mozambican population lives, land occupation and
The graph 3 below shows demand and consumption
population settlements have adverse factors that
fore- cast curves in Mozambique up to 2042 [Source: INE,
discourage investments in public utility infrastructures,
2017 and JICA study team].
are normally areas of very low population density, the land
is occupied in a disorderly and informal way, the
settlements have a random dispersion configuration, land
occupation does not follow any structured land use plan, as
illustrated in the figures 4 and 5 below.

Figure 3. Electricity demand and consumption forecast

in Mozambique [Souce: INE-Mozambique, 2017
population census and JICA study team].

The demand and consumption curves have an Figure 4. Peripheral area of the city of Lichinga, Province
obviously growing trend, this reality challenges leaders, of Niassa, North of Mozambique [15].
private partners and decision makers for serious
investments in electricity infrastructure (generation,
transmission and distribution systems), otherwise the
number of people without access to electricity will
certainly grow with the rapid growth of the population in
accordance with the forecasts discussed previously.
According to the International Energy Agency, access
to electricity is a fundamental and indispensable condition
for sustainable human development [2], access to
electricity is closely related to investment in infrastructure,
government authorities and private partners recognize the
strategic value of investments in electricity infrastructure
[11]. In the global context, it is known that approximately
1.6 billion people do not have access to electricity, the vast
majority of these people live in Sub-Saharan Africa [2], if Figure 5. Rural area of Cabo-Delgado province,
serious investments in electricity infrastructure are not Northern Mozambique [Source: Photo by EVANDRO
made, [13] predicts that the number of people without HOLZ, published on Perfil do Setor de Habitação
access to electricity worldwide will be around 1.4 billion Moçambique 2018, UN Habitat Moçambique [16].]
by 2030, contrary to the commitment to the SDG-7 targets.
In this configuration of land occupation and use, it
would be difficult to find a model (configuration or

3
E3S Web of Conferences 294, 02004 (2021) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202129402004
ICSREE 2021

topology) suitable for an electrification project that that electrification will truly be reflected in sustainable hu-
ensures viability, the lack of land use plans discourages man development of rural communities?
investments in electricity infrastructure, thus rural
communities live without access to electricity, trapped in
3.5 Leveraging successful experiences
a vicious circle of chronic poverty, underdevelopment,
social instability and rural exodus looking for better living According to [17] in 1930, rural communities in the
conditions. United States of America created a cooperative movement
According to [17] Morris Cooke head of the Rural for rural electrification throughout the country, at that time,
Electrification Authority (REA) in the USA stated in 1935: President Flanklin D. Roosevelt created the Rural
Electrification Agency (REA) through an executive order
"[...the promise of continued drudgery that was promulgated by Congress in 1936. In addition to
and the absence of modern comforts have providing funds for investment in electricity infrastructure,
helped drive from the farm to the city the Rural Electrification Agency (REA) systematically
provided logistical support by sending qualified and
those who were most needed in the farm- specialized technical personnel to train, educate and
the young people]." dialogue with rural communities about electricity, its use
and its socioeconomic impact, support with technical,
managerial, legal and accounting issues. In addition, the
Electrification and increased access to electricity in REA interceded with manufacturers to design equipment
rural areas create conditions for sustainable, balanced that fits the needs of rural areas.
human development, in harmony with the environment, The successful experience of the United States of
generates employment and business opportunities, absorbs America alerts Sub-Saharan Africa and particularly
and maintains the workforce and avoids rural exodus. Mozambique to an important issue: It is not enough to
In this sense, Mozambican government authorities are electrify, it is necessary to educate.
challenged to implement massive territorial planning pro- The lack of education of rural communities for the
grams for structured land occupation, as one of the basic socioeconomic benefits of electrification has the potential
conditions for safe and profitable investment in power to reduce electricity to the perspective of lighting only, so
grids with known topologies for easy optimization. the objectives of sustainable human development would
not be achieved despite the electrification.
3.4 Education for rural electrification benefits
The race against the clock to achieve the SDG-7, can trap 3.6 Rural electrification and cultural factors
developing countries in simple statistics of an increasing About 2.4 billion people worldwide use biomass as an
number of people with access to electricity, without energy source for cooking and heating, developing
substantial results from the point of view of sustainable countries account for 99% [2]. Biomass is an organic
human development, each context has its specificities to material of plant and animal origin (such as plant and
be taken into account, socioeconomic and cultural factors animal remains, waste from agricultural and industrial
can be pitfalls (uncertainties). No electrification model products) that can be used as an energy source, converting
will perfectly fit all rural contexts in Sub-Saharan Africa biomass energy to a usable form of energy has multiple
due to behaviors, attitudes and practices based on the benefits for the environment, contributes to producing
cultural heritage of each rural community. energy and eliminating discarded waste products at the
In Mozambique, the 2017 general population census same time [19].
recorded 39% of the illiterate population In Mozambique, the use of biomass energy is directly
(approximately12 million people) of which 62.4% are linked to the direct burning of firewood and charcoal as
residents of rural areas, in addition, only 6.6% of the the only natural source of energy available to rural
Mozambican population has access to the internet, 4.4% communities for several centuries, resulting in the
with access to a computer and 26.4% have a cell phone indiscriminate felling of trees, deforestation, with
[source: INE,2017]. Furthermore, the prevalence of considerable negative environmental impact, the direct
poverty has significantly high rates despite the decreasing burning of firewood is part of many cultural, traditional
trend, according to [18] the proportion of Mozambicans and gastronomic practices of rural communities in
living below the poverty line was 60% in 2002/03, 58% in Mozambique (such as certain types of food consumed on a
2008/09 and 48.4% in 2014/15. daily basis that are enjoyed when cooked over wood
The aforementioned data clearly indicate that the rural burning stoves, meal preparation for popular events and
Mozambican environment has very high levels of illiteracy, traditional ceremonies) are some examples of the massive
a very low rate of access to Information and use of firewood as an energy source.
Communication technologies, high rates of poverty, and a Despite the recognized importance of access to energy
very high rate of poverty prevalence. sources, we should not solve a problem (access to energy
Reflection question: In this context (of illiteracy, lack sources) by creating another (environmental degradation),
of information and poverty) what are the real possibilities the exploitation of natural resources as a source of energy
that rural electrification in Mozambique will not only be a in rural communities, must be done in a balanced and
statistical growth of people with access to electricity, but sustainable way. If there is significant environmental

4
E3S Web of Conferences 294, 02004 (2021) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202129402004
ICSREE 2021

damage due to the felling of trees to obtain firewood for investors, rural communities and government authorities,
cooking and heating, it should not be assumed that this is for sustainable and balanced development in complete
an efficient way of extracting energy from nature. harmony with the environment competing for the
Therefore, there are significant socio-cultural aspects achievement of SDG-7.
based on cultural heritage that determine the practices and Table 1. Renewable Energies in Mozambique (in GW)
way of life of rural communities, representing the risk and [Source: Renewable Energy Atlas of Mozambique, 1st
uncertainty that trees can continue to be felled, causing edition, 2000/14].
deforestation and environmental degradation, even after
Solar Hydro Wind Biomass geothermal
electrification and increased access to electricity.
Public or private investments in rural electrification 23000 19 5 2 0.1
projects for the sustainable development of rural
communities should consider socio-cultural aspects as 5. Conclusion
existing and observable uncertainty factors.

5.1 Industrial and socioeconomic perspective

3.7 Electrification and transformation of
communities The debate on electrification and increasing access to
electricity in rural areas of Mozambique should not be
Based on the International Energy Agency, access to restricted to investment in electricity infrastructure
electricity is indispensable for sustainable human (generation, transmission and distribution), the
development, electrification and massive access to International Energy Agency argues that electrification
electricity in rural areas is a factor of social transformation and access to electricity must allow sustainable human
that directly impacts the way of life of rural communities. development, in this sense, in addition to the others, we
To achieve the transformation based on sustainable human consider only three players, in a win-win-win relationship,
development through access to electricity, rural or triple benefit based on, 1. Investors (with return on
communities must be the primary agents of their own investment-RoI); 2. Communities (with sustainable
transformation process, nobody should develop them, they human development- SHD) and; 3. Environment
must develop on their own, it is necessary to educate rural (balance and sustainability), as illustrated in the figure 6
communities [2] on a dialogue basis to avoid being below.
passive receivers (or simple observers) without Understanding the benefits of electrification and
understanding the socioeconomic value and impact of access to electrification in rural communities is a complex
electrification, with the risk of reducing access to process, the high rates of illiteracy and poverty in
electricity just for lighting. communities deeply influenced by cultural habits and
In rural Mozambican communities, with an education traditional practices, are just a few examples of
and way of life strongly influenced by cultural values, to uncertainties to take into account, thus the role of
achieve sustainable human development, it is important to government authorities and private partners is so
dialogue, educate, train and influence, taking into account extensive that it should not be restricted to the availability
the natural tendency of humanity to resist changes and the of investment funds only, educating, training, dialoguing
fact that these communities are not familiar with the and influencing should be the commitment after the
regular use of electricity. investment, so that rural communities in Mozambique can
The advantage of education after electrification is that quickly understand the economic value of electricity and
rural communities actively participate and take the transformation it can cause in their lives. It is also the
ownership of the process of their own development, role of government authorities to ensure formal land
which accelerates development and economic gains. occupation by promoting land use planning programs so
that electrification is technically feasible.
4. Availability of renewable energy In general, land occupation in rural communities in
Mozambique is characterized by random, informal and
sources
disorderly occupations forming low density population
In addition to mineral coal and natural gas, settlements, thus land occupation without observing land
Mozambique has a variety of renewable energy sources, use plans does not ensure technical feasibility for
with emphasis on hydro, wind, solar, biomass, geothermal electricity infrastructure, low population density does not
and waves, is one of the largest producers of renewable ensure sufficient demand to ensure return on investment,
energy in the Southern African Development Community these are just a few examples of factors that discourage
(SADC) region, a study carried out by Mozambican investment in electricity infrastructure
government authorities in the Renewable Energy Atlas of
Mozambique revealed a potential equivalent to 23.000
GW distributed throughout the country as illustrated in the
table 1 below [Source: Renewable Energy Atlas of
Mozambique, 1st edition, 2000/14].
The potential for renewable energy equivalent to 23
TW identified in Mozambique is a huge investment and
long-term business opportunity, offering gains for

5
E3S Web of Conferences 294, 02004 (2021) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202129402004
ICSREE 2021

attract, facilitate and make more flexible the participation

of private investment, the expansion of business
opportunities in the renewable energy sector should not be
restricted to large-scale investments, it is important to
involve local cooperatives in the management of small
power generation systems, ensuring training in
management, operation and maintenance, for the
economic and financial empowerment of rural
communities and boosting the local economy as a direct
benefit of electrification through the use of available and
abundant Renewable Energy Sources.

References
1. Z. Ding, M. Liu, W.J. Lee, D. Wetz, An autonomous
operation microgrid for rural electrification, in 2013
Figure 6. Triple benefit (win-win-win) relationship for IEEE Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting
rural electrification (IEEE, 2013), pp. 1–8
2. T. Mohn, IEEE Power and Energy Magazine 11, 46
(2013)
3. R. Nyakudya, T. Chikowore, S. Mhlanga, L. Nyanga,
A decision support tool for rural electrification grid
design, in 2013 IEEE International Conference on
Industrial Technology (ICIT) (IEEE, 2013), pp. 1443–
1449
4. A. Medinilla, B. Byiers, K. Karaki (2019)
5. B. Graeber, Generation and transmission expansion
planning in southern Africa, in 1999 IEEE Africon.
5th Africon Conference in Africa (Cat. No.
99CH36342) (IEEE, 1999), Vol. 2, pp. 983–988
6. M. Kanagawa, T. Nakata, Energy policy 36, 2016
(2008)
Figure 7. Favorable factors for investment in the use of 7. M.M. Uamusse, Ph.D. thesis, Lund University (2019)
RES in Mozambique 8. S. RENO (2018)
9. B. Nhamire, J. Mosca, Electricidade de Moçam-
5.2 Investment opportunities perspective bique: mau serviço, não transparente e politizada
(CIP, Centro de Integridade Pública Moçambique,
The current situation and trends from the standpoint of 2014)
electrification and massive access to electricity in
Mozambique, based on the recommendations of the SDG7 10. P. Mulder, J. Tembe, Direção Nacional de Estudos e
is a possible and achievable task but far from being an Analise Politica (2006)
effective reality, therefore, the use of renewable resources 11. D. Salite, M. Cotton, J. Kirshner (2020)
of which Mozambique has a vast potential has been 12. O.M. Longe, L. Myeni, K. Ouahada, Renewable
pointed out as viable and sustainable solution, in this energy solution for electricity access in Rural South
article, the authors identify three pillars that underpin the Africa, in 2019 IEEE International Smart Cities
investment opportunity in the renewable energy sector in Conference (ISC2) (IEEE, 2019), pp. 772–776
Mozambique as illustrated in figure 7, namely: 13. S.R. Connors, Providing Electricity Services to Ru-
(i) The urgent need for electrification and of massive
ral Africa, in 2007 IEEE Power Engineering Society
access to electricity (Commitment to achieve General Meeting (IEEE, 2007), pp. 1–3
SDG-7).
14. R.C. Muanamoha, Master’s thesis, Universidade
(ii) The existence of a significant identified renewable Federal de Minas Gerais (1995)
energy potential equivalent to 23 TW (available 15. J.M. Maloa, urbe. Revista Brasileira de Gestão Ur-
and inexhaustible). bana 11 (2019)
(iii) The existence of a huge and promising electricity 16. M. Guarneri, E. Holz, T. Ramalho, in Developing
demand market (continuous and growing National Urban Policies (Springer, 2020), pp. 319–
demand). 333
The combination of the three pillars requires strong 17. A. Sebitosi, P. Pillay, R. Ramakumer, Electrification
coverage from government authorities to create policies to of sub-Saharan Africa, in IEEE Power Engineering

6
E3S Web of Conferences 294, 02004 (2021) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202129402004
ICSREE 2021

Society General Meeting, 2004. (IEEE, 2004), pp.

2098–2100
18. World Bank, Tech. rep., The World Bank,
Washington, DC (2018),
http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/6007315
54132409626/pdf/Overview.pdf
19. B.K. Blyden, W.J. Lee, Modified microgrid concept
for rural electrification in Africa, in 2006 IEEE Power
Engineering Society General Meeting (IEEE, 2006),
pp. 5–pp