THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Above is the outline of the research process that form part and parcel of a
research proposal. It is an outline of your commitment that you intend to
follow in executing a research study.

Each of these stages, generally, is dependent upon the others. They follow
a sequence, meaning that one cannot analyze data (step 7) unless he has
collected data (step 6). Similarly, a report cannot be written (step 8) unless
data collected has been analysed (step 7).

Research then is a system of interdependent related stages. Violation of

this sequence can cause irreparable harm to the study. It is also true that
several alternatives are available to the researcher during each of the
stages stated above. A research process can be compared with a route
map. The map analogy is useful for the researcher because at each stage
of the research process, and there are several alternatives to follow.

Choosing the best alternative in terms of time constraints, money, and

human resources in our research decision is our primary goal. The key to a
successful research project ultimately lies in iteration: the process of
returning again and again to the identification of the research problems,
methodology, data collection, etc. which lead to new ideas, revisions and
improvements.

Often, by discussing the research project with advisers and peers, one will
find that new research questions need to be added, variables to be omitted,
added or redefined, and other changes to be made. As a proposed study is
examined and re-examined from different perspectives, it may begin to
transform and take a different shape.

This is to be expected and is an essential component of a good research

study. Besides, it is important to examine study methods and data to be
collected from different viewpoints to ensure a comprehensive approach to
the research question. In conclusion, there is seldom any single strategy or
formula for developing a successful research study, but it is important to
realize that the research process is cyclical and iterative.

Step – 1: Identifying the Problem

The first and foremost task in the entire process of scientific research is to
identify a research problem. A well-identified problem will assist the
researcher to realise all-important phases of the research process, starting
from setting objectives to the selection of the research methodology.

NOTE: not all problems require research.

We have countless problems around us, but all that we encounter do not
qualify as research problems, and thus, these do not need to be
researched. With a clear understanding of this point, we must draw a line
between a research problem and a non-research problem.

Intuitively, researchable problems are those that have a possibility of

thorough verification investigation, which can be effected through the
collection and analysis of data, while the non-research problems do not
need to go through these processes.
Non-Research Problem

A non-research problem is one that does not require any research to

arrive at a solution. Instinctively, a non-researchable problem consists of
vague details and cannot be resolved through research. It is a managerial
or built-in problem that may be solved at the administrative or management
level. The answer to any question raised in a non- research setting is
almost always obvious.

The outbreak of cholera, for example, following a severe flood, is a

common phenomenon in many communities. The reason for this is known.
It is thus not a research problem. Similarly, reasons for the sudden rise in
prices of many essential commodities following the announcement of the
budget by the Finance Minister need no investigation. Hence it is not a
problem that needs research.

Example #1

A recent survey in District A found that 1000 women were continuous users

of contraceptive pills.

But last month’s service statistics indicate that none of these women were
using contraceptive pills (Fisher et al. 1991:4).

The discrepancy is that ‘all 1000 women should have been using a pill, but
in fact, none is doing so. The question is: why the discrepancy exists?

Well, the fact is, a monsoon flood has prevented all new supplies of pills
reaching District A, and all old supplies have been exhausted. Thus,
although the problem situation exists, the reason for the problem is already
known.

Therefore, assuming that all the facts are correct, there is no reason to
research the factors associated with pill discontinuation among women.
This is thus a non-research problem.

Example #2

A hospital treated a large number of cholera cases with penicillin, but the
treatment with penicillin was found to be ineffective. Do we need research
to know the reason? Here again, there is one single reason that Vibrio
cholera is not sensitive to penicillin, and therefore, this is not the drug of
choice for this disease. In this case, too, as the reasons are known, it is
unwise to undertake any study to find out why penicillin does not improve
the condition of cholera patients. This is also a non-research problem.

Research Problem

In contrast to a non-research problem, a research problem is of primary

concern to a researcher. A research problem is a perceived difficulty, a
feeling of discomfort, or a discrepancy between the common belief and
reality. A problem will qualify as a potential research problem when the
following three conditions exist:

1. There should be a perceived discrepancy between “what it is” and

“what it should have been.” This implies that there should be a
difference between “what exists” and the “ideal or planned situation”.
 2. A question about “why” the discrepancy exists. This implies that the
reason(s) for this discrepancy is unclear to the researcher hence, it
makes sense for them to develop a research question; and
3. There should be at least two possible answers or solutions to the
questions or problems.

The third important fact is that if there is only one possible and plausible
answer to the question about the discrepancy, then a research situation
does not exist. It is a non-research problem that can be tackled at the
managerial or administrative level.

Example #1

While visiting a rural area, the UNICEF team observed that some villages
have female school attendance rates as high as 75%, while others have as
low as 10%, although all villages should have a nearly equal rate of
attendance. What factors are associated with this discrepancy?

We may enumerate several reasons for this:

1. Villages differ in their socio-economic background.

2. In some villages, the Muslim population constitutes a large proportion
of the total population. Religion might play a vital role.
3. Schools are far away from some villages. The distance thus may
make this difference.

Because there is more than one answer to the problem, it is considered a

research problem, and a study can be undertaken to find a solution.
Example#2

The Government of Zimbabwe has been making all-out efforts to ensure

regular flow of credit in rural areas at a concession rate through liberal
lending policy and establishing a large number of bank branches in rural
areas.

Knowledgeable sources indicate that expected development in rural areas

has not yet been achieved mainly because of improper utilization of the
credit.

More than one reason is suspected of such misuse or misdirection.

These include, among others:

 Diversion of credit money to some unproductive sectors

 Transfer of credit money to other people like money lenders, who
exploit the rural people with this money
 Lack of knowledge of proper utilization of the credit.

Here too, reasons for misuse of loans are more than one. We thus consider
this problem as a researchable problem.

Example #3

On the 20th day of December 2010, almost all the locals came up with a
news headline of the form:
Zimbabwe Stock Exchange (ZSE) observes the steepest ever fall in stock
prices: several injured as retail investors clash with police, vehicles
ransacked’.

Investors’ demonstration, protest and clash with police pause a problem,

but it is certainly not a research problem since there is only one known
reason for the problem: ZSE experiences the steepest fall in stock prices.
But what causes this unprecedented fall in the share market?

Experts felt that no single reason could be attributed to the problem. It is a

mixture of several factors, and hence it is a research problem. The
following were assumed to be some of the possible reasons:

 The merchant banking system;

 Liquidity shortage because of the hike in the rate of cash reserve
requirement (CRR);
 IMF’s warnings and prescriptions on the commercial banks’ exposure
to the stock market;
 Increase in supply of new shares;
 Manipulation of share prices;
 Lack of knowledge of the investors on the company’s fundamentals.

The choice of a research problem is not as easy as it appears. It is

generally guided by the researchers,

a. own intellectual orientation,

b. level of training,
c. experience,
 d. knowledge on the subject matter, and
e. intellectual curiosity.

Theoretical and practical considerations also play a vital role in choosing a

research problem. Societal needs also guide to choose a research
problem. Once we have chosen a research problem, a few more related
steps are required to be followed before a decision is taken to undertake a
research study.

These include, among others, the following:

 Statement of the problem.

 Justifying the problem.
 Analyzing the problem.

It is important to note that a researchable problem has history of

persistence which is detailed in the background of the study. Solutions may
have been sought, interventions added but the problem still persist.

Statement of the Problem

A clear and well-defined statement of the problem is considered as the

foundation for the development of the research proposal.

It enables the researcher to systematically point out why the proposed

research on the problem should be undertaken and what he hopes to
achieve with the findings of the study.
A well-defined statement of the problem will lead the researcher to
formulate the research objectives, to understand the background of the
study, and to choose a proper research methodology.

Justifying the Problem

Once the problem situation has been identified and clearly stated, it is
important to justify the importance of the problem. In justifying the
problems, we ask such questions as to why the problem of the study is
important, how large and widespread the problem is, can others be
convinced about the importance of the problem and the like. Answers to the
above questions should be reviewed and presented in one or two
paragraphs that justify the importance of the problem.

Analyzing the Problem

As a first step of analyzing the problem, critical attention should be given to

accommodate the viewpoints of the managers, users, and the researchers
to the problem through threadbare discussions. The next step is to identify
the factors that may have contributed to the perceived problems.

Step – 2: Reviewing of Literature

A review of relevant literature is an integral part of the research process. It

enables the researcher to formulate his problem in terms of the specific
aspects of the general area of his interest that has not been so far
researched.
Such a review, not only provides him exposure to a larger body of
knowledge but also equips him with enhanced knowledge to efficiently
follow the research process. Through a proper review of the literature, the
researcher may develop the coherence between the results of his study
and those of the others.

A review of previous documents to similar or related phenomena is

essential even for the beginning researchers. To ignore the existing
literature may lead to wasted effort on the part of the researchers.

Why spend time merely repeating what other investigators have already
done?

If the researcher is aware of earlier studies of his topic, or related topics, he

will be in a much better position to assess the significance of his work and
to convince others that it is important. A confident and expert researcher is
more crucial in his questioning of the others’ methodology, the choice of the
data, and the quality of the inferences drawn from the study results.

All in all, we enumerate the following arguments in favor of reviewing the

literature:

 It avoids duplication of the work that has been done in the recent
past.
 It helps the researcher to find out what others have learned and
reported on the problem.
 It helps the researcher to become familiar with the types of
methodology followed by others.
  It helps the researcher to understand what concepts and theories are
relevant to his area of investigation.
 It helps the researcher to understand if there are any significant
controversies, contradictions, and inconsistencies in findings.
 It allows the researcher to understand if there are any unanswered
research questions.
 It might help the researcher to develop an analytical framework.
 It will help the researcher to consider the inclusion of variables in his
research that he might not otherwise have thought about.

Step – 3: Setting research questions, objectives, and hypotheses

After discovering and defining the research problem, researchers should

make a formal statement of the problem leading to research objectives.

An objective will precisely say what should be researched, to delineate the

type of information that should be collected, and provide a framework for
the scope of the study. The best expression of a research objective is a
well-formulated, testable research hypothesis.

A hypothesis is an unproven statement or proposition that can be refuted

or supported by empirical data. Hypothetical statements assert a possible
answer to a research question.

#A tentative explanation for certain phenomena, or events which have occurred or will occur

#States the researcher’s expectations concerning the relationship between two or more variables in the
research problem

#Testable statement of a potential relationship between two or more variables

Step -4: Choosing the study design

The research design is the blueprint or framework for fulfilling objectives

and answering research questions. It is a master plan specifying the
methods and procedures for collecting, processing, and analyzing the
collected data. There are four basic research designs that a researcher can
use to conduct his or her study;

1. survey,
2. experiment,
3. secondary data study, and
4. observational study.

The type of research design to be chosen from among the above four
designs depends primarily on four factors:

 The type of problem

 The objectives of the study,
 The existing state of knowledge about the problem that is being
studied, and
 The resources are available for the study.

Step – 5: Deciding on the sample design

Sampling is an important and separate step in the research process. The

basic idea of sampling is that it involves any procedure that uses a
relatively small number of items or portions (called a sample) of a universe
(called population) to conclude the whole population.
It contrasts with the process of complete enumeration, in which every
member of the population is included.

Such a complete enumeration is referred to as census.

A population is the total collection of elements about which we wish to

make some inference or generalization.

A sample is a part of the population, carefully selected to represent that

population. If certain statistical procedures are followed in selecting the
sample, it should have the same characteristics as the population as a
whole. These procedures are embedded in the sample design.

Sample design refers to the methods to be followed in selecting a sample

from the population and the estimating technique, vis-a-vis formula for
computing the sample statistics.

The basic question is, then, how to select a sample?

To answer this question, we must have acquaintance with the sampling

methods.

These methods are basically of two types: probability sampling and non-
probability sampling. Probability sampling ensures every unit a known
nonzero probability of selection within the target population.

If there is no feasible alternative, a non-probability sampling method may

be employed.
The basis of such selection is entirely dependent on the researcher’s
discretion. This approach is variously called judgment sampling,
convenience sampling, accidental sampling, and purposive sampling.

The most widely used probability sampling methods are simple random

sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster
sampling, and systematic sampling. They have been classified by their
representation basis and unit selection techniques.

Two other variations of the sampling methods that are in great use
are multistage sampling and probability proportional to size (PPS)
sampling.

Multistage sampling is most commonly used in drawing samples from very

large and diverse populations.

The PPS sampling is a variation on multistage sampling in which the

probability of selecting a cluster is proportional to its size, and an equal
number of elements are sampled within each cluster.

Step – 6: Collecting data

The gathering of data may range from simple observation to a large-scale

survey in any defined population. There are many ways to collect data. The
approach selected depends on the objectives of the study, the research
design, and the availability of time, money, and personnel.

With the variation in the type of data (qualitative, quantitative or mixed

methods) to be collected, the method of data collection also varies.
The most common means for collecting quantitative data is the structured
interview, unstructured interview, face to face interview.

Studies that obtain data by interviewing respondents are called surveys.

Data can also be collected by using self-administered questionnaires.
Telephone interviewing is another way in which data may be collected.

Other means of data collection include the use of secondary sources, such
as the census, vital registration records, official documents, previous
surveys, etc., this is called document analysis.

Qualitative data are collected mainly through in-depth interviews, focus

group discussions,  and observational studies.

Step-7: Processing and Analyzing Data

Data processing generally begins with the editing and coding of data. Data
are edited to ensure consistency across respondents and to locate
omissions, if any.

In survey data, editing reduces errors in the recording, improves legibility,

and clarifies unclear and inappropriate responses. In addition to editing, the
data also need coding. Because it is impractical to place raw data into a
report, alphanumeric codes are used to reduce the responses to a more
manageable form for storage and future processing.

This coding process facilitates processing the data. The personal computer
offers an excellent opportunity in data editing and coding processes.
Data analysis usually involves reducing accumulated data to a manageable
size, developing summaries, searching for patterns, and applying statistical
techniques for understanding and interpreting the findings in the light of
the research questions. Further, the researcher, based on his analysis,
determines if his findings are consistent with the formulated hypotheses
and theories.

The techniques to be used in analyzing data may range from simple

graphical technique to very complex multivariate analysis depending on the
objectives of the study, research design employed, and the nature of data
collected. As in the case of methods of data collection, an analytical
technique appropriate in one situation may not be appropriate for another.

 Step-8: Writing the report – Developing Research Proposal, Writing

Report, Disseminating and Utilizing Results

The entire task of a research study is accumulated in a document called a

proposal. A research proposal is a work plan, prospectus, outline, an offer,
a statement of intent or commitment from an individual researcher or an
organization to produce a product or render a service to a potential client or
sponsor.

The proposal will be prepared to keep in view the sequence presented in

the research process. The proposal tells us what, how, where, and to
whom it will be done.

It must also show the benefit of doing it. It always includes an explanation
of the purpose of the study (the research objectives) or a definition of the
problem.
It systematically outlines the particular research methodology and details
the procedures that will be utilized at each stage of the research process.

The end goal of a scientific study is to interpret the results and draw
conclusions.

To this end, it is necessary to prepare a report and transmit the findings

and recommendations to administrators, policymakers, and program
managers for the intended purpose of making a decision. There are various
forms of research reports: term papers, dissertations, journal articles,
papers for presentation at professional conferences and seminars, books,
and so on. The results of a research investigation prepared in any form are
of little utility if they are not communicated to others.

The primary purpose of a dissemination strategy is to identify the most

effective media channels to reach different audience groups with study
findings most relevant to their needs. The dissemination may be made
through a conference, a seminar, a report, or an oral or poster
presentation.

The style and organization of the report will differ according to the target
audience, the occasion, and the purpose of the research. Reports should
be developed from the client’s perspectives. A report is an excellent means
that helps to establish the researcher’s credibility. At a bare minimum, a
research report should contain sections on:

 An executive summary, an abstract.

 Background of the problem, contextualisation
  Literature review,
 Methodology,
 Findings,
 Discussion,
 Conclusions and Recommendations.

The results of the study can also be disseminated through peer-reviewed

journals published by academic institutions and reputed publishers both at
home and abroad.

These journals have their format and editorial policies. The contributors can
submit their manuscripts adhering to the policies and format for possible
publications of their papers.

There are now ample opportunities for the researchers to publish one’s
work online as well. Many interesting studies have been conducted by the
researchers without having any effect in actual settings. Ideally, the
concluding step of a scientific study is to plan for its utilization in the real
world.

Although researchers are often not themselves in a position to implement a

plan for utilizing research findings, they can contribute to the process by
including in their research reports a few recommendations regarding how
the results of the study could be utilized for policy formulation and program
intervention.