OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not
beendiscovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think ofresearch
objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research
studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis- esting research studies).

SCOPE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH

i. Decision-making tool: Whenever a decision is to be made, marketing researchbecomes necessary in
the corporate world. The degree of dependence on researchis based on the cost of decisions. If the cost of
decision is high, the dependence onresearch is high, and vice versa.
ii. Facilitates large- scale production: The MR helps large scale enterprises in the
areas of production to determine:
(a) What to produce?
(b) How much to produce?
(c) When to produce?
iii. To determine the pattern of consumption: The consumption patterns vary fromplace to place and
time to time. The MR helps in identifying the consumption pattern and also the availability of consumer
credit in that particular place.
MR helps the marketer to identify:
l Consumption pattern
l Brand loyalty
l Consumer behaviour
l Market trends, etc.
iv. Complex market: In a complex and dynamic environment, the role of MR is very vital. MR acts as a
bridge between the consumer and the purchaser. This is becauseMR enables the management to know the
need of the customer, the about demandfor the product and helps the producer to anticipate the changes in
the market.
v. Problem-solving: The MR focuses on both short range and long range decisionsand helps in making
decisions with respect to the 4p’s of marketing, namely, product,price, place and promotion.
vi. Distribution: The MR helps the manufacturer to decide about the channel, media,logistics planning so
that its customers and distributors are benefited. Based on thestudy of MR, suitable distributors, retailers,
wholesalers and agents are selected by the company for distributing their products.
vii. Sales promotion: The MR helps in effective sales promotion. It enlightens themanufacturer with
regard to the method of sales promotion to be undertaken,such as advertising, personal selling, publicity
etc. It also helps in understanding the attitude of the customers and helps how to design the advertisement
in line with Fundamentals of Research prevailing attitudes.
THE TYPES OF RESEARCH
There are different types of research.
Exploratory Research
This type of research is carried out at the very beginning when the problem is not clearor is vague. In
exploratory research, all possible reasons which are very obvious are eliminated, thereby directing the
research to proceed further with limited options.
Sales decline in a company may be due to:
(1) Inefficient service
(2) Improper price
(3) Inefficient sales force
(4) Ineffective promotion
(5) Improper quality
The research executives must examine such questions to identify the most useful avenuesfor further
research. Preliminary investigation of this type is called exploratory research.Expert surveys, focus
groups, case studies and observation methods are used to conduct the exploratory survey.
Descriptive Research
The main purpose of descriptive research is to describe the state of view as it exists at
present. Simply stated, it is a fact finding investigation. In descriptive research, definite
conclusions can be arrived at, but it does not establish a cause and effect relationship.
This type of research tries to describe the characteristics of the respondent in relation to
a particular product.
l Descriptive research deals with demographic characteristics of the consumer. For
example, trends in the consumption of soft drink with respect to socio-economic
characteristics such as age, family, income, education level etc. Another example
can be the degree of viewing TV channels, its variation with age, income level,
profession of respondent as well as time of viewing. Hence, the degree of use of
TV to different types of respondents will be of importance to the researcher. There
are three types of players who will decide the usage of TV : (a) Television
manufacturers, (b) Broadcasting agency of the programme, (c) Viewers. Therefore,
research pertaining to any one of the following can be conducted:
l The manufacturer can come out with facilities which will make the television more
user-friendly. Some of the facilities are– (a) Remote control, (b) Child lock,
(c) Different models for different income groups, (d) Internet compatibility etc.,
(e) Wall mounting etc.
l Similarly, broadcasting agencies can come out with programmes, which can suit
different age groups and income.
l Ultimately, the viewers who use the TV must be aware of the programmes appearing
in different channels and can plan their viewing schedule accordingly.
l Descriptive research deals with specific predictions, for example, sales of a
company’s product during the next three years, i.e., forecasting.
l Descriptive research is also used to estimate the proportion of population who
behave in a certain way. Example: “Why do middle income groups go to Food
World to buy their products?”
A study can be commissioned by a manufacturing company to find out various facilities
that can be provided in television sets based on the above discussion.
Similarly, studies can be conducted by broadcasting stations to find out the degree of
utility of TV programmes. Example: The following hypothesis may be formulated about
the programmes:
l The programmes in various channels are useful by way of entertainment to the
viewers.
l Viewers feel that TV is a boon for their children in improving their knowledge—
especially, fiction and cartoon programmes.
Applied Research
Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem faced by any business
organization. This research deals with real life situations. Example: “Why have sales
decreased during the last quarter”? Market research is an example of applied research.
Applied research has a practical problem-solving emphasis. It brings out many new facts.
Examples:
1. Use of fibre glass body for cars instead of metal.
2. To develop a new market for the product.
Pure/Fundamental Research or Basic Research
Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is known as basic research. It is not directly
involved with practical problems. It does not have any commercial potential. There is no
intention to apply this research in practice. Tata Institute of Fundamental Research
conducts such studies. Example: Theory of Relativity (by Einstein).
Conceptual Research
This is generally used by philosophers. It is related to some abstract idea or theory. In
this type of research, the researcher should collect the data to prove or disapprove his
hypothesis. The various ideologies or ‘isms’ are examples of conceptual research.
Causal Research
Causal research is conducted to determine the cause and effect relationship between
the two variables.
Example: Effect of advertisement on sales.
Historical Research
The name itself indicates the meaning of the research. Historical study is a study of past
records and data in order to understand the future trends and development of the
organisation or market. There is no direct observation. The research has to depend on
the conclusions or inferences drawn in the past.
For example, investors in the share market study the past records or prices of shares
which he/she intends to buy. Studying the share prices of a particular company enables
the investor to take decision whether to invest in the shares of a company.
Crime branch police/CBI officers study the past records or the history of the criminals
and terrorists in order to arrive at some conclusions.
The main objective of this study is to derive explanation and generalization from the past
trends in order to understand the present and anticipate the future.
There are however, certain shortcomings of Historical Research:
1. Reliability and adequacy information is subjective and open to question
11
2. Accuracy of measurement of events is doubtful. Fundamentals of Research
3. Verification of records are difficult.
Ex-post Facto Research
In this type of research, an examination of relationship that exists between independent
and dependent variable is studied. We may call this empirical research. In this method,
the researcher has no control over an independent variable. Ex-post facto literally means
“from what is done afterwards”. In this research, a variable “A” is observed. Thereafter,
the researcher tries to find a causal variable “B” which caused “A”. It is quite possible
that “B” might not have been caused “A”. In this type of analysis, there is no scope for
the researcher to manipulate the variable. The researcher can only report “what has
happened” and “what is happening”.
Action Research
This type of research is undertaken by direct action. Action research is conducted to
solve a problem. Example: Test marketing a product is an example of action research.
Initially, the geographical location is identified. A target sample is selected from among
the population. Samples are distributed to selected samples and feedback is obtained
from the respondent. This method is most common for industrial products, where a trial
is a must before regular usage of the product.
Evaluation Research
This is an example of applied research. This research is conducted to find out how well
a planned programme is implemented. Therefore, evaluation research deals with
evaluating the performance or assessment of a project. Example: “Rural Employment
Programme Evaluation” or “Success of Midday Meal Programme”.
Library Research
This is done to gather secondary data. This includes notes from the past data or review
of the reports already conducted. This is a convenient method whereby both manpowerand time are
saved.

Research Methods versus Methodology

It seems appropriate at this juncture to explain the difference between research methods and research
methodology. Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques that are used
for conduction of research. Research methods or techniques*, thus, refer to the methods the researchers
*At times, a distinction is also made between research techniques and research methods. Research techniques refer
tothe behaviour and instruments we use in performing research operations such as making observations, recording
data,techniques of processing data and the like. Research methods refer to the behaviour and instruments used in
selecting and constructing research technique. For instance, the difference between methods and techniques of data
collection can betterbe understood from the details given in the following chart—

Type Methods Techniques

1. Library (i) Analysis of historical Recording of notes, Content analysis, Tape and Film listening and
Research records analysis.
(ii) Analysis of documents Statistical compilations and manipulations, reference and abstract
guides, contents analysis.
2. Field (i) Non-participant direct Observational behavioural scales, use of score cards, etc.
Research observation
(ii) Participant observation Interactional recording, possible use of tape recorders, photo graphic
techniques.
(iii) Mass observation Recording mass behaviour, interview using independent observers in
public places.
(iv) Mail questionnaire Identification of social and economic background of respondents.
(v) Opinionnaire Use of attitude scales, projective techniques, use of sociometric scales.
(vi) Personal interview Interviewer uses a detailed schedule with open and closed questions.
(vii) Focused interview Interviewer focuses attention upon a given experience and its effects.
(viii) Group interview Small groups of respondents are interviewed simultaneously.
(ix) Telephone survey Used as a survey technique for information and for discerning
opinion; may also be used as a follow up of questionnaire.
(x) Case study and life history Cross sectional collection of data for intensive analysis, longitudinal
collection of data of intensive character.
3. Laboratory Small group study of random Use of audio-visual recording devices, use of observers, etc.
Research behaviour, play and role analysis
From what has been stated above, we can say that methods are more general. It is the methods that
generate techniques.
.
use in performing research operations. In other words, all those methods which are used by the
researcher during the course of studying his research problem are termed as research methods.
Since the object of research, particularly the applied research, it to arrive at a solution for a given
problem, the available data and the unknown aspects of the problem have to be related to each other
to make a solution possible. Keeping this in view, research methods can be put into the following
three groups:
1. In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the collection of
data. These methods will be used where the data already available are not sufficient to
arrive at the required solution;
2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for establishing
relationships between the data and the unknowns;
3. The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the
results obtained.
Research methods falling in the above stated last two groups are generally taken as the analytical
tools of research.
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be
understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study the various
steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic
behind them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research methods/techniques
but also the methodology. Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain indices or tests,
how to calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard deviation or chi-square, how to
apply particular research techniques, but they also need to know which of these methods or techniques,
are relevant and which are not, and what would they mean and indicate and why. Researchers also
need to understand the assumptions underlying various techniques and they need to know the criteria
by which they can decide that certain techniques and procedures will be applicable to certain problems
and others will not. All this means that it is necessary for the researcher to design his methodology
for his problem as the same may differ from problem to problem. For example, an architect, who
designs a building, has to consciously evaluate the basis of his decisions, i.e., he has to evaluate why
and on what basis he selects particular size, number and location of doors, windows and ventilators,
uses particular materials and not others and the like. Similarly, in research the scientist has to expose
the research decisions to evaluation before they are implemented. He has to specify very clearly and
precisely what decisions he selects and why he selects them so that they can be evaluated by others also.
From what has been stated above, we can say that research methodology has many dimensions
and research methods do constitute a part of the research methodology. The scope of research
methodology is wider than that of research methods. Thus, when we talk of research methodology
we not only talk of the research methods but also consider the logic behind the methods we use
in the context of our research study and explain why we are using a particular method or
technique and why we are not using others so that research results are capable of being
evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others. Why a research study has been undertaken,
how the research problem has been defined, in what way and why the hypothesis has been formulated,
what data have been collected and what particular method has been adopted, why particular technique
of analysing data has been used and a host of similar other questions are usually answered when we
talk of research methodology concerning a research problem or study.

MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN

The formidable problem that follows the task of defining the research problem is the preparation of
the design of the research project, popularly known as the “research design”. Decisions regarding
what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning an inquiry or a research study constitute
a research design. “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of
data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.” 1
In fact, the research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes
the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. As such the design includes an
outline of what the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and its operational implications to
the final analysis of data. More explicitly, the desing decisions happen to be in respect of:
(i) What is the study about?
(ii) Why is the study being made?
(iii) Where will the study be carried out?
(iv) What type of data is required?
(v) Where can the required data be found?
(vi) What periods of time will the study include?
(vii) What will be the sample design?
(viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?
(ix) How will the data be analysed?
(x) In what style will the report be prepared?
Keeping in view the above stated design decisions, one may split the overall research design into
the following parts:
(a) the sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the
given study;
(b) the observational design which relates to the conditions under which the observations
are to be made;
(c) the statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items are to be
observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analysed; and
(d) the operational design which deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified
in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.
From what has been stated above, we can state the important features of a research design as
under:
(i) It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research
problem.
(ii) It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and analysing the data.
(iii) It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under these two
constraints.
In brief, research design must, at least, contain—(a) a clear statement of the research problem;
(b) procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information; (c) the population to be studied;
and (d) methods to be used in processing and analysing data.

TECHNIQUE INVOLVED IN DEFINING A PROBLEM

Let us start with the question: What does one mean when he/she wants to define a research problem?
The answer may be that one wants to state the problem along with the bounds within which it is to be
studied. In other words, defining a problem involves the task of laying down boundaries within which
a researcher shall study the problem with a pre-determined objective in view.
How to define a research problem is undoubtedly a herculean task. However, it is a task that
must be tackled intelligently to avoid the perplexity encountered in a research operation. The usual
approach is that the researcher should himself pose a question (or in case someone else wants the
researcher to carry on research, the concerned individual, organisation or an authority should pose
the question to the researcher) and set-up techniques and procedures for throwing light on the
question concerned for formulating or defining the research problem. But such an approach generally
does not produce definitive results because the question phrased in such a fashion is usually in broad
general terms and as such may not be in a form suitable for testing.
Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a crucial part of a research study and must
in no case be accomplished hurriedly. However, in practice this a frequently overlooked which causes
a lot of problems later on. Hence, the research problem should be defined in a systematic manner,
giving due weightage to all relating points. The technique for the purpose involves the undertaking of
the following steps generally one after the other: (i) statement of the problem in a general way; (ii)
understanding the nature of the problem; (iii) surveying the available literature (iv) developing the
ideas through discussions; and (v) rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.
A brief description of all these points will be helpful.
(i) Statement of the problem in a general way: First of all the problem should be stated in a
broad general way, keeping in view either some practical concern or some scientific or intellectual
interest. For this purpose, the researcher must immerse himself thoroughly in the subject matter
concerning which he wishes to pose a problem. In case of social research, it is considered advisable
to do some field observation and as such the researcher may undertake some sort of preliminary
survey or what is often called pilot survey. Then the researcher can himself state the problem or he
can seek the guidance of the guide or the subject expert in accomplishing this task. Often, the guide
puts forth the problem in general terms, and it is then up to the researcher to narrow it down and
phrase the problem in operational terms. In case there is some directive from an organisational
authority, the problem then can be stated accordingly. The problem stated in a broad general way
may contain various ambiguities which must be resolved by cool thinking and rethinking over the
problem. At the same time the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered and the same
should be kept in view while stating the problem.
(ii) Understanding the nature of the problem: The next step in defining the problem is to
understand its origin and nature clearly. The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it
with those who first raised it in order to find out how the problem originally came about and with what
objectives in view. If the researcher has stated the problem himself, he should consider once again all
those points that induced him to make a general statement concerning the problem. For a better
understanding of the nature of the problem involved, he can enter into discussion with those who
have a good knowledge of the problem concerned or similar other problems. The researcher should
also keep in view the environment within which the problem is to be studied and understood.
(iii) Surveying the available literature: All available literature concerning the problem at hand
must necessarily be surveyed and examined before a definition of the research problem is given.
This means that the researcher must be well-conversant with relevant theories in the field, reports
and records as also all other relevant literature. He must devote sufficient time in reviewing of
research already undertaken on related problems. This is done to find out what data and other
materials, if any, are available for operational purposes. “Knowing what data are available often
serves to narrow the problem itself as well as the technique that might be used.”2. This would also
help a researcher to know if there are certain gaps in the theories, or whether the existing theories
applicable to the problem under study are inconsistent with each other, or whether the findings of the
different studies do not follow a pattern consistent with the theoretical expectations and so on. All
this will enable a researcher to take new strides in the field for furtherance of knowledge i.e., he can
move up starting from the existing premise. Studies on related problems are useful for indicating the
type of difficulties that may be encountered in the present study as also the possible analytical
shortcomings. At times such studies may also suggest useful and even new lines of approach to the
present problem.
(iv) Developing the ideas through discussions: Discussion concerning a problem often produces
useful information. Various new ideas can be developed through such an exercise. Hence, a researcher
must discuss his problem with his colleagues and others who have enough experience in the same
area or in working on similar problems. This is quite often known as an experience survey. People
with rich experience are in a position to enlighten the researcher on different aspects of his proposed
study and their advice and comments are usually invaluable to the researcher. They help him sharpen
his focus of attention on specific aspects within the field. Discussions with such persons should not
only be confined to the formulation of the specific problem at hand, but should also be concerned with
the general approach to the given problem, techniques that might be used, possible solutions, etc.
(v) Rephrasing the research problem: Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the research
problem into a working proposition. Once the nature of the problem has been clearly understood, the
environment (within which the problem has got to be studied) has been defined, discussions over the
problem have taken place and the available literature has been surveyed and examined, rephrasing
the problem into analytical or operational terms is not a difficult task. Through rephrasing, the
researcher puts the research problem in as specific terms as possible so that it may become
operationally viable and may help in the development of working hypotheses.*

CENSUS AND SAMPLE SURVEY

All items in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘Universe’ or ‘Population.’ A complete enumeration of
all items in the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry,
when all items are covered, no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But in
practice this may not be true. Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and
larger as the number of observation increases. Moreover, there is no way of checking the element of
bias or its extent except through a resurvey or use of sample checks. Besides, this type of inquiry
involves a great deal of time, money and energy. Therefore, when the field of inquiry is large, this
method becomes difficult to adopt because of the resources involved. At times, this method is practically
beyond the reach of ordinary researchers. Perhaps, government is the only institution which can get
the complete enumeration carried out. Even the government adopts this in very rare cases such as
population census conducted once in a decade. Further, many a time it is not possible to examine
every item in the population, and sometimes it is possible to obtain sufficiently accurate results by
studying only a part of total population. In such cases there is no utility of census surveys.
However, it needs to be emphasised that when the universe is a small one, it is no use resorting
to a sample survey. When field studies are undertaken in practical life, considerations of time and
cost almost invariably lead to a selection of respondents i.e., selection of only a few items. The
respondents selected should be as representative of the total population as possible in order to produce
a miniature cross-section. The selected respondents constitute what is technically called a ‘sample’
and the selection process is called ‘sampling technique.’ The survey so conducted is known as
‘sample survey’. Algebraically, let the population size be N and if a part of size n (which is < N) of
this population is selected according to some rule for studying some characteristic of the population,
the group consisting of these n units is known as ‘sample’. Researcher must prepare a sample design
for his study i.e., he must plan how a sample should be selected and of what size such a sample would be.

TECHNIQUE INVOLVED IN DEFINING A PROBLEM

Let us start with the question: What does one mean when he/she wants to define a research problem?
The answer may be that one wants to state the problem along with the bounds within which it is to be
studied. In other words, defining a problem involves the task of laying down boundaries within which
a researcher shall study the problem with a pre-determined objective in view.
How to define a research problem is undoubtedly a herculean task. However, it is a task that
must be tackled intelligently to avoid the perplexity encountered in a research operation. The usual
approach is that the researcher should himself pose a question (or in case someone else wants the
researcher to carry on research, the concerned individual, organisation or an authority should pose
the question to the researcher) and set-up techniques and procedures for throwing light on the
question concerned for formulating or defining the research problem. But such an approach generally
does not produce definitive results because the question phrased in such a fashion is usually in broad
general terms and as such may not be in a form suitable for testing.
Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a crucial part of a research study and must
in no case be accomplished hurriedly. However, in practice this a frequently overlooked which causes
a lot of problems later on. Hence, the research problem should be defined in a systematic manner,
giving due weightage to all relating points. The technique for the purpose involves the undertaking of
the following steps generally one after the other: (i) statement of the problem in a general way; (ii)
understanding the nature of the problem; (iii) surveying the available literature (iv) developing the
ideas through discussions; and (v) rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.
A brief description of all these points will be helpful.
(i) Statement of the problem in a general way: First of all the problem should be stated in a
broad general way, keeping in view either some practical concern or some scientific or intellectual
interest. For this purpose, the researcher must immerse himself thoroughly in the subject matter
concerning which he wishes to pose a problem. In case of social research, it is considered advisable
to do some field observation and as such the researcher may undertake some sort of preliminary
survey or what is often called pilot survey. Then the researcher can himself state the problem or he
can seek the guidance of the guide or the subject expert in accomplishing this task. Often, the guide
puts forth the problem in general terms, and it is then up to the researcher to narrow it down and
phrase the problem in operational terms. In case there is some directive from an organisational
authority, the problem then can be stated accordingly. The problem stated in a broad general way
may contain various ambiguities which must be resolved by cool thinking and rethinking over the
problem. At the same time the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered and the same
should be kept in view while stating the problem.
(ii) Understanding the nature of the problem: The next step in defining the problem is to
understand its origin and nature clearly. The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it
with those who first raised it in order to find out how the problem originally came about and with what
objectives in view. If the researcher has stated the problem himself, he should consider once again all
those points that induced him to make a general statement concerning the problem. For a better
understanding of the nature of the problem involved, he can enter into discussion with those who
have a good knowledge of the problem concerned or similar other problems. The researcher should
also keep in view the environment within which the problem is to be studied and understood.
(iii) Surveying the available literature: All available literature concerning the problem at hand
must necessarily be surveyed and examined before a definition of the research problem is given.
This means that the researcher must be well-conversant with relevant theories in the field, reports
and records as also all other relevant literature. He must devote sufficient time in reviewing of
research already undertaken on related problems. This is done to find out what data and other
materials, if any, are available for operational purposes. “Knowing what data are available often
serves to narrow the problem itself as well as the technique that might be used.”2. This would also
help a researcher to know if there are certain gaps in the theories, or whether the existing theories
applicable to the problem under study are inconsistent with each other, or whether the findings of the
different studies do not follow a pattern consistent with the theoretical expectations and so on. All
this will enable a researcher to take new strides in the field for furtherance of knowledge i.e., he can
move up starting from the existing premise. Studies on related problems are useful for indicating the
type of difficulties that may be encountered in the present study as also the possible analytical
shortcomings. At times such studies may also suggest useful and even new lines of approach to the
present problem.
(iv) Developing the ideas through discussions: Discussion concerning a problem often produces
useful information. Various new ideas can be developed through such an exercise. Hence, a researcher
must discuss his problem with his colleagues and others who have enough experience in the same
area or in working on similar problems. This is quite often known as an experience survey. People
with rich experience are in a position to enlighten the researcher on different aspects of his proposed
study and their advice and comments are usually invaluable to the researcher. They help him sharpen
his focus of attention on specific aspects within the field. Discussions with such persons should not
only be confined to the formulation of the specific problem at hand, but should also be concerned with
the general approach to the given problem, techniques that might be used, possible solutions, etc.
(v) Rephrasing the research problem: Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the research
problem into a working proposition. Once the nature of the problem has been clearly understood, the
environment (within which the problem has got to be studied) has been defined, discussions over the
problem have taken place and the available literature has been surveyed and examined, rephrasing
the problem into analytical or operational terms is not a difficult task. Through rephrasing, the
researcher puts the research problem in as specific terms as possible so that it may become
operationally viable and may help in the development of working hypotheses.*

Research Process
Before embarking on the details of research methodology and techniques, it seems appropriate to
present a brief overview of the research process. Research process consists of series of actions or
steps necessary to effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps. The
chart shown in Figure 1.1 well illustrates a research process.
The chart indicates that the research process consists of a number of closely related activities,
as shown through I to VII. But such activities overlap continuously rather than following a strictly
prescribed sequence. At times, the first step determines the nature of the last step to be undertaken.
If subsequent procedures have not been taken into account in the early stages, serious difficulties
may arise which may even prevent the completion of the study. One should remember that the
various steps involved in a research process are not mutually exclusive; nor they are separate and
distinct. They do not necessarily follow each other in any specific order and the researcher has to be
constantly anticipating at each step in the research process the requirements of the subsequent
steps. However, the following order concerning various steps provides a useful procedural guideline
regarding the research process: (1) formulating the research problem; (2) extensive literature survey;
(3) developing the hypothesis; (4) preparing the research design; (5) determining sample design;
(6) collecting the data; (7) execution of the project; (8) analysis of data; (9) hypothesis testing;
(10) generalisations and interpretation, and (11) preparation of the report or presentation of the
results,.
.

1. Formulating the research problem: There are two types of research problems, viz., those
which relate to states of nature and those which relate to relationships between variables. At the
very outset the researcher must single out the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the
general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he would like to inquire into. Initially the
problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if any, relating to the problem
be resolved. Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a working
formulation of the problem can be set up. The formulation of a general topic into a specific research
problem, thus, constitutes the first step in a scientific enquiry. Essentially two steps are involved in
formulating the research problem, viz., understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the
same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.
The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or with
those having some expertise in the matter. In an academic institution the researcher can seek the
help from a guide who is usually an experienced man and has several research problems in mind.
Often, the guide puts forth the problem in general terms and it is up to the researcher to narrow it
down and phrase the problem in operational terms. In private business units or in governmental
organisations, the problem is usually earmarked by the administrative agencies with whom the
researcher can discuss as to how the problem originally came about and what considerations are
involved in its possible solutions.
The researcher must at the same time examine all available literature to get himself acquainted
with the selected problem. He may review two types of literature—the conceptual literature concerning
the concepts and theories, and the empirical literature consisting of studies made earlier which are
similar to the one proposed. The basic outcome of this review will be the knowledge as to what data
and other materials are available for operational purposes which will enable the researcher to specify
his own research problem in a meaningful context. After this the researcher rephrases the problem
into analytical or operational terms i.e., to put the problem in as specific terms as possible. This task
of formulating, or defining, a research problem is a step of greatest importance in the entire research
process. The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help discriminating
relevant data from irrelevant ones. Care must, however, be taken to verify the objectivity and validity
of the background facts concerning the problem. Professor W.A. Neiswanger correctly states that
Research Methodology: An Introduction 13
the statement of the objective is of basic importance because it determines the data which are to be
collected, the characteristics of the data which are relevant, relations which are to be explored, the
choice of techniques to be used in these explorations and the form of the final report. If there are
certain pertinent terms, the same should be clearly defined along with the task of formulating the
problem. In fact, formulation of the problem often follows a sequential pattern where a number of
formulations are set up, each formulation more specific than the preceeding one, each one phrased in
more analytical terms, and each more realistic in terms of the available data and resources.
2. Extensive literature survey: Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be
written down. It is compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to write a
synopsis of the topic and submit it to the necessary Committee or the Research Board for approval.
At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the
problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished
bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic journals, conference proceedings, government
reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem. In this process, it should
be remembered that one source will lead to another. The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to
the study in hand should be carefully studied. A good library will be a great help to the researcher at
this stage.
3. Development of working hypotheses: After extensive literature survey, researcher should
state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption
made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. As such the manner in
which research hypotheses are developed is particularly important since they provide the focal point
for research. They also affect the manner in which tests must be conducted in the analysis of data
and indirectly the quality of data which is required for the analysis. In most types of research, the
development of working hypothesis plays an important role. Hypothesis should be very specific and
limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be tested. The role of the hypothesis is to
guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to keep him on the right track. It sharpens
his thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of the problem. It also indicates the
type of data required and the type of methods of data analysis to be used.
How does one go about developing working hypotheses? The answer is by using the following
approach:
(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives in
seeking a solution;
(b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends,
peculiarities and other clues;
(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and
(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited scale
with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the practical
aspects of the problem.
Thus, working hypotheses arise as a result of a-priori thinking about the subject, examination of the
available data and material including related studies and the counsel of experts and interested parties.
Working hypotheses are more useful when stated in precise and clearly defined terms. It may as well
be remembered that occasionally we may encounter a problem where we do not need working
14 Research Methodology
hypotheses, specially in the case of exploratory or formulative researches which do not aim at testing
the hypothesis. But as a general rule, specification of working hypotheses in another basic step of the
research process in most research problems.
4. Preparing the research design: The research problem having been formulated in clear cut
terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the
conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. The preparation of such a design
facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In other words, the
function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal
expenditure
of effort, time and money. But how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the research
purpose. Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz., (i) Exploration, (ii) Description,
(iii) Diagnosis, and (iv) Experimentation. A flexible research design which provides opportunity for
considering many different aspects of a problem is considered appropriate if the purpose of the
research study is that of exploration. But when the purpose happens to be an accurate description of
a situation or of an association between variables, the suitable design will be one that minimises bias
and maximises the reliability of the data collected and analysed.
There are several research designs, such as, experimental and non-experimental hypothesis
testing. Experimental designs can be either informal designs (such as before-and-after without control,
after-only with control, before-and-after with control) or formal designs (such as completely randomized
design, randomized block design, Latin square design, simple and complex factorial designs), out of
which the researcher must select one for his own project.
The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves
usually the consideration of the following:
(i) the means of obtaining the information;
(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
(iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organised
and the reasoning leading to the selection;
(iv) the time available for research; and
(v) the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.
5. Determining sample design: All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute
a ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as
a census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the items are covered no
element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But in practice this may not be true. Even
the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger as the number of observations
increases. Moreover, there is no way of checking the element of bias or its extent except through a
resurvey or use of sample checks. Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money
and energy. Not only this, census inquiry is not possible in practice under many circumstances. For
instance, blood testing is done only on sample basis. Hence, quite often we select only a few items
from the universe for our study purposes. The items so selected constitute what is technically called
a sample.
The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the
sample design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are
actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. Thus, the plan to select 12 of a
city’s 200 drugstores in a certain way constitutes a sample design. Samples can be either probability
samples or non-probability samples. With probability samples each element has a known probability
of being included in the sample but the non-probability samples do not allow the researcher to
determine
this probability. Probability samples are those based on simple random sampling, systematic sampling,
stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling whereas non-probability samples are those based on
convenience sampling, judgement sampling and quota sampling techniques. A brief mention of the
important sample designs is as follows:
(i) Deliberate sampling: Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or non-probability
sampling. This sampling method involves purposive or deliberate selection of particular
units of the universe for constituting a sample which represents the universe. When population
elements are selected for inclusion in the sample based on the ease of access, it can be
called convenience sampling. If a researcher wishes to secure data from, say, gasoline
buyers, he may select a fixed number of petrol stations and may conduct interviews at
these stations. This would be an example of convenience sample of gasoline buyers. At
times such a procedure may give very biased results particularly when the population is not
homogeneous. On the other hand, in judgement sampling the researcher’s judgement is
used for selecting items which he considers as representative of the population. For example,
a judgement sample of college students might be taken to secure reactions to a new method
of teaching. Judgement sampling is used quite frequently in qualitative research where the
desire happens to be to develop hypotheses rather than to generalise to larger populations.
(ii) Simple random sampling: This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or
probability sampling where each and every item in the population has an equal chance of
inclusion in the sample and each one of the possible samples, in case of finite universe, has
the same probability of being selected. For example, if we have to select a sample of 300
items from a universe of 15,000 items, then we can put the names or numbers of all the
15,000 items on slips of paper and conduct a lottery. Using the random number tables is
another method of random sampling. To select the sample, each item is assigned a number
from 1 to 15,000. Then, 300 five digit random numbers are selected from the table. To do
this we select some random starting point and then a systematic pattern is used in proceeding
through the table. We might start in the 4th row, second column and proceed down the
column to the bottom of the table and then move to the top of the next column to the right.
When a number exceeds the limit of the numbers in the frame, in our case over 15,000, it is
simply passed over and the next number selected that does fall within the relevant range.
Since the numbers were placed in the table in a completely random fashion, the resulting
sample is random. This procedure gives each item an equal probability of being selected. In
case of infinite population, the selection of each item in a random sample is controlled by
the same probability and that successive selections are independent of one another.
(iii) Systematic sampling: In some instances the most practical way of sampling is to select
every 15th name on a list, every 10th house on one side of a street and so on. Sampling of
this type is known as systematic sampling. An element of randomness is usually introduced
into this kind of sampling by using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start.
This procedure is useful when sampling frame is available in the form of a list. In such a
design the selection process starts by picking some random point in the list and then every
nth element is selected until the desired number is secured.
(iv) Stratified sampling: If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute
a homogeneous group, then stratified sampling technique is applied so as to obtain a
representative sample. In this technique, the population is stratified into a number of nonoverlapping
subpopulations or strata and sample items are selected from each stratum. If
the items selected from each stratum is based on simple random sampling the entire procedure,
first stratification and then simple random sampling, is known as stratified random sampling.
(v) Quota sampling: In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples from individual
strata is often so expensive that interviewers are simply given quota to be filled from
different strata, the actual selection of items for sample being left to the interviewer’s
judgement. This is called quota sampling. The size of the quota for each stratum is generally
proportionate to the size of that stratum in the population. Quota sampling is thus an important
form of non-probability sampling. Quota samples generally happen to be judgement samples
rather than random samples.
(vi) Cluster sampling and area sampling: Cluster sampling involves grouping the population
and then selecting the groups or the clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in
the sample. Suppose some departmental store wishes to sample its credit card holders. It
has issued its cards to 15,000 customers. The sample size is to be kept say 450. For cluster
sampling this list of 15,000 card holders could be formed into 100 clusters of 150 card
holders each. Three clusters might then be selected for the sample randomly. The sample
size must often be larger than the simple random sample to ensure the same level of
accuracy because is cluster sampling procedural potential for order bias and other sources
of error is usually accentuated. The clustering approach can, however, make the sampling
procedure relatively easier and increase the efficiency of field work, specially in the case
of personal interviews.
Area sampling is quite close to cluster sampling and is often talked about when the total
geographical area of interest happens to be big one. Under area sampling we first divide
the total area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas, generally called geographical
clusters, then a number of these smaller areas are randomly selected, and all units in these
small areas are included in the sample. Area sampling is specially helpful where we do not
have the list of the population concerned. It also makes the field interviewing more efficient
since interviewer can do many interviews at each location.
(vii) Multi-stage sampling: This is a further development of the idea of cluster sampling. This
technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably large geographical area like
an entire country. Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select large primary
sampling units such as states, then districts, then towns and finally certain families within
towns. If the technique of random-sampling is applied at all stages, the sampling procedure
is described as multi-stage random sampling.
(viii) Sequential sampling: This is somewhat a complex sample design where the ultimate size
of the sample is not fixed in advance but is determined according to mathematical decisions
on the basis of information yielded as survey progresses. This design is usually adopted
under acceptance sampling plan in the context of statistical quality control.
In practice, several of the methods of sampling described above may well be used in the same
study in which case it can be called mixed sampling. It may be pointed out here that normally one
should resort to random sampling so that bias can be eliminated and sampling error can be estimated.
But purposive sampling is considered desirable when the universe happens to be small and a known
characteristic of it is to be studied intensively. Also, there are conditions under which sample designs
other than random sampling may be considered better for reasons like convenience and low costs.
The sample design to be used must be decided by the researcher taking into consideration the
nature of the inquiry and other related factors.
6. Collecting the data: In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are
inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are several
ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money costs, time and
other resources at the disposal of the researcher.
Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher
conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of
which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis. But in the case of a survey, data can be
collected by any one or more of the following ways:
(i) By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of investigator’s
own observation, without interviewing the respondents. The information obtained relates to
what is currently happening and is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future
intentions or attitudes of respondents. This method is no doubt an expensive method and
the information provided by this method is also very limited. As such this method is not
suitable in inquiries where large samples are concerned.
(ii) Through personal interview: The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks answers
to a set of pre-conceived questions through personal interviews. This method of collecting
data is usually carried out in a structured way where output depends upon the ability of the
interviewer to a large extent.
(iii) Through telephone interviews: This method of collecting information involves contacting
the respondents on telephone itself. This is not a very widely used method but it plays an
important role in industrial surveys in developed regions, particularly, when the survey has
to be accomplished in a very limited time.
(iv) By mailing of questionnaires: The researcher and the respondents do come in contact
with each other if this method of survey is adopted. Questionnaires are mailed to the
respondents with a request to return after completing the same. It is the most extensively
used method in various economic and business surveys. Before applying this method, usually
a Pilot Study for testing the questionnaire is conduced which reveals the weaknesses, if
any, of the questionnaire. Questionnaire to be used must be prepared very carefully so that
it may prove to be effective in collecting the relevant information.
(v) Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given training.
They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions. These enumerators go to
respondents with these schedules. Data are collected by filling up the schedules by
enumerators on the basis of replies given by respondents. Much depends upon the capability
of enumerators so far as this method is concerned. Some occasional field checks on the
work of the enumerators may ensure sincere work.

The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting the data taking into
consideration the nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, finanical resources,
available time and the desired degree of accuracy. Though he should pay attention to all these
factors but much depends upon the ability and experience of the researcher. In this context Dr A.L.
Bowley very aptly remarks that in collection of statistical data commonsense is the chief requisite
and experience the chief teacher.
7. Execution of the project: Execution of the project is a very important step in the research
process. If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be
adequate and dependable. The researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic
manner and in time. If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured questionnaires, data can
be readily machine-processed. In such a situation, questions as well as the possible answers may be
coded. If the data are to be collected through interviewers, arrangements should be made for proper
selection and training of the interviewers. The training may be given with the help of instruction
manuals which explain clearly the job of the interviewers at each step. Occasional field checks
should be made to ensure that the interviewers are doing their assigned job sincerely and efficiently.
A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep the survey as much
realistic as possible. This, in other words, means that steps should be taken to ensure that the survey
is under statistical control so that the collected information is in accordance with the pre-defined
standard of accuracy. If some of the respondents do not cooperate, some suitable methods should be
designed to tackle this problem. One method of dealing with the non-response problem is to make a
list of the non-respondents and take a small sub-sample of them, and then with the help of experts
vigorous efforts can be made for securing response.
8. Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analysing
them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of
categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing
statistical inferences. The unwieldy data should necessarily be condensed into a few manageable
groups and tables for further analysis. Thus, researcher should classify the raw data intmed into symbols
that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is the
procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. With coding the stage is ready for tabulation.
Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the form of
tables. The mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. A great deal of data, specially in
large inquiries, is tabulated by computers. Computers not only save time but also make it possible to
study large number of variables affecting a problem simultaneously.
Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various percentages,
coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae. In the process of analysis,
relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be
subjected
to tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusion(s).
For instance, if there are two samples of weekly wages, each sample being drawn from factories in
different parts of the same city, giving two different mean values, then our problem may be whether
the two mean values are significantly different or the difference is just a matter of chance. Through
the use of statistical tests we can establish whether such a difference is a real one or is the result of
random fluctuations. If the difference happens to be real, the inference will be that the two samples
Research Methodology: An Introduction 19
come from different universes and if the difference is due to chance, the conclusion would be that
the two samples belong to the same universe. Similarly, the technique of analysis of variance can
help us in analysing whether three or more varieties of seeds grown on certain fields yield significantly
different results or not. In brief, the researcher can analyse the collected data with the help of
various statistical measures.
9. Hypothesis-testing: After analysing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to
test the hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they
happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which should be answered while testing hypotheses.
Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by statisticians for the
purpose. The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of such tests, depending upon
the nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the
hypothesis
or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with, generalisations established on the
basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent researches in times to come.
10. Generalisations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may
be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact,
the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalisations. If the researcher had no
hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known
as interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in
turn may lead to further researches.
11. Preparation of the report or the thesis: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of
what has been done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the
following:
1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text,
and (iii) the end matter.
In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements
and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list
of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.
The main text of the report should have the following parts:
(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and
an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope
of the study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part.
(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings
and recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they
should be summarised.
(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and
broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the
results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up

Criteria of Good Research

Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that they all
meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects scientific research
to satisfy the following criteria:11
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what
has already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are
as objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data
should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to
those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research 12 as under:
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to
be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules. Systematic
characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject
the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying
out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas
deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows
from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the
context of decision making.
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more
aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external
validity to research results.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by
replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

MECHANICS OF WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT

There are very definite and set rules which should be followed in the actual preparation of the
research report or paper. Once the techniques are finally decided, they should be scrupulously adhered
to, and no deviation permitted. The criteria of format should be decided as soon as the materials for
the research paper have been assembled. The following points deserve mention so far as the mechanics
of writing a report are concerned:
1. Size and physical design: The manuscript should be written on unruled paper 8 1 2× 11in
size. If it is to be written by hand, then black or blue-black ink should be used. A margin of at least
one and one-half inches should be allowed at the left hand and of at least half an inch at the right hand
of the paper. There should also be one-inch margins, top and bottom. The paper should be neat and
legible. If the manuscript is to be typed, then all typing should be double-spaced on one side of the
page only except for the insertion of the long quotations.
2. Procedure: Various steps in writing the report should be strictly adhered (All such steps have
already been explained earlier in this chapter).
3. Layout: Keeping in view the objective and nature of the problem, the layout of the report should
be thought of and decided and accordingly adopted (The layout of the research report and various
types of reports have been described in this chapter earlier which should be taken as a guide for
report-writing in case of a particular problem).
4. Treatment of quotations: Quotations should be placed in quotation marks and double spaced,
forming an immediate part of the text. But if a quotation is of a considerable length (more than four
or five type written lines) then it should be single-spaced and indented at least half an inch to the right
of the normal text margin.
5. The footnotes: Regarding footnotes one should keep in view the followings:
(a) The footnotes serve two purposes viz., the identification of materials used in quotations in
the report and the notice of materials not immediately necessary to the body of the research
text but still of supplemental value. In other words, footnotes are meant for cross references,
citation of authorities and sources, acknowledgement and elucidation or explanation of a
point of view. It should always be kept in view that footnote is not an end nor a means of
the display of scholarship. The modern tendency is to make the minimum use of footnotes
for scholarship does not need to be displayed.
(b) Footnotes are placed at the bottom of the page on which the reference or quotation which
they identify or supplement ends. Footnotes are customarily separated from the textual
material by a space of half an inch and a line about one and a half inches long.
(c) Footnotes should be numbered consecutively, usually beginning with 1 in each chapter
separately. The number should be put slightly above the line, say at the end of a quotation.
At the foot of the page, again, the footnote number should be indented and typed a little
above the line. Thus, consecutive numbers must be used to correlate the reference in the
text with its corresponding note at the bottom of the page, except in case of statistical
tables and other numerical material, where symbols such as the asterisk (*) or the like one
may be used to prevent confusion.
(d) Footnotes are always typed in single space though they are divided from one another by
double space.
6. Documentation style: Regarding documentation, the first footnote reference to any given work
should be complete in its documentation, giving all the essential facts about the edition used. Such
documentary footnotes follow a general sequence. The common order may be described as under:
(i) Regarding the single-volume reference
1. Author’s name in normal order (and not beginning with the last name as in a bibliography)
followed by a comma;
2. Title of work, underlined to indicate italics;
3. Place and date of publication;
4. Pagination references (The page number).
(ii) Regarding multivolumed reference
1. Author’s name in the normal order;
2. Title of work, underlined to indicate italics;
3. Place and date of publication;
4. Number of volume;
5. Pagination references (The page number).
(iii) Regarding works arranged alphabetically
For works arranged alphabetically such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, no pagination
reference is usually needed. In such cases the order is illustrated as under:
Example 1
“Salamanca,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, 14th Edition.
Example 2
“Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin,” Dictionary of national biography.
But if there should be a detailed reference to a long encyclopedia article, volume and
pagination reference may be found necessary.
(iv) Regarding periodicals reference
1. Name of the author in normal order;
2. Title of article, in quotation marks;
3. Name of periodical, underlined to indicate italics;
4. Volume number;
5. Date of issuance;
6. Pagination.
(v) Regarding anthologies and collections reference
Quotations from anthologies or collections of literary works must be acknowledged not
only by author, but also by the name of the collector.
(vi) Regarding second-hand quotations reference
In such cases the documentation should be handled as follows:
1. Original author and title;
2. “quoted or cited in,”;
3. Second author and work.

7. Punctuation and abbreviations in footnotes: The first item after the number in the footnote is
the author’s name, given in the normal signature order. This is followed by a comma. After the
comma, the title of the book is given: the article (such as “A”, “An”, “The” etc.) is omitted and only
the first word and proper nouns and adjectives are capitalized. The title is followed by a comma.
Information concerning the edition is given next. This entry is followed by a comma. The place of
publication is then stated; it may be mentioned in an abbreviated form, if the place happens to be a
famous one such as Lond. for London, N.Y. for New York, N.D. for New Delhi and so on. This
entry is followed by a comma. Then the name of the publisher is mentioned and this entry is closed
by a comma. It is followed by the date of publication if the date is given on the title page. If the date
appears in the copyright notice on the reverse side of the title page or elsewhere in the volume, the
comma should be omitted and the date enclosed in square brackets [c 1978], [1978]. The entry is
followed by a comma. Then follow the volume and page references and are separated by a comma
if both are given. A period closes the complete documentary reference. But one should remember
that the documentation regarding acknowledgements from magazine articles and periodical literature
follow a different form as stated earlier while explaining the entries in the bibliography.
Certain English and Latin abbreviations are quite often used in bibliographies and footnotes to
eliminate tedious repetition. The following is a partial list of the most common abbreviations frequently
used in report-writing (the researcher should learn to recognise them as well as he should learn to
use them):
anon., anonymous
ante., before
art., article
aug., augmented
bk., book
bull., bulletin
cf., compare
ch., chapter
col., column
diss., dissertation
ed., editor, edition, edited.
ed. cit., edition cited
e.g., exempli gratia: for example
eng., enlarged
et.al., and others
Interpretation and Report Writing 357
et seq., et sequens: and the following
ex., example
f., ff., and the following
fig(s)., figure(s)
fn., footnote
ibid., ibidem: in the same place (when two or more successive footnotes refer to the
same work, it is not necessary to repeat complete reference for the second
footnote. Ibid. may be used. If different pages are referred to, pagination
must be shown).
id., idem: the same
ill., illus., or
illust(s). illustrated, illustration(s)
Intro., intro., introduction
l, or ll, line(s)
loc. cit., in the place cited; used as op.cit., (when new reference
loco citato: is made to the same pagination as cited in the previous note)
MS., MSS., Manuscript or Manuscripts
N.B., nota bene: note well
n.d., no date
n.p., no place
no pub., no publisher
no(s)., number(s)
o.p., out of print
op. cit: in the work cited (If reference has been made to a work
opera citato and new reference is to be made, ibid., may be used, if intervening
reference has been made to different works, op.cit. must be used. The
name of the author must precede.
p. or pp., page(s)
passim: here and there
post: after
rev., revised
tr., trans., translator, translated, translation
vid or vide: see, refer to
viz., namely
vol. or vol(s)., volume(s)
vs., versus: against
8. Use of statistics, charts and graphs: A judicious use of statistics in research reports is often
considered a virtue for it contributes a great deal towards the clarification and simplification of the
material and research results. One may well remember that a good picture is often worth more than
358 Research Methodology
a thousand words. Statistics are usually presented in the form of tables, charts, bars and line-graphs
and pictograms. Such presentation should be self explanatory and complete in itself. It should be
suitable and appropriate looking to the problem at hand. Finally, statistical presentation should be neat
and attractive.
9. The final draft: Revising and rewriting the rough draft of the report should be done with great
care before writing the final draft. For the purpose, the researcher should put to himself questions
like: Are the sentences written in the report clear? Are they grammatically correct? Do they say
what is meant’? Do the various points incorporated in the report fit together logically? “Having at
least one colleague read the report just before the final revision is extremely helpful. Sentences that
seem crystal-clear to the writer may prove quite confusing to other people; a connection that had
seemed self evident may strike others as a non-sequitur. A friendly critic, by pointing out passages
that seem unclear or illogical, and perhaps suggesting ways of remedying the difficulties, can be an
invaluable aid in achieving the goal of adequate communication.” 6
10. Bibliography: Bibliography should be prepared and appended to the research report as discussed
earlier.
11. Preparation of the index: At the end of the report, an index should invariably be given, the
value of which lies in the fact that it acts as a good guide, to the reader. Index may be prepared both
as subject index and as author index. The former gives the names of the subject-topics or concepts
along with the number of pages on which they have appeared or discussed in the report, whereas the
latter gives the similar information regarding the names of authors. The index should always be
arranged alphabetically. Some people prefer to prepare only one index common for names of authors,
subject-topics, concepts and the like ones.

Guidelines for Constructing

Questionnaire/Schedule
The researcher must pay attention to the following points in constructing an appropriate and effective
questionnaire or a schedule:
1. The researcher must keep in view the problem he is to study for it provides the starting
point for developing the Questionnaire/Schedule. He must be clear about the various aspects
of his research problem to be dealt with in the course of his research project.
2. Appropriate form of questions depends on the nature of information sought, the sampled
respondents and the kind of analysis intended. The researcher must decide whether to use
closed or open-ended question. Questions should be simple and must be constructed with a
view to their forming a logical part of a well thought out tabulation plan. The units of
enumeration should also be defined precisely so that they can ensure accurate and full
information.
3. Rough draft of the Questionnaire/Schedule be prepared, giving due thought to the appropriate
sequence of putting questions. Questionnaires or schedules previously drafted (if available)
may as well be looked into at this stage.
4. Researcher must invariably re-examine, and in case of need may revise the rough draft for
a better one. Technical defects must be minutely scrutinised and removed.
5. Pilot study should be undertaken for pre-testing the questionnaire. The questionnaire may
be edited in the light of the results of the pilot study.
6. Questionnaire must contain simple but straight forward directions for the respondents so
that they may not feel any difficulty in answering the questions.

COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA

We collect primary data during the course of doing experiments in an experimental research but in
case we do research of the descriptive type and perform surveys, whether sample surveys or census
surveys, then we can obtain primary data either through observation or through direct communication
with respondents in one form or another or through personal interviews.* This, in other words, means
* An experiment refers to an investigation in which a factor or variable under test is isolated and its
effect(s) measured.In an experiment the investigator measures the effects of an experiment which he
conducts intentionally. Survey refers tothe method of securing information concerning a phenomena
under study from all or a selected number of respondents ofthe concerned universe. In a survey, the
investigator examines those phenomena which exist in the universe independent of
his action. The difference between an experiment and a survey can be depicted as under:
that there are several methods of collecting primary data, particularly in surveys and descriptive
researches. Important ones are: (i) observation method, (ii) interview method, (iii) through questionnaires,
(iv) through schedules, and (v) other methods which include (a) warranty cards; (b) distributor
audits; (c) pantry audits; (d) consumer panels; (e) using mechanical devices; (f) through projective
techniques; (g) depth interviews, and (h) content analysis. We briefly take up each method separately .

COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA

Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which have already
been collected and analysed by someone else. When the researcher utilises secondary data, then he
has to look into various sources from where he can obtain them. In this case he is certainly not
confronted with the problems that are usually associated with the collection of original data. Secondary
data may either be published data or unpublished data. Usually published data are available in: (a)
various publications of the central, state are local governments; (b) various publications of foreign
governments or of international bodies and their subsidiary organisations; (c) technical and trade
journals; (d) books, magazines and newspapers; (e) reports and publications of various associations
connected with business and industry, banks, stock exchanges, etc.; (f) reports prepared by research
scholars, universities, economists, etc. in different fields; and (g) public records and statistics, historical
documents, and other sources of published information. The sources of unpublished data are many;
they may be found in diaries, letters, unpublished biographies and autobiographies and also may be
available with scholars and research workers, trade associations, labour bureaus and other public/
private individuals and organisations.
Researcher must be very careful in using secondary data. He must make a minute scrutiny
because it is just possible that the secondary data may be unsuitable or may be inadequate in the
context of the problem which the researcher wants to study. In this connection Dr. A.L. Bowley
very aptly observes that it is never safe to take published statistics at their face value without knowing
their meaning and limitations and it is always necessary to criticise arguments that can be based on
them.
By way of caution, the researcher, before using secondary data, must see that they possess
following characteristics:
1. Reliability of data: The reliability can be tested by finding out such things about the said data:
(a) Who collected the data? (b) What were the sources of data? (c) Were they collected by using
proper methods (d) At what time were they collected?(e) Was there any bias of the compiler?
(t) What level of accuracy was desired? Was it achieved ?
2. Suitability of data: The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily be found
suitable in another enquiry. Hence, if the available data are found to be unsuitable, they should not be
used by the researcher. In this context, the researcher must very carefully scrutinise the definition of
various terms and units of collection used at the time of collecting the data from the primary source
originally. Similarly, the object, scope and nature of the original enquiry must also be studied. If the
researcher finds differences in these, the data will remain unsuitable for the present enquiry and
should not be used.
3. Adequacy of data: If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found inadequate for the purpose
of the present enquiry, they will be considered as inadequate and should not be used by the researcher.
The data will also be considered inadequate, if they are related to an area which may be either
narrower or wider than the area of the present enquiry.
From all this we can say that it is very risky to use the already available data. The already
available data should be used by the researcher only when he finds them reliable, suitable and
adequate. But he should not blindly discard the use of such data if they are readily available from
authentic sources and are also suitable and adequate for in that case it will not be economical to
spend time and energy in field surveys for collecting information. At times, there may be wealth of
usable information in the already available data which must be used by an intelligent researcher but
with due precaution.

ELEMENTS/TYPES OF ANALYSIS
As stated earlier, by analysis we mean the computation of certain indices or measures along with
searching for patterns of relationship that exist among the data groups. Analysis, particularly in case
of survey or experimental data, involves estimating the values of unknown parameters of the population
and testing of hypotheses for drawing inferences. Analysis may, therefore, be categorised as descriptive
analysis and inferential analysis (Inferential analysis is often known as statistical analysis). “Descriptive
analysis is largely the study of distributions of one variable. This study provides us with profiles of
companies, work groups, persons and other subjects on any of a multiple of characteristics such as
size. Composition, efficiency, preferences, etc.” 2. this sort of analysis may be in respect of one
variable (described as unidimensional analysis), or in respect of two variables (described as bivariate
analysis) or in respect of more than two variables (described as multivariate analysis). In this context
we work out various measures that show the size and shape of a distribution(s) along with the study
of measuring relationships between two or more variables.
We may as well talk of correlation analysis and causal analysis. Correlation analysis studies
the joint variation of two or more variables for determining the amount of correlation between two or
more variables. Causal analysis is concerned with the study of how one or more variables affect
changes in another variable. It is thus a study of functional relationships existing between two or
more variables. This analysis can be termed as regression analysis. Causal analysis is considered
relatively more important in experimental researches, whereas in most social and business researches
our interest lies in understanding and controlling relationships between variables then with determining
causes per se and as such we consider correlation analysis as relatively more important.
In modern times, with the availability of computer facilities, there has been a rapid development
of multivariate analysis which may be defined as “all statistical methods which simultaneously
analyse more than two variables on a sample of observations” 3. Usually the following analyses* are
involved when we make a reference of multivariate analysis:
(a) Multiple regression analysis: This analysis is adopted when the researcher has one dependent
variable which is presumed to be a function of two or more independent variables. The objective of
this analysis is to make a prediction about the dependent variable based on its covariance with all the
concerned independent variables.
(b) Multiple discriminant analysis: This analysis is appropriate when the researcher has a single
dependent variable that cannot be measured, but can be classified into two or more groups on the
basis of some attribute. The object of this analysis happens to be to predict an entity’s possibility of
belonging to a particular group based on several predictor variables.
(c) Multivariate analysis of variance (or multi-ANOVA): This analysis is an extension of twoway
ANOVA, wherein the ratio of among group variance to within group variance is worked out on
a set of variables.
(d) Canonical analysis: This analysis can be used in case of both measurable and non-measurable
variables for the purpose of simultaneously predicting a set of dependent variables from their joint
covariance with a set of independent variables.

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

Measures of central tendency (or statistical averages) tell us the point about which items have a
tendency to cluster. Such a measure is considered as the most representative figure for the entire
mass of data. Measure of central tendency is also known as statistical average. Mean, median and
mode are the most popular averages. Mean, also known as arithmetic average, is the most common
measure of central tendency and may be defined as the value which we get by dividing the total of
the values of various given items in a series by the total number of items. we can work it out as under:

where X = The symbol we use for mean (pronounced as X bar)

= Symbol for summation
Xi = Value of the ith item X, i = 1, 2, …, n
n = total number of items
In case of a frequency distribution, we can work out mean in this way:

Sometimes, instead of calculating the simple mean, as stated above, we may workout the weighted
mean for a realistic average. The weighted mean can be worked out as follows:
where Xw = Weighted item
wi = weight of ith item X
Xi = value of the ith item X
Mean is the simplest measurement of central tendency and is a widely used measure. Its chief
use consists in summarising the essential features of a series and in enabling data to be compared. It
is amenable to algebraic treatment and is used in further statistical calculations. It is a relatively
stable measure of central tendency. But it suffers from some limitations viz., it is unduly affected by
extreme items; it may not coincide with the actual value of an item in a series, and it may lead to
wrong impressions, particularly when the item values are not given with the average. However,
mean is better than other averages, specially in economic and social studies where direct quantitative
measurements are possible.
Median is the value of the middle item of series when it is arranged in ascending or descending
order of magnitude. It divides the series into two halves; in one half all items are less than median,
whereas in the other half all items have values higher than median. If the values of the items arranged
in the ascending order are: 60, 74, 80, 90, 95, 100, then the value of the 4th item viz., 88 is the value
of median. We can also write thus:
* If we use assumed average A, then mean would be worked out as under:

Median is a positional average and is used only in the context of qualitative phenomena, for
example, in estimating intelligence, etc., which are often encountered in sociological fields. Median is
not useful where items need to be assigned relative importance and weights. It is not frequently used
in sampling statistics.
Mode is the most commonly or frequently occurring value in a series. The mode in a distribution
is that item around which there is maximum concentration. In general, mode is the size of the item
which has the maximum frequency, but at items such an item may not be mode on account of the
effect of the frequencies of the neighbouring items. Like median, mode is a positional average and is
not affected by the values of extreme items. it is, therefore, useful in all situations where we want to
eliminate the effect of extreme variations. Mode is particularly useful in the study of popular sizes.
For example, a manufacturer of shoes is usually interested in finding out the size most in demand so
that he may manufacture a larger quantity of that size. In other words, he wants a modal size to be
determined for median or mean size would not serve his purpose. but there are certain limitations of
mode as well. For example, it is not amenable to algebraic treatment and sometimes remains
indeterminate when we have two or more model values in a series. It is considered unsuitable in
cases where we want to give relative importance to items under consideration.
Geometric mean is also useful under certain conditions. It is defined as the nth root of the
product of the values of n times in a given series. Symbolically, we can put it thus:

where
G.M. = geometric mean,
n = number of items.
Xi = ith value of the variable X
= conventional product notation
For instance, the geometric mean of the numbers, 4, 6, and 9 is worked out as

The most frequently used application of this average is in the determination of average per cent
of change i.e., it is often used in the preparation of index numbers or when we deal in ratios.
Harmonic mean is defined as the reciprocal of the average of reciprocals of the values of items
of a series. Symbolically, we can express it as under:

where
H.M. = Harmonic mean
Rec. = Reciprocal
Xi = ith value of the variable X
n = number of items
For instance, the harmonic mean of the numbers 4, 5, and 10 is worked out as

Harmonic mean is of limited application, particularly in cases where time and rate are involved.
The harmonic mean gives largest weight to the smallest item and smallest weight to the largest item.
As such it is used in cases like time and motion study where time is variable and distance constant.
From what has been stated above, we can say that there are several types of statistical averages.
Researcher has to make a choice for some average. There are no hard and fast rules for the
selection of a particular average in statistical analysis for the selection of an average mostly depends
on the nature, type of objectives of the research study. One particular type of average cannot be
taken as appropriate for all types of studies. The chief characteristics and the limitations of the
various averages must be kept in view; discriminate use of average is very essential for sound
statistical analysis.
M
MEASURES OF DISPERSION
An averages can represent a series only as best as a single figure can, but it certainly cannot reveal
the entire story of any phenomenon under study. Specially it fails to give any idea about the scatter of
the values of items of a variable in the series around the true value of average. In order to measure
this scatter, statistical devices called measures of dispersion are calculated. Important measures of
dispersion are (a) range, (b) mean deviation, and (c) standard deviation.
(a) Range is the simplest possible measure of dispersion and is defined as the difference between
the values of the extreme items of a series. Thus,

The utility of range is that it gives an idea of the variability very quickly, but the drawback is that
range is affected very greatly by fluctuations of sampling. Its value is never stable, being based on
only two values of the variable. As such, range is mostly used as a rough measure of variability and
is not considered as an appropriate measure in serious research studies.
(b) Mean deviation is the average of difference of the values of items from some average of the
series. Such a difference is technically described as deviation. In calculating mean deviation we
ignore the minus sign of deviations while taking their total for obtaining the mean deviation. Mean
deviation is, thus, obtained as under:

where = Symbol for mean deviation (pronounced as delta);

Xi = ith values of the variable X;

n = number of items;

X = Arithmetic average;
M = Median;
Z = Mode.
When mean deviation is divided by the average used in finding out the mean deviation itself, the
resulting quantity is described as the coefficient of mean deviation. Coefficient of mean deviation
is a relative measure of dispersion and is comparable to similar measure of other series. Mean
deviation and its coefficient are used in statistical studies for judging the variability, and thereby
render the study of central tendency of a series more precise by throwing light on the typicalness of
an average. It is a better measure of variability than range as it takes into consideration the values of
all items of a series. Even then it is not a frequently used measure as it is not amenable to algebraic
process.
(c) Standard deviation is most widely used measure of dispersion of a series and is commonly
denoted by the symbol ‘ ’ (pronounced as sigma). Standard deviation is defined as the square-root
of the average of squares of deviations, when such deviations for the values of individual items in a
series are obtained from the arithmetic average. It is worked out as under:

* If we use assumed average, A, in place of X while finding deviations, then standard deviation would be
worked out as under:

where fi means the frequency of the ith item.

When we divide the standard deviation by the arithmetic average of the series, the resulting quantity
is known as coefficient of standard deviation which happens to be a relative measure and is often
used for comparing with similar measure of other series. When this coefficient of standard deviation
is multiplied by 100, the resulting figure is known as coefficient of variation. Sometimes, we work
out the square of standard deviation, known as variance, which is frequently used in the context of
analysis of variation.
The standard deviation (along with several related measures like variance, coefficient of variation,
etc.) is used mostly in research studies and is regarded as a very satisfactory measure of dispersion
in a series. It is amenable to mathematical manipulation because the algebraic signs are not ignored
in its calculation (as we ignore in case of mean deviation). It is less affected by fluctuations of
sampling. These advantages make standard deviation and its coefficient a very popular measure of
the scatteredness of a series. It is popularly used in the context of estimation and testing of hypotheses.