Civil Engineering Department

University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore

Structure Mechanics
Lab Report

Submitted by:

M. Ahmad Shabbir
2017 - CIV - 199
Section: D

Submitted to:
Dr. Rizwan Azam

Submission date:
10-8-2020
 CONTENTS

`
Experiment No 3
Analyze the elastic stress strain behavior in bending using electrical
resistance strain gauges. ..................................................................................... 3
Experiment No 4
Determination of principal strain and stress using strain Rosette technique.
............................................................................................................................. 12
Experiment No 5
Determination of Shear Centre of Channel Section. ..................................... 19
Experiment No 6
Study the bending of Z section......................................................................... 28
Experiment No 7
Determination of Elastic critical load of metal columns for different end
conditions. .......................................................................................................... 40
Experiment No 8
Determination of elastic critical load and initial imperfections of pin ended
real column using SOWTHWELL technique. ............................................... 45
 Experiment No 3

Analyze the elastic stress strain behavior in bending using electrical

resistance strain gauges.
3.1 Purpose/Significance
• To learn the use of strain gauge for measuring strains in deflection.
• To record the strains in different components of a bridge during in situ load testing.
• To indirectly determine stress and its variation with time, quantitively. Change in
stress is determined by multiplying the measured strain by the modulus of elasticity.
• To study stress ∼strain behaviour in bending of beam.

3.2 Apparatus
• Model beam
• Strain gauges (taped to beam)
• Strain meter
• 45 Volt D.C battery
• Pressure gauge and hydraulic jack
• Vernier calliper
• Measuring tape
• Connecting wires

3.3 Related theory

3.3.1 Strain
It is represented by Greek letter Ɛ, is used to measure the deformation or extension of body,
that is subjected to a force or set of forces. Strain is defined as the ratio of change in length
over original length,
Change in Length δ
Strain = =L
Original Length

3.3.2 Types of strains

There are four main types of strain
Axial strain
Axial strain measures how a material stretches or compresses as a result of linear force in the
horizontal direction.
Bending strain
When a beam with straight longitudinal axis is loaded by lateral forces, the axis is deformed
into a curve called deflection curve of the beam.
Bending strain measures stretch on one side of the material and contraction on the opposite
side due to linear force applied in horizontal direction.
Shear strain
Shear strain is measured as change in angle between lines that were originally perpendicular.
Shear strain measures the amount of deformation that occurs from a linear force with
components both in the horizontal and the vertical directions.
Torsional strain
Torsion is the twisting of an object due to an applied torque. It is equal to torsion
deformations multiplied by radius of bar.
𝜃
 = 𝐺.𝐿 × 𝑟

Torsional strain measures the circular force components in both the vertical and horizontal
directions.
Normal Strain
Strain along the longitudinal axis of the member is called as normal strain. Normal strain
occurs when elongation of an object is in response to a normal stress. A positive value
corresponds to normal strain while negative values indicated compression.

3.3.3 Measurement of Strain

Practically, it is more convenient to measure strain instead of stress because strain is a
physical quantity while stress is not. Therefore, many techniques of strain measurement are
developed.

3.3.4Types of Strain Gauges

Mechanical Strain Gauges
Mechanical measurement of strain is the oldest and direct method. Because of very small
deformations precise instruments are necessary e.g micrometre, extensometer, dial gauges
and other mechanical accessories are used either directly or as to magnify the deformation.
Advantages
These gauges may be made demountable so that a number of gauge stations may be measured
with one instrument.
Disadvantages
• Only surface strain can be measured and at only accessible points.
• Automatic reading is not possible.
• Only static strain can be measured.
• Result may be unreliable due to wear and tear of the instruments.

Optical Strain Gauges

In this type of gauges measurement and magnification are done optically. A system of
mirrors may be used to produce large displacements on the scale.
Advantages
Suitable for measuring dynamic strains when used with a suitable photographic recording
equipment.
Disadvantages
Only used for research work.

Vibrating Wire Gauges

When wire is stretched between two clamps, the natural frequency will correspondingly
change. This principle is used to measure strain in the vibrating wire gauges. A gauge
containing the wire is clamped to the test specimen and frequency of vibration is measured
then it is compared with standard wire of known frequency.
Advantages
• Stability over long period.
• Easy and rapid.
• If once attached no need to access.
Disadvantages
• Automatic reading is considerably difficult.
• Only static strain can be measured with normal instruments

Pneumatic Gauges
This type of gauges is widely used in precision engineering but does not seem to have much
application in Civil engineering. Pressure drop is directly related to the amount of fluid
passing through an orifice. Any relative movement alters the effective area of the orifice. By
measuring the change in pressure, the amount of this displacement can be determined by
previous calibration.
Advantages
• Stability
• Simplicity with high degree of accuracy.
Disadvantages
Comparatively large sized

Electrical Resistance Strain Gauges

General definition
These are very fine metal wire grids having some paper base and are cemented on the surface
of structural member to measure normal surface strain in any desired direction.
Components
• Filament
• Paper base/carrier (plastic, Bakolite)
• Terminals/leads

Solution
After cementing the electrical resistance strain gauge to the structural component, apply few
coats of water proofing agent (petrosene wax, digel).
Advantages
• Normal strain can be measured in any desired direction
• Remote reading is possible
• We can measure strain where access is not possible
• One person can measure the strain for a number of gauges
• A strain gauge cemented to the structural component can measure the strain for
several years until and unless it is damaged or unbounded.

3.4 PROCEDURE
1. Noted down the cross-sectional dimension of a given model beam and also measured
the total length and effective length of the beam.
2. Switch on the strain meter. Check setting of each factor. Take zero load readings of
strain meter for each gauge.
3. Apply the loads in three equal increments over the range.
4. Unload and check the gauge zeros. If large drifts are detected repeat the experiment
for the gauges concerned

3.5 Observations and Calculations

Total Length of the beam = L = 1500mm
Effective length of the beam = Le = 1000mm
Moment of inertia = Ix = 1260000mm4
 Table 3.1: Experimental determination of strain

Strain Gage Strain Gage Strain Gage Strain Gage Strain Gage Strain Gage Strain Gage
load station no. 1 station no. 2 station no. 3 station no. 4 station no. 5 station no. 6 station no. 7
'P' µ µ µ µ µ µ µ
(kg) SGR Strain SGR Strain SGR Strain SGR Strain SGR Strain SGR Strain SGR Strain
0 15280 0 14665 0 11215 0 15060 0 14795 0 14920 0 15990 0
50 15170 -110 14610 -55 11185 -30 15050 -10 14860 65 15005 85 16110 120
100 15025 -225 14515 -150 11155 -60 15070 10 14920 125 15110 190 16265 275
150 14880 -400 14420 -243 11125 -90 15075 15 14980 185 15220 300 16405 415
0 15290 10 14675 10 11230 15 15075 15 14815 20 14940 200 15970 -20

Table 3.2: Theoretical determination of strain

strain Gauge strain Gauge strain Gauge strain Gauge strain Gauge strain Gauge strain Gauge
load 'P' M station No. 1 station No. 2 station No. 3 station No. 4 station No. 5 station No. 6 station No. 7
Y=-48.42mm Y=-30mm Y=-15mm Y=0mm Y=15mm Y=30mm Y=48.42mm

M M MP
kg N N-mm Mpa µƐ Mpa µƐ Mpa µƐ µƐ µƐ µƐ MPa µƐ
pa pa a
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5.8 11.6
50 490.5 490500 -18.9 -94.2 -11.68 -58.4 -5.839 -29 0 0 29.2 58.4 18.85 94.246
39 79
11. 23.3
100 981 981000 -37.7 -188 -23.36 -117 -11.68 -58 0 0 58.4 117 37.70 188.49
68 57
17. 35.0
150 1472 1471500 -56.6 -283 -35.04 -175 -17.52 -88 0 0 87.6 175 56.55 282.74
52 36

Table 3.3: Comparison of experimental and theoretical strain values

load Kg 0 50 100 150 remarks
N 0 490.5 981 1471.5
Strain µɛexp
0 -110 -225 -400
Gauge
Station No. µɛth Extreme
1 0 -94 -188 -283
top fibre
Y=48.42mm %age Diff.
14 16 29
Strain µɛexp
0 -55 -150 -243
Gauge
Station No. µɛth
2 0 -58 -117 -175
Y=-30mm %age Diff.
-6.16 22.1 27.9
Strain µɛexp
0 -30 -60 -90
Gauge
 Station No. µɛth
3 0 -29 -58 -88
Y=-15mm %age Diff.
0 2.7 2.7 2.7
µɛexp
Strain 0 -10 10 15
Gauge
µɛth
Station No. 0 0 0 0 N.A
4
Y=0mm %age Diff.
0 100 100 100
Strain µɛexp
0 65 125 185
Gauge
Station No. µɛth
5 0 29.196 58.39 87.589
Y=15mm %age Diff.
0 55 53.3 52.7
Strain µɛexp
0 85 190 300
Gauge
Station No. µɛth
6 0 58.39 116.79 175.18
Y=30mm %age Diff.
0 31.3 38.5 41.6
Strain µɛexp 0 120 275 415
Gauge
Extreme
Station No. µɛth 0 94.25 188.49 282.74
7 bottom
Y=48.42mm %age Diff. fibre
0 21.5 31.5 31.9

Table No 3.4: Data Compiling for graphs

Y 50kg 100kg 150kg
µɛexp µɛth µɛexp µɛth µɛexp µɛth
-48.4 -110 -94.25 -225 -188.49 -400 -283
-30 -55 -58.39 -150 -116.79 -243 -175
-15 -30 -29.2 -60 -58.39 -90 -88
0 -10 0 10 0 15 0
15 65 29.2 125 58.39 185 87.6
30 85 58.39 190 116.79 300 175
48.4 120 94.25 275 188.49 415 283
 50kg y vs strain
150

100

50

Eexp
µɛ

0
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 Eth
-50

-100

-150
Y

Figure 3.1: Graph between µƐ and Y for 50kg load

100kg Y vs strain
400

300

200

100
µɛ

Exp
0
Eth
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
-100

-200

-300
Y

Figure 3.2: Graph between µƐ and Y for 100kg load

 150kg Y vs strain
400
300
200
100
µɛ

0
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 Exp
-100
Eth
-200
-300
-400
-500
Y

Figure 3.3: Graph between µƐ and Y for 150kg load

µɛ ∼ Y
160

140 1 Th
1 Exp
120 2 Th
2 Exp
100
3 Th
3 Exp
80
Y

4 Th
4 Exp
60
5 Th

40 5 Exp
6 Th

20 6 Exp
7 Th
0 7 Exp
-500 -400 -300 -200 -100 µɛ0 100 200 300 400 500

Figure 3.4: Graph between strain vs Load curves both for experimental and theoratical strains
3.6 Comments
• This experiment helps us to compare the theoretical and experimental values of strains
at different points along the cross section.
• Load ∼ Strain graphs are providing the visual strain diagram along the depth. One
side of neutral axis is in tension while the other side is in compression.
• Strain diagram is linear along the depth at all points.
• Strain showing direct relation with load. More is the load, greater is the strain.
• More is the applied load, greater is the percentage difference between actual and
theoretical values.

3.7: Precautions
• strain rosette should be installed by keeping the relative angles same as planned.
• Effective length should be marked accurately, otherwise result would be different.
• The applied pressure should be gradual after regular intervals.
 Experiment no 4

Determination of principal strain and stress using strain Rosette

technique.
4.1 Objective
• To determine the principal stress and strain using strain Rosette technique.

4.2 Apparatus
• Model beam
• Strain rosette 3 Nos.
• 45-volt D.C battery
• Pressure cell (hydraulic jack and bourdon gauge)
• Vernier calliper
• Measuring tape
• Connecting wires

4.3 Related theory

Uniaxial stress / strain system:
The forces are acting in such a way that deformation is only in one direction and stress
produced due to these strains are also in one direction. This is called as “uni-axial stress
/ strain system”.
Bi-Axial Stress / Strain System (2-D):
When forces are applied in such a way that they produce deformations in two directions
such as tension, compression along with shear, in this system the strain is produced in
two directions rather than one dimension.
Difference between Principal Planes and Principal Axes:
Principal planes are two dimensional surfaces where normal stresses achieve their
extreme values and shear stresses are zero.
Txy = 0 , σ1,2 = σmax, min

Where principal axes are the imaginary lines where 2nd moment of area achieves its
extreme value and product moment of inertia is zero.
(Ixx)max, min , (Iyy)min, max , (Ixy) = 0

Principal Stress (σ1, σ2):

When the normal stresses achieve their extreme values as σmax, min are known as “principal
stresses”
OR
“These are extreme values of normal stresses which are possible at any point in a material.”
When normal stress are acting on major principal planes then these are called as “major
principal stress” (σ1 or σmax.) When normal stresses are acting on minor principal planes, then
these are called as “minor principal stresses” (σ2, σmin)
Mathematically,
σ1,2 = σmax, σmin
(σx + σy) σx−σy 2
σ1,2 = ± √( ) + τ𝑥𝑦 2
2 2

Principal Strains: (Є1,2 ,Єmax, Min ):

The extreme values of normal strain at any point in a material are known as “principal
strains” and these are major and minor principal strains.
Mathematically,
( Є𝑚𝑎𝑥 +Є𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) Є𝑚𝑎𝑥 −Є𝑚𝑖𝑛 2 γ𝑥𝑦 2
Є1,2 = ± √( ) +( )
2 2 2

Strain Rosette:
It is the set of at least three strain gauges in three different directions cemented on the
complete state of stresses and strains.
Єo = (Єx + Єy)/2 + (Єx – Єy)/2 cos2Ө + γxy/2 sin2Ө

Єa = (Єx + Єy)/2 + (Єx – Єy)/2 cos2Өa + γxy/2 sin2Өa

Єb = (Єx + Єy)/2 + (Єx – Єy)/2 cos2Өb + γxy/2 sin2Өb

Єc = (Єx + Єy)/2 + (Єx – Єy)/2 cos2Өc + γxy/2 sin2Өc

By solving simultaneously these equations, we get the values of Єx, Єy and γxy

Types:
Normally, four types are available in the market, which are as under:-
• 45° strain rosette:
• 60° strain rosette
• 120° strain rosette:
• Four Elements Strain Rosette
45° Strain Rosette:
A strain rosette having included angle of 45° between consecutive strain gauges is known as
“45° strain rosette”
Өa = 0° , Өb = 45° , Өc = 90°
Putting these values in equations 1, 2 and 3, we get:
Єx = Єa , Єy = Єc , γxy = Єa + Єc - 2Єb
Є1,2 = (Єa + Єc)/2 ± [(Єa – Єc)2/2 + (Єb – Єc)2/2]
tan2Өp = (Єa + Єc - 2Єb)/( Єa – Єc)
By using Mohr’s circle
Radius (R) = [(CE)2 +(AE)2]
CE = (Єa – Єc)/2
AE = (Єa + Єc)/2 – Єb
Center (C) = ((Єa + Єc)/2 , 0 )
60o strain Rosette:
A strain rosette having included angle of 60o between consecutive strain gauges is known as
“60o strain rosette”.
Өa = 0o, Өb = 60° , Өc = 120°
Putting these values in equation 1, 2 and 3, we get:
Єx = Єa
Єy = 1/3 (2Єb + 2Єc – Єa)
½ γxy = 1/[3] (Єc –Єb)
Є1,2 = (Єa + Єb + Єc)/3 ± 2/3 [Єa (Єa – Єb) + Єb (Єb – Єc)]
tan2Өp = [3] (Єb – Єc) / (2Єa – Єb – Єc)
120° Strain Rosette:
A strain rosette having included angle of 120° between consecutive strain gauges is known as
“120° strain rosette”
Өa = 0° , Өb = 120° , Өc = 240°
Putting these values in equation 1, 2 and 3, we get:
Єx = Єa
Єy = 2/3 (Єb + Єc – Є a/2)
γxy = 1.35 (Єc – Єb)
Fourth Element Strain Rosette:
Advantage:
• We can have a counter check of computed values of coordinate strain
(precision).
• We can compute the avg value of coordinate strains by using the relation;
(Єx)avg = Σ (Єi/N)
4.4 PROCEDURE
1. Measure the beam span “a” and location of each strain rosette.
2. Switch on the stain meter. Check battery voltage and setting of each factor. Set the
static mode for strain measurements.
3. Take zero load readings of strain meter for each gauge.
 4. Apply load in two equal increments over the range and take strain meter readings for
each strain gauge for each load.
5. Unload and check the gauge zeros. If large drifts are detected repeat the experiment
for the gauges concerned.

4.5 Observations and calculations

Total length of beam=L= 1500mm
Effective length of beam=Le= 808mm
Location of rosette =30mm
Moment of inertia= Ix = 3020000mm4

Table 4.1: Experimental determination of complete state of strain

Strain Rosette-1
load θp θs
strain gauge "a" strain gauge "b" strain gauge "c" µƐx µƐy µƔxy µƐ1 µƐ2 µƔmax
P (kg) (degree) (degree)
SGR µ strain SGR µ strain SGR µ strain
0 13863 0 14695 0 15570 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
300 13900 37.5 14605 -90 15482.5 -87.5 37.5 -88 130 65.173 -115.17 23.0617 180.35 -21.9384
589 13933 70 14513 -183 15392.5 -177.5 70 -178 257.5 124.83 -232.33 23.0672 357.16 -21.9328

Table 4.2: Theoretical determination of complete state of strain

Mx
load σ1 σ2 θp
load P kg (Nmm) σx Ƭxy σy µƐx µƐy µƔxy µƐ1 µƐ2 µƔmax
P (N) (Mpa) (Mpa) (degree)
106

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
300 2943 2.376 23.603 11.929 0 165.911 -4.979 22.7 118 -41.3 155.08 149.521 -72.813 222.33
589 5778 4.668 46.371 23.421 0 594.922 -9.771 22.6 232 -81.1 304.48 293.685 -142.98 436.67

Table 4.3: Comparison between theoretical and experimental strains

Load µƐ1 µƐ2 θp (degree) µƔmax

P(N) Exp. Th. %diff Exp. Th. %diff Exp. Th. %diff Exp. Th. %diff
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2943 65.2 149.5 56.388 -115.2 -72.8 -36.8 23.06 22.65 -1.81 180.3 222.3 18.893
5778.1 124.8 293.7 57.508 -232.3 -143 -38.4 23.06 22.65 -1.81 357.2 436.7 18.205
 load vs Maximum principal strain
7000

6000

5000
Load (KN)

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Maximum principal strain (µɛ1)

Fig 4.1: Graph between Load Vs Maximum principal strain

load vs Minimum principal strain

7000

6000

5000
Load (KN)

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
-250 -200 -150 -100 -50 0
Min. principal strain (µɛ2)

Fig 4.2: Graph between Load Vs Minimum principal strain

 load vs Maximum shear strian (µƔmax)
7000

6000

5000
Load (KN)

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Min. principal strain (µɛ)

Fig 4.3: Graph between Load Vs Maximum shear strain

load vs principal angle

7000

6000

5000

4000
Load (KN)

3000

2000

1000

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Principal angle (θp)

Fig 4.4: Graph between Load Vs principal angle (θp)

4.5Comments
• The reason of more percentage difference between the values might be the poor
performance of experiment or due to instrumental error.
• In this experiment, the arrangement of strain rosette is 0°, 45° and 90°.
• This experiment is very helpful in determining maximum and minimum stresses and
strains possible in structural element.

4.6: Precautions
• Setting of strain rosette must not be disturbed during the experiment.
• Location of strain rosette also needs to be measured with significant accuracy
otherwise result would be different.
• Strain rosette angles should be very definite on the surface of the element.
 Experiment no 5

Determination of Shear Centre of Channel Section.

5.1 Objective
• To determine the shear centre of channel section.
• To compare both theoretical and experimental values of location of shear centre.

5.2 Apparatus

• Cantilever beam of a channel section

• Vernier Callipers
• Deflection Gauge
• Steel tape
• Loading pan
• Weights
5.3 RELATED THEORY
Horizontal Shear Stress:
It is the internal resistance offered by the section to resist the sliding of two portions against
each other in the horizontal direction.
 = VQ / Ib
 = shear stress
I = moment of inertia
Q = Ist moment of area about N.A.
Shear stress is maximum at N.A. and zero at extreme fibres.
Expression for maximum shear stress (max):
 = VQ/Ib
ℎ ℎ
𝑉×(𝑏× )( )
2 4
= 𝑏ℎ3
×𝑏
12

3𝑉
= 2𝑏ℎ

𝟑𝑽
max = 𝟐𝑨

Fig 5.1: Location of maximum shear stress

Distribution of shear stresses
• The direction of loading conditions also change the stress distribution profile
across a section.
 • At the junction of I and T section, stresses at web is double in magnitude
corresponding to maximum stress at junction of flange.

Fig 5.2: Distribution of shear stress

Shear Flow:
If a stress is multiplied by the width b of the section, a quantity q known as shear flow is
obtained.
It is the longitudinal shear force per unit length and is represented as q .
xAL
q= (hence, AL= Lxb)
L
xL×b
q= L
𝑉𝑄
q= ×𝑏
𝐼𝑏
𝑉𝑄
q= 𝐼

Direction of Shear Flow:

It is always opposite to the applied shear force. Its direction should be such that to facilitate
the flow.

Fig 5.3: direction of shear flow

Shear Centre:
It is the point in or around a section where if load is applied there will be bending without
twisting.
b 2 h2 t
eth = 4I

Rules to locate shear centre:

1. It lies on the axis of symmetry.
2. If two axis of symmetry exist, then it will lie on the intersection of axis of symmetry.
3. If centrelines of all the elements intersect at a single point and that point will be the
shear centre for the section.

Fig 5.4: location of shear centre

5.4 Procedure
1. Measured the dimensions (length, depth, thickness of flanges and web) of the
cantilever channel section using steel tape and Vernier Calliper.
2. Then calculated the area, centroid and Iz.
3. Set the position of channel section at zero point and read the DGR form the two
deflection gauges attached to the channel section.
4. Applied 20N and 40N load respectively and take DGR from deflection gauges.
5. Unloaded the section and took DGR against 20N and 40N load.
6. Repeat the same procedure for other positions of channel section and draw the table of
calculations to determine  and ∆avg
5.5 Observations and calculations
Table 5.1: Observed data
Observation
Description
(mm)
L 995.0
b1 25.0
b2 25.1
tf1 3.1
tf2 3.2
tw 3.1
d 50.4

Theoretical determination of shear centre

𝐴1 𝑥1 +𝐴2 𝑥2 +𝐴3 𝑥3
X’ = 𝐴1 +𝐴2 +𝐴3

(25×3.1)(12.5)+(3.1×44.1)(1.55)+(25.1×3.2)(12.55)
= (25×3.1)+(44.1×3.1)+(25.1×3.2)

= 7.43mm

𝐴1 𝑦1 +𝐴2 𝑦2 +𝐴3 𝑦3
Y’ = 𝐴1 +𝐴2 +𝐴3

(25×3.1)(1.55)+(3.1×44.1)(25.15)+(25.1×3.2)(48.8)
= (25×3.1)+(44.1×3.1)+(25.1×3.2)

= 25.39mm

(25)(3.1)3 (3.1)(44.1)3 (25.1)(3.2)3

Ixx = ( + (25 × 3.1)(23.84)2 )+ ( + (3.1 × 44.1)(0.24)2 )+ ( +
12 12 12
2
(25.1 × 3.2)(23.41) )

= 110359.12mm4
 For 20N
𝑉𝑄
q= 𝐼
= 1.812×10-4 Q

qa = 0 N/mm
qB = 1.812×10-4 Q = (1.812×10-4)(23.45×3.1)(23.84) = 0.314N/mm
qc = 0.314+(1.812×10-4)(23.84×3.1)(11.92) = 0.474N/mm
from other side
qE = 0 N/mm
qD = 1.812×10-4 Q = (1.812×10-4)(23.55×3.2)(23.41) = 0.3197N/mm
qc = 0.3197+(1.812×10-4)(23.41×3.1)(11.705) = 0.474N/mm
1
H1= 2 (0.314)(23.45) = 3.682𝑁
1
H2= 2 (0.3197)(23.55) = 3.764𝑁
2 2
V1= ( (0.16) + 0.314) × 23.84 + ( (0.16) + 0.3197) 23.41
3 3

= 20N
ƩFx =0 H1-H2=0
ƩFy =0 V1=P
ƩME =0
P×e-H1(23.84)-H2(23.41)=0
20×e-(3.682)(23.84)-(3.764)(23.41)=0

e = 8.7947mm

Fig 5.5: Direction, distribution of shear flow and force diagram for (20N)
 For 40N
𝑉𝑄
q= = 3.625×10-4 Q
𝐼

qa = 0 N/mm
qB = 3.625×10-4 Q = (3.625×10-4)(23.45×3.1)(23.84) = 0.6282N/mm
qc = 0.6282+(3.625×10-4)(23.84×3.1)(11.92) = 0.9475N/mm
from other side
qE = 0 N/mm
q D = 3.625×10-4 Q = (3.625×10-4)(23.55×3.2)(23.41) = 0.6395N/mm
q c = 0.6395+(3.625×10-4)(23.41×3.1)(11.705) = 0.9474N/mm
1
H1=2 (0.6282)(23.45) = 7.3656𝑁
1
H2= (0.6395)(23.55) = 7.53𝑁
2
2 2
V1=(3 (0.3193) + 0.6282) × 23.84 + (3 (0.308) + 0.6395) × 23.41

= 39.83𝑁
ƩME =0
P×e+H1(23.84)+H2(23.41)=0
20×e-(7.3656)(23.84)-(7.53)(23.41)=0

e = 8.7968mm

Fig 5.6: Direction, distribution of shear flow & force diagram for (40N)
 Experimental determination of shear centre:
Table 5.2: Determination of θ & Δ
DGR DGR
θ Δ
setting load loading unloading avg Δ1 loading unloading avg Δ2
z N N N N mm N N N mm degree mm
0 238 238 238 0 374 370 372 0 0 0
0 20 226 226 226 0.3 351 350 350.5 0.55 0.1 0.2
40 215 215 215 0.58 330 330 330 1.07 0.198 0.389
0 238 239 238.5 0 372 373 372.5 0 0 0
5 20 230 231 230.5 0.2 344 341 342.5 0.76 0.226 0.213
40 223 223 223 0.19 314 314 314 1.49 0.526 0.358
0 238 240 239 0 374 371 372.5 0 0 0
10 20 234 235 234.5 0.11 338 336 337 0.9 0.319 0.2145
40 229 229 229 0.25 302 302 302 1.79 0.623 0.4365
0 237 238 237.5 0 375 372 373.5 0 0 0
-5 20 222 223 222.5 0.38 359 359 359 0.37 -0.004 0.188
40 208 208 208 0.75 344 344 344 0.7493 -0.003 0.3735
0 237 236 236.5 0 375 377 376 0 0 0
-10 20 218 218 218 0.47 365 365 365 0.28 -0.077 0.1965
40 200 200 200 0.93 354 354 354 0.56 -0.15 0.39

20N
0.35
0.3 y = 0.0204x + 0.1128

0.25
0.2
 (degree)

0.15
0.1
0.05
0
-15 -10 -5 -0.05 0 5 10 15

-0.1
-0.15
z (mm)

Fig 5.7: graph between x Vs θ for 20N

X = 5.53mm
Xexp = 5.53+1.55
= 7.08mm
 40N
0.7
0.6 y = 0.0414x + 0.2393

0.5
0.4
0.3
 (degree)

0.2
0.1
0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
z (mm)

Fig 5.8: graph between x Vs θ for 40N

X = 5.78
Xexp = 5.78+1.55
=7.33mm

5.6 Comments
• The difference between the theoretical and experimental value of shear centre
showing that, proper care was not taken while performing the experiment.
• After the performance of this experiment, we can determine the position on cross
section at which if we applied load, bending will be one directional.

5.7: precautions
• Strain gauge values should be noted with loading as well as unloading.
• The beam must be rotated at an equal angle to principal axis of the given C section.
• The load should be moved from one adjacent slot to the other one without skipping
any of them.
 Experiment no 6

Study the bending of Z section

6.1: Objective
• To understand the symmetrical and unsymmetrical bending in Z section.
• To confirm that loading about principle always produce symmetrical bending.

6.2: Apparatus
• Cantilever beam (Z-section) with a rotating arrangement
• Dial gauges (two in no. having L.C=.001”)
• Loading pan and weights
• Vernier Calipers
• Steel tape

6.3: Related theory

Bending theory relationship
σ M E
= =
y I R
M is bending moment (generally in N-mm)
I is second moment of area (mm4)

 is bending stress or flexural stress (N/mm4)

y is a distance from N.A to a point where bending stress is to be calculated w.r.t Principal axis (mm)
E is the modulus of elasticity (in N/mm2)
R is radius of curvature (in mm)

Axis of Symmetry
If an axis divides a section in two parts in such a manner that the parts are the mirror images
of each other such an axis is called axis of symmetry.

Symmetrical Section
A section such that it has at least one axis of symmetry is called asymmetrical section. e.g,
• W section: two axes of symmetry
• T section: one axis of symmetry
• Channel section: one axis of symmetry

Unsymmetrical Section
Such sections which do not have any axis of symmetry is called unsymmetrical section. e.g.
• Z section
• L section

Principle Axis
Principle axes are the set of rectangular axis such that the moments of inertia are maxima or
minima but the product moment of inertia is zero at the same
axes.
Axes of symmetry are always principle axes, but converse is not necessarily true

Orientation of principal axis

In case of symmetrical sections, the axis of symmetry are the principle axes but in case of
unsymmetrical sections it is determined by the following relationship.
2 Iyz
Tan2 = I −I
y z

 is measured in positive clockwise direction.

Symmetrical Bending
When loading and deflection are parallel or along the principle axes, the bending is sail to be
symmetrical axes.
Unsymmetrical Bending
When deflection occurs in more than one plane the bending is termed as unsymmetrical
bending.
Unsymmetrical bending may occur in symmetrical and unsymmetrical sections.
If load is passing through shear centre and acting on a principle axis or parallel to it, it will
not cause any torsion or twist but if it is not passing through shear centre, although acting on
principle axis or parallel to it, it will cause torsion and twist in the member.
If member is set so that loading applied on it will cause only uniaxial bending then the
section is economical, have aesthetics and encountering the less stresses.

Assumptions of Flexural Formula

• The plane section of the beam remains plane.
• The material in the beam is homogeneous and obeys Hook’s law.
• The moduli of elasticity for tension and compression are equal. The beam is initially
straight and of constant cross section.
• The plane of loading must contain a principle axis of the beam cross section
• loads must be perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam

Therefore, it can be concluded that flexural formula may be applied only when the
bending loads act in a longitudinal plane parallel to or containing one of the
principle axis of the section. These are the principle planes of bending. Deflections
are in one direction only.

6.4: Procedure

1. Measure the dimensions (length, depth, thickness of flanges and web) of the
cantilever Z section using steel tape and Vernier Callipers.
2. Calculate the area, centroid and M.O.I. about horizontal and vertical axes i.e.
Izz , Iyy.
3. Determine the inclination of principle axes. i.e. α and determine the
M.O.I. about principle axes i.e. Iz1z1 and Iy1y1
4. Take the horizontal and vertical DGR from the deflection gauges attached to
the section at 0 load
5. Apply 20N, 40N and 60N loads respectively and note down DGR from
horizontal and vertical deflection gauges.
6. Unload the section and take DGR against 40N, 20N & 0 and take the mean
value of DGR for loading and unloading conditions.
7. For setting-2 set the angle α to make the loading plane along the principal
plane to make sure unidirectional bending
8. Repeat the same procedure for setting-2 as that of setting –1
6.5: Observations and calculations
Table 6.1: observed data
Observation
Description
(mm)
L 1060
b1 25.3
b2 25.87
tf1 1.7
tf2 2.2
tw 1.84
d 56.05

Table 5.2: Calculation of Izz

Iz A Y AY2 Izz=Iz+AY2
Sr. #
mm4 mm2 mm mm4 mm4
1 22.93 56.91 25.19 36113.99 36136.94
2 21747 96.96 1.99 383.97 22130.98
3 10.36 43.01 28.91 35947.25 35957.6
Izz=94318.58

Table 5.3: Calculation of Iyy

Iy A z Az2 Iyy=Iy+Az2
Sr. # 4
mm mm2 mm mm4 mm4
1 3174.17 56.91 11.11 7024 10198.7
2 27.07 95.96 0.91 79.46 106.54
3 2294.19 43.01 12.64 6871.69 9165.88
Iyy=19471.12

Table 5.3: Calculation of Izy

A z y Izy=Ayz
Sr. # 2
mm mm mm mm4
1 56.91 -11.11 -25.19 15926.88
2 95.96 0.91 1.99 173.77
3 43.01 12.64 28.91 15716.8
Izy=31817.47

Description Observation
θp (-20.18°)
Iz' 106007.9mm4
Iy' 7781.74mm4
Table 5.4: Calculation of Experimental Deflections

Setting Load (N) 0 20 40 60

303 494 577
H.D.G.R 302 495 584.5 680
301 496 592
1
ΔH(mm) 0 4.902 7.176 9.601
107 170 231
V.D.G.R 110 172 235.5 301
113 174 240
ΔV(mm) 0 1.575 3.188 4.851
478 496 508
H.D.G.R 481.5 496 508 518
485 496 508
ΔH(mm) 0 0.368 0.673 0.927
2
401 432 565
V.D.G.R 402.5 434 566 598
404 436 567
ΔV(mm) 0 0.8 4.153 4.966

Table 5.5: Calculation of Theoretical deflections

Load
ΔY1 ΔZ1 ΔV ΔH ΔR θR
Setting P
N mm mm mm mm mm deg
0 0 0 0 0
20 0.352 1.76 0.937 1.53 1.794 31.48
1
40 0.703 3.5199 1.873 3.0613 3.589 31.47
60 1.0545 5.2799 2.811 4.592 5.384 31.47
0 0 0 0 0
20 0.3745 0 0.3515 0.1292 0.3745 69.81
2
40 0.749 0 0.703 0.258 0.749 69.84
60 1.124 0 1.055 0.3876 1.124 69.83

Table 5.6: Comparison between Experimental and theoretical deflections

horizontal deflection Vertical Deflection

setting Load (N)
Th. Def Exp. Def % Diff Th. Def Exp. Def % Diff
0 0 0 0 0
20 1.53 4.902 68.78825 0.937 1.575 40.50794
1
40 3.0613 7.176 57.33974 1.874 3.188 41.21706
60 4.592 9.601 52.17165 2.811 4.851 42.05318
0 0 0 0 0
20 0.1292 0.368 64.8913 0.3515 0.8 56.0625
2
40 0.258 0.673 61.66419 0.703 4.153 83.07248
60 0.3876 0.927 58.1877 1.055 4.966 78.75554
 Setting 1
Vertical Deflections
70

60

50
Load (N)

40

30

20

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Deflection (mm)

Theoratical Experimental

Figure 6.1: Graph between Load Vs Vertical Deflection for Setting 1

Setting 1
Horizontal Deflections
70

60

50
Load (N)

40

30

20

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Deflection (mm)

Theoratical Experimental

Figure 6.2: Graph between Load Vs Horizontal Deflection for Setting 1

 Setting 2
Horizontal Deflections
70

60

50

40
Load (N)

30

20

10

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Deflection (mm)

Theoratical Experimental

Figure 6.3: Graph between Load Vs Horizontal Deflection for Setting 2

Setting 2
Vertical Deflections
70

60

50
Load (N)

40

30

20

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Deflection (mm)

Theoratical Experimental

Figure 6.4: Graph between Load Vs Vertical Deflection for Setting 2

Table 5.7: Determination of coordinates

w.r.t centroidal axis w.r.t principal axis

sr. no point
z y z' y'
1 A 25.29 28.06 14.06 35.06
2 B 25.29 29.76 13.47 36.66
3 C -0.01 29.76 -10.28 27.93
4 D 1.83 28.06 -7.96 26.96
5 E -0.01 -24.04 8.3 -22.61
6 F 1.83 -26.29 10.79 -24.04
7 G -24.04 -24.04 -14.25 -30.9
8 H -24.04 -26.29 -13.49 -32.97
 Table 5.8: Calculation of stresses by principal of superposition

Setting 1 Setting 1
Sr.
Points
No z' (mm) y' (mm) 20N 40N 60N z' (mm) y' (mm) 20N 40N 60N

1 A 14.06 35.06 -6.63 -13.27 -19.9 14.06 35.06 7.01 14.02 21.03
2 B 13.47 36.66 -5.77 -11.56 -17.33 13.47 36.66 7.33 14.66 21.99
3 C -10.28 27.93 14.9 29.81 44.7 -10.28 27.93 5.59 11.17 16.76
4 D -7.96 26.96 12.54 25.09 37.62 -7.96 26.96 5.39 10.77 16.17
5 E 8.3 -22.61 -12.04 -24.09 -36.13 8.3 -22.61 -4.52 -9.04 -13.56
6 F 10.79 -24.04 -14.65 -29.31 -43.95 10.79 -24.04 -4.81 -9.62 -14.42
7 G -14.25 -30.9 7.59 15.19 22.77 -14.25 -30.9 -6.18 -12.36 -18.54
8 H -13.49 -32.97 6.48 12.98 19.47 -13.49 -32.97 -6.59 -13.19 -19.78

Table 5.9: Calculation of Stresses by Radius of Curvature Method

Setting 1 Setting 1
Sr.
Points
No z (mm) y (mm) 20N 40N 60N z' (mm) y' (mm) 20N 40N 60N

1 A 25.29 28.06 -6.67 -13.34 -19.92 25.29 28.06 7 14.01 21.02

2 B 25.29 29.76 -5.82 -11.64 -17.37 25.29 29.76 7.33 14.65 21.98
3 C -0.01 29.76 14.89 29.78 44.74 -0.01 29.76 5.588 11.18 16.76
4 D 1.83 28.06 12.53 25.06 37.67 1.83 28.06 5.395 10.79 16.19
5 E -0.01 -24.04 -12.04 -24.07 -36.17 -0.01 -24.04 -4.52 -9.05 -13.57
6 F 1.83 -26.29 -14.64 -29.29 -43.99 1.83 -26.29 -4.81 -9.62 -14.43
7 G -24.04 -24.04 7.63 15.26 22.82 -24.04 -24.04 -6.18 -12.35 -18.53
8 H -24.04 -26.29 6.53 13.06 19.51 -24.04 -26.29 -6.59 -13.18 -19.77
 Stress profiles for 1st Setting

Fig 6.5 Stress profile for 20N Fig 6.6 Stress profile for 40N

Fig 6.7: Stress profile for 60N

 Stress profiles for 2nd Setting

Fig 6.8 Stress profile for 20N Fig 6.9 Stress profile for 40N

Fig 6.10: Stress profile for 60N

 Setting 1
Orientation of Neutral Axis by Principal of super position
𝑉
 =tan-1(𝐻)
3.546
= tan-1( )
8.9

= 31.47
 = 90 - 
= 90 – 31.47
= 58.53

Orientation of Neutral Axis by Radius of Curvature Method

K
 = -tan-1(Kx )
y

0.0687
= -tan-1(0.1878)

= 20.09

In Setting 2
Loading is acting along principal axis, so both neutral axis and principle axis will be on same
axis.

6.6: Comments
• It has been verified from the experiment that when the loading plane is parallel or
perpendicular to principal axis, bending will be symmetrical.
• This experiment also helps to properly understand how the unsymmetrical bending
occurs when beam bends along two axes.

6.7: Precautions
• Each dimension of the web and flange of the Z section should be measured on at least
three different points and their mean value should be selected.
• The strain gauge initial reading must be properly noted before applying any load
increment.
• During the performance of the experiment, the strain gauge setting should not be
disturbed.
 Experiment no 7

Determination of Elastic critical load of metal columns for different

end conditions.
7.1 Objective
• To compare the elastic critical load values of column for different end conditions.

7.2 Apparatus
• Steel columns with different end conditions
• Vernier Calliper
• Dial Gauge
• Steel tape
• Foot ruler
• Weights

7.3 Related theory

7.3.1 Columns
It is a line element (whose width is negligible as compared to its depth). It is a vertical structural
member subjected to axial compressive loads. It is also known as compression member.
Such structural elements are generally stable when subjected to tensile loading and fail when
the stress in the member exceeds ultimate tensile strength of the material.
During compressive loading, secondary bending effects due to eccentricity of the loading and
imperfections within the material can induce premature failure either in part of cross section or
of the whole element. In such case, failure mode is normally the buckling.

7.3.2 Strut
It is a short column or compression member having its X-dimensions comparable with
unsupported length

7.3.3 Ideal and Real Columns

• An ideal column is assumed to be homogeneous member of constant x-section that is
initially straight and is subjected to axial compressive load which passes through the
centroidal axis of the member.
• The real column is the one that is always having small imperfection of
materials and fabrication and unfavourable accidental eccentricities of loads
which produce bucking effect.
Accidental Eccentricity
It is the eccentricity (displacement of load from centroid of the member) due to the initial
crookedness (out of straightness) and small imperfections in material and fabrication.
Non-Accidental Eccentricity
It is the eccentricity caused when the load is acting away from the centroid of the member.

7.3.4 Classification of Columns

Columns are classified based as
I. L/d or KL/r (slenderness ratio)
II. Based on failure mode
III. Based on eccentricity

Based On L/d Or KL/r (Slenderness Ratio)

a) If L/d < 4 → short columns

If KL/r ≤ 30 → short columns
b) If 4 ≤ L/d ≤ 30 → Intermediate columns
If 30 ≤ KL/r ≤ Cc → Intermediate columns
c) ) If L/d > 30 → Long columns
If KL/r > Cc → Long columns
Cc = Critical slenderness ratio
= (22E/σyp)0.5
= 89 (A-36 steel)

Based on Failure Mode:

a) Crushing → short columns
b) Crushing + Buckling → Intermediate columns
c) Buckling → Long columns

Based on Eccentricity:
a) Concentrically loaded columns:
These are the columns in which the centre line of the load coincides with
the centroidal axis of the member.
b) Eccentrically loaded columns:
These are the columns in which the centre line of the load does not
coincide with the centroidal axis of the member. In reality almost all the
columns are eccentrically loaded

7.3.5 Conditions of Equilibrium

Stable equilibrium
Unstable equilibrium
Neutral equilibrium
a) Stable equilibrium:
If a body subjected to a system of forces owing to small
displacements, if after the removal of forces the body regains its original
position then the body is under the state of stable equilibrium.
 b) Un Stable equilibrium:
If a body subjected to a system of forces owing to small
displacements, if after the removal of forces the body neither regains its
original position nor retains its new position then the body is under the state
of unstable equilibrium.

c) Neutral equilibrium:
If a body subjected to a system of forces owing to small
displacements, if after the removal of forces the body retains its new position
but does not return to its original position then the body is under the state of
neutral equilibrium.

7.3.6 Buckling
Buckling is the sudden lateral bending due to a critical compressive load which is much
lower than yielding load. If is further characterized as:
a) Overall Buckling
Affect the whole length of the member
b) Local buckling
If only a part of structural member affects i.e. flange local buckling or web local
buckling.
c) Lateral torsional buckling
It is a combination of buckling and torsional buckling.

7.3.7 Critical Load

The maximum axial load to which a column can be subjected and it still remains straight,
although in such an unstable condition that slide sides sway will cause it to bow.
 π2 EImin
Pcr = Le 2

Pcr is Euler’s critical buckling load

E is modulus of elasticity of the material
Imin is the minimum moment of inertia of the column’s cross section
Le is the effective length of the column (based on end conditions)
Case 1
P  Pcr
Stable equilibrium and no buckling
Case 2
P = Pcr
Equilibrium state and slight deflection
Case 3
P  Pcr
Unstable state and buckling
End conditions
Depending upon the end conditions of the column, effective length is determined from the
actual length according to the following relation:
End Conditions Le
Fixed Ended 0.5L
One fix one hinge 0.707L
Both ends hinged L
One free one fix 2L
7.4 PROCEDURE
1. Measure the dimensions (length, Width, thickness) of Columns a using steel Ruler
and Vernier calliper.
2. Calculate the area, Moment of inertia and radius of gyration using their respective
formulae.
3. Determine the Euler critical load (Pcr) theoretically by using its formula.
4. Place the column inside the apparatus with different end conditions and put a cap on
the upper side of column.
5. Apply the load on the column through the cap and observe the behaviour of the
column.
6. Note down the load at which the column just starts to buckle which is the
experimental Pcr
7. Compare the experimental Pcr with theoretical Pcr and determine the %age difference.
8. Repeat the same procedure for other columns with different end conditions.
 7.5 Observations and calculations
Table 7.1: calculation of Theoretical and experimental critical load

𝒃𝒕𝟑 𝑰 Pcr Pcr

Sr.
Columns with
End L Le b t Imin =
𝟏𝟐
rmin=√ (Th.) (Exp.)
%Diff.
Diff. End K 𝑨
# Conditions
Conditions

mm mm mm mm mm4 mm N N

Both Ends
1 Fix-Fix 0.5 157 78.5 9.5 0.45 0.072 0.130 23.06 35 51.78
Fixed

One fixed 0.188

2 and one Fix-Hinge 0.707 158 111.7 10.25 0.65 0.235 37.17 30 19.29
Hinged

Both Ends Hinge-

3 1 156.5 156.5 9.5 0.6 0.171 0.173 13.78 12 12.92
Hinged Hinge

One fixed
4 Fix-Free 2 157 314 9.4 0.5 0.098 0.144 1.96 3.5 78.57
and one Free

7.6: Comments
• The column specimen taken should not contain any imperfection.
• This experiment helps us to understand the concept that end conditions affects the
capacity of the member (column).
• The short column dimensions are almost same, but higher critical load is observed for
both end fix end condition.
• The greater percentage error showing that, experiment was not performed well.

7.7: precautions
• Load should be within permissible limits.
• If the greater amount of load is applied at the start, then it will not give accurate
outcome.
 Experiment No 8

Determination of elastic critical load and initial imperfections of pin

ended real column using SOWTHWELL technique.
8.1 Objective
• To determine initial imperfections of a column just by load deformation
observation.
• To determine elastic critical load of a column without loading up to critical
stage.

8.2 Apparatus
• Pin ended column with certain initial imperfection.
• Two hundred-ton Shimadzu universal testing machine (UTM).
• Steel tape.
• Deflection gauge.

8.3 Related theory

Initial imperfections in a column
A structure and its loading can never match the conditions that have been decided in for ideal
columns. Whenever a column is fabricated either in factory or at site, it is accompanied by
initial non-ideal or imperfect characteristics. In case of concrete columns, pouring of concrete
in columns is done in gradual steps which cannot produce perfectly symmetrical columns.
The concrete is a composite material, so uniform distribution of stresses may not be up to the
mark. Moreover, practically it is not possible to fabricate a complete smooth and straight
column. Hence factors like these increase the non-ideal behaviour and cause imperfections.

Slenderness Ratio
It is the ratio of length of column to minimum radius of gyration of a cross-section.
𝐿
Slenderness ratio = 𝑟
𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛
rmin = √ 𝐴
If the column is free to rotate, then buckling will take place in the direction or along the axis
having minimum radius of gyration.

Elastic Critical Load

Initially straight column
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
Pcr = 𝐿𝑒 2
Column with certain initial imperfections
• By using Perry’s Equation
• Using Southwell plot technique

1.Using Perry’s Equation:

σ2 – σ (σy + (η +1) σe) + σy σe

σ = design stress = P/A = Pc/A

P = Applied load
σ e = Euler’s critical stress = Pcr/ A
σy = Yield stress.
η = aoc/ r2
r = radius of gyration about bending axis.
ao = h – t
(Pc/A)2 – (Pc/A) [(σy + (η +1) σe)] + σy σe = 0

2. Using Southwell method:

U’ (Pcr/P -1) = ao
U’ = displacement corresponding to load
Pcr = Critical load
ao = initial imperfection.
P = applied load

Dividing both sides by Pcr.

U’/P = 1/Pcr (U’ + ao)

Advantage of SOWTHWELL method:

Before applying critical load we can measure or calculate critical load value for the column.

Why Papp = 60% of Pcr:

Pcr for initially straight column will be more but for initially imperfect column
it will be less, that is why we take 60% of Pcr (but this value is not fixed)

Papp/ Pcr = 70% – 75%

8.4 PROCEDURE
1. Take the dimensions of the given column.
2. Calculate its geometric properties and find out the maximum critical
load for a perfect column.
3. Find out the load to be applied on the column which normally varies
from 60 to 75 % of the critical load for the perfect column.
4. Apply load on the column using Shimadzu UTM on constant intervals
and note the corresponding deflection gauge reading.
5. Use SOWTHWELL Plot technique to find out the actual critical load
and initial imperfection

8.5 Observations and calculations

Description Symbol Observation
Length of column L 450mm
Width of column b 60.3mm
Thickness of column t 9.85mm
Area of column A 593.96mm2

𝑏𝑡 3 (60.3)(9.85)3
Second moment of Area = Imin = =
12 12

= 4802.25mm4

𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝜋 2 (200000)(4802.25)
Euler’s Critical load = Pe = 2 =
𝐿𝑒 (450)2

= 46811.2N

Maximum experimental load = Pappx = 0.6Pcr =(0.6)(46811.2)

= 28086.7N

Determination of Critical load of initially imperfect column

𝐼 4802.25
rmin = √ 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √ 593.96 = 2.84mm
𝐴

𝜎𝑒
𝑦 = (1 + (𝜎 ))
𝑒 −𝜎

47.287
250 = (1 + 0.707(47.287−𝜎))

 = 40.81MPa
Perry critical load = A = 40.81×593.96 = 24.24KN
Table 8.1: Determination of Ymax and Ymax/ P
Deflection Average 𝒀𝒎𝒂𝒙
load P Cycle 1 Cycle 2 displacement
Sr No Ymax 𝑷
DGR (Ymax)1 DGR (Ymax)2
kg N mm mm mm mm/N
1 0 0 59 0 57 0 0 0
2 500 4905 84 0.25 85 0.28 0.265 0.000054027
3 1000 9810 103 0.44 105 0.48 0.46 0.000046891
4 1500 14715 136 0.77 141 0.84 0.805 0.000054706
5 2000 19620 164 1.05 168 1.11 1.08 0.000055046
6 2500 24525 209 1.5 211 1.54 1.52 0.000061978
7 2700 26487 234 1.75 236 1.79 1.77 0.000066825
8 2850 27958.5 257 1.98 256 1.99 1.985 0.000070998
9 2900 28449 265 2.06 260 2.03 2.045 0.000071883

0.00008
y = 2E-05x + 3E-05
0.00007

0.00006

0.00005
Factor Ym/P

0.00004

0.00003

0.00002

0.00001

0
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
-0.00001
Maximum Deflection Ym (mm)

Fig 8.1: Graph between ymax Vs ymax/P

8.6 Result
Pcr(Perry) Pcr(SWP) ao(exp) a0(SWP)
N N mm mm
24.24 44.64 1.15 1.25
8.7 Comments
• A number of loading cycles should be employed to increase the accuracy of the
experiment because due to initial imperfections, the graph trends are widely varying.
• The percentage difference between the load calculated from Perry’s formula and
southwell technique is higher, indicating that the experiment was not performed well
or there might be some instrumental error.

8.8: precautions
• The specimen’s midpoint should be carefully marked so that the deflection gauge is
fixed properly.
• Experiment should be performed over a number of loading cycles to get straight line
in the graph.
• The beam should not be subjected to critical load.
• Least count of the deflection gauge should be properly noted.