LECTURE NOTES

ON

MECHANISM AND MACHINE DESIGN

B.TECHVSEMESTER

PREPARED BY:
Dr. Y B Sudhir Sastry,

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

(AUTONOMOUS)
DUNDIGAL, HYDERABAD - 500 043

1
 Unit – I
MECHANISMS & MACHINES
Mechanics: It is that branch of scientific analysis which deals with motion, time
andforce.
Kinematics is the study of motion, without considering the forces which produce
thatmotion. Kinematics of machines deals with the study of the relative motion of
machine parts. It involves the study of position, displacement, velocity and acceleration
of machine parts.
Dynamics of machines involves the study of forces acting on the machine parts and
themotions resulting from these forces.
Plane motion: A body has plane motion, if all its points move in planes which areparallel
to some reference plane. A body with plane motion will have only three degrees of
freedom. I.e., linear along two axes parallel to the reference plane and rotational/angular
about the axis perpendicular to the reference plane. (eg. linear along X and Z and
rotational about Y.)The reference plane is called plane of motion. Plane motion can be of
three types. 1) Translation 2) rotation and 3) combination of translation and rotation.
Translation: A body has translation if it moves so that all straight lines in the body
moveto parallel positions. Rectilinear translation is a motion wherein all points of the
body move in straight lie paths. Eg. The slider in slider crank mechanism has rectilinear
translation. (link 4 in fig.1.1)

Fig.1.1
Translation, in which points in a body move along curved paths, is called curvilinear
translation. The tie rod connecting the wheels of a steam locomotive has curvilinear
translation. (link 3 in fig.1.2)

Fig.1.2

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Rotation: In rotation, all points in a body remain at fixed distances from a line which
isperpendicular to the plane of rotation. This line is the axis of rotation and points in the
body describe circular paths about it. (Eg. link 2 in Fig.1.1 and links 2 & 4 in Fig.1.2)
Translation and rotation: It is the combination of both translation and rotation which
isexhibited by many machine parts. (Eg. link 3 in Fig.1.1)
Link or element: It is the name given to any body which has motion relative to
another.All materials have some elasticity. A rigid link is one, whose deformations are so
small that they can be neglected in determining the motion parameters of the link.

Fig.1.3
Binary link: Link which is connected to other links at two points. (Fig.1.3 a)
Ternary link: Link which is connected to other links at three points. (Fig.1.3 b)
Quaternary link: Link which is connected to other links at four points. (Fig1.3 c)
Pairing elements: the geometrical forms by which two members of a mechanism
arejoined together, so that the relative motion between these two is consistent are known
as pairing elements and the pair so formed is called kinematic pair. Each individual link
of a mechanism forms a pairing element.

Fig.1.5
Fig.1.4 Kinematic pair

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Degrees of freedom (DOF): It is the number of independent coordinates required
todescribe the position of a body in space. A free body in space (fig 1.5) can have six
degrees of freedom. I.e., linear positions along x, y and z axes and rotational/angular
positions with respect to x, y and z axes.
In a kinematic pair, depending on the constraints imposed on the motion, the links may
loose some of the six degrees of freedom.
Types of kinematic pairs:
(i) Based on nature of contact between elements:
(a) Lower pair. If the joint by which two members are connected has surface
contact,the pair is known as lower pair. Eg. pin joints, shaft rotating in bush, slider
in slider crank mechanism.

Fig.1.6 Lower pairs

(b) Higher pair. If the contact between the pairing elements takes place at a point
oralong a line, such as in a ball bearing or between two gear teeth in contact, it is
known as a higher pair.

Fig.1.7 Higher pairs

(ii) Based on relative motion between pairing elements:
(a) Siding pair. Sliding pair is constituted by two elements so connected that one
isconstrained to have a sliding motion relative to the other. DOF = 1

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(b) Turning pair (revolute pair). When connections of the two elements are such
thatonly a constrained motion of rotation of one element with respect to the other is
possible, the pair constitutes a turning pair. DOF = 1
(c) Cylindrical pair. If the relative motion between the pairing elements is
thecombination of turning and sliding, then it is called as cylindrical pair. DOF = 2

Fig.1.8 Sliding pair Fig.1.9 Turning pair

Fig.1.10 Cylindrical pair

(d) Rolling pair. When the pairing elements have rolling contact, the pair formed
iscalled rolling pair. Eg. Bearings, Belt and pulley. DOF = 1

Fig.1.11 (a) Ball bearing Fig.1.11(b) Belt and pulley

(e) Spherical pair. A spherical pair will have surface contact and three degrees
offreedom. Eg. Ball and socket joint. DOF = 3
(f) Helical pair or screw pair. When the nature of contact between the elements of
apair is such that one element can turn about the other by screw threads, it is known
as screw pair. Eg. Nut and bolt. DOF = 1

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 Fig.1.13 Screw pair
Fig.1.12 Ball and socket joint

(iii) Based on the nature of mechanical constraint.

(a) Closed pair. Elements of pairs held together mechanically due to their
geometryconstitute a closed pair. They are also called form-closed or self-closed
pair.
(b) Unclosed or force closed pair. Elements of pairs held together by the action
ofexternal forces constitute unclosed or force closed pair .Eg. Cam and follower.

Fig.1.14 Closed pair Fig. 1.15 Force closed pair (cam & follower)

Constrained motion: In a kinematic pair, if one element has got only one definitemotion
relative to the other, then the motion is called constrained motion.
(a) Completely constrained motion. If the constrained motion is achieved by the
pairingelements themselves, then it is called completely constrained motion.

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 Fig.1.16 Completely constrained motion
(b) Successfully constrained motion. If constrained motion is not achieved by
thepairing elements themselves, but by some other means, then, it is called successfully
constrained motion. Eg. Foot step bearing, where shaft is constrained from moving
upwards, by its self weight.
(c) Incompletely constrained motion. When relative motion between pairing
elementstakes place in more than one direction, it is called incompletely constrained
motion. Eg. Shaft in a circular hole.

Fig.1.17 Foot strep bearing Fig.1.18 Incompletely constrained motion

Kinematic chain: A kinematic chain is a group of links either joined together orarranged
in a manner that permits them to move relative to one another. If the links are connected
in such a way that no motion is possible, it results in a locked chain or structure.

Fig.1.19 Locked chain or structure

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Mechanism: A mechanism is a constrained kinematic chain. This means that the
motionof any one link in the kinematic chain will give a definite and predictable motion
relative to each of the others. Usually one of the links of the kinematic chain is fixed in a
mechanism.

Fig.1.20 Slider crank and four bar mechanisms.

If, for a particular position of a link of the chain, the positions of each of the other links
of the chain can not be predicted, then it is called as unconstrained kinematic chain and it
is not mechanism.

Fig.1.21 Unconstrained kinematic chain

Machine: A machine is a mechanism or collection of mechanisms, which transmit
forcefrom the source of power to the resistance to be overcome. Though all machines are
mechanisms, all mechanisms are not machines. Many instruments are mechanisms but
are not machines, because they do no useful work nor do they transform energy. Eg.
Mechanical clock, drafter.

Fig.1.21 Drafter
Planar mechanisms: When all the links of a mechanism have plane motion, it is calledas
a planar mechanism. All the links in a planar mechanism move in planes parallel to the
reference plane.

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Degrees of freedom/mobility of a mechanism: It is the number of inputs (number
ofindependent coordinates) required to describe the configuration or position of all the
links of the mechanism, with respect to the fixed link at any given instant.
Grubler’s equation: Number of degrees of freedom of a mechanism is given by
F = 3(n-1)-2l-h. Where,
F = Degrees of freedom
n = Number of links = n2 + n3 +……+nj, where, n2 = number of binary links, n3 =
number of ternary links…etc.
l = Number of lower pairs, which is obtained by counting the number of joints. If more
than two links are joined together at any point, then, one additional lower pair is to be
considered for every additional link.
h = Number of higher pairs
Examples of determination of degrees of freedom of planar mechanisms:
(i)

F = 3(n-1)-2l-h
Here, n2 = 4, n = 4, l = 4 and h = 0.
F = 3(4-1)-2(4) = 1
I.e., one input to any one link will result in
definite motion of all the links.

(ii)

F = 3(n-1)-2l-h
Here, n2 = 5, n = 5, l = 5 and h = 0.
F = 3(5-1)-2(5) = 2
I.e., two inputs to any two links are
required to yield definite motions in all the
links.

(iii)

F = 3(n-1)-2l-h
Here, n2 = 4, n3 =2, n = 6, l = 7 and h = 0.
F = 3(6-1)-2(7) = 1
I.e., one input to any one link will result in
definite motion of all the links.

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(iv)

F = 3(n-1)-2l-h
Here, n2 = 5, n3 =1, n = 6, l = 7 (at the
intersection of 2, 3 and 4, two lower pairs
are to be considered) and h = 0. F = 3(6-1)-
2(7) = 1

(v)

F = 3(n-1)-2l-h
Here, n = 11, l = 15 (two lower pairs at the
intersection of 3, 4, 6; 2, 4, 5; 5, 7, 8; 8,
10,11) and h = 0.
F = 3(11-1)-2(15) = 0

(vi) Determine the mobility of the following mechanisms.

(a) (b) (c)

F = 3(n-1)-2l-h F = 3(n-1)-2l-h F = 3(n-1)-2l-h

Here, n = 4, l = 5 and h = 0. Here, n = 3, l = 2 and h = 1. Here, n = 3, l = 2 and h = 1.
F = 3(4-1)-2(5) = -1 F = 3(3-1)-2(2)-1 = 1 F = 3(3-1)-2(2)-1 = 1
I.e., it is a structure

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Inversions of mechanism: A mechanism is one in which one of the links of a
kinematicchain is fixed. Different mechanisms can be obtained by fixing different links
of the same kinematic chain. These are called as inversions of the mechanism. By
changing the fixed link, the number of mechanisms which can be obtained is equal to the
number of links. Excepting the original mechanism, all other mechanisms will be known
as inversions of original mechanism. The inversion of a mechanism does not change the
motion of its links relative to each other.
Four bar chain:

Fig 1.22 Four bar chain

One of the most useful and most common mechanisms is the four-bar linkage. In this
mechanism, the link which can make complete rotation is known as crank (link 2). The
link which oscillates is known as rocker or lever (link 4). And the link connecting these
two is known as coupler (link 3). Link 1 is the frame.
Inversions of four bar chain:

Fig.1.23 Inversions of four bar chain.

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Crank-rocker mechanism: In this mechanism, either link 1 or link 3 is fixed. Link
2(crank) rotates completely and link 4 (rocker) oscillates. It is similar to (a) or (b) of
fig.1.23.

Fig.1.24

Drag link mechanism. Here link 2 is fixed and both links 1 and 4 make completerotation
but with different velocities. This is similar to 1.23(c).

Fig.1.25
Double crank mechanism. This is one type of drag link mechanism, where, links 1&
3are equal and parallel and links 2 & 4 are equal and parallel.

Fig.1.26

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Double rocker mechanism. In this mechanism, link 4 is fixed. Link 2 makes
completerotation, whereas links 3 & 4 oscillate (Fig.1.23d)
Slider crank chain: This is a kinematic chain having four links. It has one sliding
pairand three turning pairs. Link 2 has rotary motion and is called crank. Link 3 has got
combined rotary and reciprocating motion and is called connecting rod. Link 4 has
reciprocating motion and is called slider. Link 1 is frame (fixed). This mechanism is used
to convert rotary motion to reciprocating and vice versa.

Fig1.27
Inversions of slider crank chain: Inversions of slider crank mechanism is obtained
byfixing links 2, 3 and 4.

(a) crank fixed (b) connecting rod fixed (c) slider fixed

Fig.1.28
Rotary engine – I inversion of slider crank mechanism. (crank fixed)

Fig.1.29

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Whitworth quick return motion mechanism–I inversion of slider crank mechanism.

Fig.1.30
Crank and slotted lever quick return motion mechanism – II inversion of slider
crank mechanism (connecting rod fixed).

Fig.1.31

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Oscillating cylinder engine–II inversion of slider crank mechanism (connecting rod
fixed).

Fig.1.32
Pendulum pump or bull engine–III inversion of slider crank mechanism (slider
fixed).

Fig.1.33

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Double slider crank chain: It is a kinematic chain consisting of two turning pairs
andtwo sliding pairs.
Scotch –Yoke mechanism.
Turning pairs – 1&2, 2&3; Sliding pairs – 3&4, 4&1.

Fig.1.34
Inversions of double slider crank mechanism:
Elliptical trammel. This is a device which is used for generating an elliptical profile.

Fig.1.35
In fig. 1.35, if AC = p and BC = q, then, x = q.cosθ and y = p.sinθ.
2
x y 2
Rearranging,    
   

 q   p
This is the equation of an ellipse. The path traced by point C is an ellipse, with major axis
and minor axis equal to 2p and 2q respectively.

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Oldham coupling. This is an inversion of double slider crank mechanism, which is
usedto connect two parallel shafts, whose axes are offset by a small amount.

Fig.1.36
References:
1. Theory of Machines and Mechanisms by Joseph Edward Shigley and John
JosephUicker,Jr. McGraw-Hill International Editions.
2. Kinematics and Dynamics of Machines by George H.Martin.McGraw-
HillPublications.
3. Mechanisms and Dynamics of Machinery by Hamilton H. Mabie and Fred
W.Ocvirk. John Wiley and Sons.
4. Theory of Machines by V.P.Singh.Dhanpat Rai and Co.
5. The Theory of Machines through solved problems by J.S.Rao.New
ageinternational publishers.
6. A text book of Theory of Machines by Dr.R.K.Bansal.Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.

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Quick return motion mechanisms.
Quick return mechanisms are used in machine tools such as shapers and power driven
saws for the purpose of giving the reciprocating cutting tool a slow cutting stroke and a
quick return stroke with a constant angular velocity of the driving crank. Some of the
common types of quick return motion mechanisms are discussed below. The ratio of time
required for the cutting stroke to the time required for the return stroke is called the time
ratio and is greater than unity.
Drag link mechanism
This is one of the inversions of four bar mechanism, with four turning pairs. Here, link 2
is the input link, moving with constant angular velocity in anti-clockwise direction. Point
C of the mechanism is connected to the tool post E of the machine. During cutting stroke,
tool post moves from E1 to E2. The corresponding positions of C are C1 and C2 as shown
in the fig. 1.37. For the point C to move from C1 to C2, point B moves from B1 to B2, in
anti-clockwise direction. IE, cutting stroke takes place when input link moves through
angle B1AB2 in anti-clockwise direction and return stroke takes place when input link
moves through angle B2AB1 in anti-clockwise direction.

Fig.1.37
The time ratio is given by the following equation.

ˆ
Timeforforwardstroke
 B1 AB2 anti  clockwise
ˆ
Timeforreturnstroke B2 AB1 anti  clockwise

Whitworth quick return motion mechanism:

This is first inversion of slider mechanism, where, crank 1 is fixed. Input is given to link
2, which moves at constant speed. Point C of the mechanism is connected to the tool post

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 1 11
D of the machine. During cutting stroke, tool post moves from D to D . The
1 11
corresponding positions of C are C and C as shown in the fig. 1.38. For the point C to
1 11 1 11
move from C to C , point B moves from B to B , in anti-clockwise direction. I.E.,
1 11
cutting stroke takes place when input link moves through angle B O2B in anti-
clockwise direction and return stroke takes place when input link moves through angle
11 1
B O2B in anti-clockwise direction.

Fig.1.38

The time ratio is given by the following equation.

Timeforforwardstroke  Boˆ2 B1
Timeforreturnstroke Boˆ2 B 2

Crank and slotted lever quick return motion mechanism

This is second inversion of slider mechanism, where, connecting rod is fixed. Input is
given to link 2, which moves at constant speed. Point C of the mechanism is connected to
1 11
the tool post D of the machine. During cutting stroke, tool post moves from D to D .
1 11
The corresponding positions of C are C and C as shown in the fig. 1.39. For the point
1 11 1 11
C to move from C to C , point B moves from B to B , in anti-clockwise direction.
1 11
I.E., cutting stroke takes place when input link moves through angle B O2B in anti-
clockwise direction and return stroke takes place when input link moves through angle
11 1
B O2B in anti-clockwise direction.

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 Fig.1.39

The time ratio is given by the following equation.

Timeforforwardstroke  Boˆ2 B1
Timeforreturnstroke Boˆ2 B 2

Straight line motion mechanisms

Straight line motion mechanisms are mechanisms, having a point that moves along a
straight line, or nearly along a straight line, without being guided by a plane surface.
Condition for exact straight line motion:
If point B (fig.1.40) moves on the circumference of a circle with center O and radius OA,
then, point C, which is an extension of AB traces a straight line perpendicular to AO,
provided product of AB and AC is constant.

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 Fig.1.40
Locus of pt.C will be a straight line, ┴ to AE if, AB  AC is constant
Proof:

AEC ABD

AD  AB
AC AE

 AE AB  AC
AD
butAD const.
 AE  const., ifAB  AC  const.

Peaucellier exact straight line motion mechanism:

Fig.1.41
Here, AE is the input link and point E moves along a circular path of radius AE = AB.
Also, EC = ED = PC = PD and BC = BD. Point P of the mechanism moves along exact
straight line, perpendicular to BA extended.

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To prove B, E and P lie on same straight line:
Triangles BCD, ECD and PCD are all isosceles triangles having common base CD and
apex points being B, E and P. Therefore points B, E and P always lie on the perpendicular
bisector of CD. Hence these three points always lie on the same straight line.
To prove product of BE and BP is constant.
In triangles BFC and PFC,
BC 2 FB 2 FC 2and PC 2 PF 2 FC 2
 BC  PC  FB  PF FB  PF FB  PF  BP  BE
2 2 2 2

But since BC and PC are constants, product of BP and BE is constant, which is the
condition for exact straight line motion. Thus point P always moves along a straight line
perpendicular to BA as shown in the fig.1.41.

Approximate straight line motion mechanism: A few four bar mechanisms withcertain
modifications provide approximate straight line motions.
Robert’s mechanism

Fig.1.42
This is a four bar mechanism, where, PCD is a single integral link. Also, dimensions AC,
BD, CP and PD are all equal. Point P of the mechanism moves very nearly along line AB.

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Intermittent motion mechanisms
An intermittent-motion mechanism is a linkage which converts continuous motion into
intermittent motion. These mechanisms are commonly used for indexing in machine
tools.
Geneva wheel mechanism

Fig.1.43
In the mechanism shown (Fig.1.43), link A is driver and it contains a pin which engages
with the slots in the driven link B. The slots are positioned in such a manner, that the pin
enters and leaves them tangentially avoiding impact loading during transmission of
motion. In the mechanism shown, the driven member makes one-fourth of a revolution
for each revolution of the driver. The locking plate, which is mounted on the driver,
prevents the driven member from rotating except during the indexing period.

Ratchet and pawl mechanism

Fig.1.44
Ratchets are used to transform motion of rotation or translation into intermittent rotation
or translation. In the fig.1.44, A is the ratchet wheel and C is the pawl. As lever B is made

23
to oscillate, the ratchet wheel will rotate anticlockwise with an intermittent motion. A
holding pawl D is provided to prevent the reverse motion of ratchet wheel.

Other mechanisms

Toggle mechanism

Fig.1.45
Toggle mechanisms are used, where large resistances are to be overcome through short
distances. Here, effort applied will be small but acts over large distance. In the
mechanism shown in fig.1.45, 2 is the input link, to which, power is supplied and 6 is the
output link, which has to overcome external resistance. Links 4 and 5 are of equal length.
Considering the equilibrium condition of slider 6,
F
2
tan
P
 F 2P tan
For small angles of α, F (effort) is much smaller than P(resistance).
This mechanism is used in rock crushers, presses, riveting machines etc.

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 Pantograph
Pantographs are used for reducing or enlarging drawings and maps. They are also used
for guiding cutting tools or torches to fabricate complicated shapes.

Fig.1.46
In the mechanism shown in fig.1.46 path traced by point A will be magnified by point E
to scale, as discussed below.
In the mechanism shown, AB = CD; AD =BC and OAE lie on a straight line.
When point A moves to A , E moves to E and OAE also lies on a straight line.
From the fig.1.46, ODAOCE and ODAOCE .

  OD  OA  DA and OD OA DA

OC OE CEOC CEOE
OD OD OA OA
But,  ;  ;OAAOEE.
OC OC  OE OE 
 EE // AA

And EE OE  OC
AA OA OD
  OC  EE AA
 
 OD 
 OC 
Where  is the magnification factor.
 OD 

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Hooke’s joint (Universal joints)
Hooke’s joins is used to connect two nonparallel but intersecting shafts. In its basic
shape, it has two U –shaped yokes ‘a’ and ‘b’ and a center block or cross-shaped piece,
C. (fig.1.47(a))
0
The universal joint can transmit power between two shafts intersecting at around 30
angles (α). However, the angular velocity ratio is not uniform during the cycle of
operation. The amount of fluctuation depends on the angle (α) between the two shafts.
For uniform transmission of motion, a pair of universal
joints should be used
(fig.1.47(b)). Intermediate shaft 3 connects input shaft 1 and output shaft 2 with two
universal joints. The angle α between 1 and 2 is equal to angle α between 2 and 3. When
shaft 1 has uniform rotation, shaft 3 varies in speed; however, this variation is
compensated by the universal joint between shafts 2 and 3. One of the important
applications of universal joint is in automobiles, where it is used to transmit power from
engine to the wheel axle.

Fig.1.47(a)

Fig.1.47(b)

Steering gear mechanism

The steering mechanism is used in automobiles for changing the directions of the wheel
axles with reference to the chassis, so as to move the automobile in the desired path.

26
Usually, the two back wheels will have a common axis, which is fixed in direction with
reference to the chassis and the steering is done by means of front wheels.
In automobiles, the front wheels are placed over the front axles (stub axles), which are
pivoted at the points A & B as shown in the fig.1.48. When the vehicle takes a turn, the
front wheels, along with the stub axles turn about the pivoted points. The back axle and
the back wheels remain straight.
Always there should be absolute rolling contact between the wheels and the road surface.
Any sliding motion will cause wear of tyres. When a vehicle is taking turn, absolute
rolling motion of the wheels on the road surface is possible, only if all the wheels
describe concentric circles. Therefore, the two front wheels must turn about the same
instantaneous centre I which lies on the axis of the back wheel.
Condition for perfect steering
The condition for perfect steering is that all the four wheels must turn about the same
instantaneous centre. While negotiating a curve, the inner wheel makes a larger turning
angle θ than the angle φ subtended by the axis of the outer wheel.
In the fig.1.48, a = wheel track, L = wheel base, w = distance between the pivots of front
axles.

Fig.1.48

From IAE, cotθ = AE  AE and

EI L
from BEI, cotφ = EB  EA  AB  EA  w  EA  w  cot  w
EI EI L LL L

27
 w
 cot  cot . This is the fundamental equation for correct
steering. If this
L
condition is satisfied, there will be no skidding of the wheels when the vehicle takes a
turn.
Ackermann steering gear mechanism

Fig.1.49

c
R S

A'

A B
d x B'
x
P
d Q

fig.1.50
Ackerman steering mechanism, RSAB is a four bar chain as shown in fig.1.50. Links RA
and SB which are equal in length are integral with the stub axles. These links are
connected with each other through track rod AB. When the vehicle is in straight ahead
position, links RA and SB make equal angles α with the center line of the vehicle. The
dotted lines in fig.1.50 indicate the position of the mechanism when the vehicle is turning
left.

28
 ˆ ˆ
Let AB=l, RA=SB=r;
ˆ 1 ˆ 1
ARA &BSB  . IE, the stub axles of inner and outer wheels turn by θ and φ
angles respectively.
Neglecting the obliquity of the track rod in the turned position, the movements of A and
B in the horizontal direction may be taken to be same (x).
dx dx
Then, sin and sin
r r
Adding, sinsin 2d  2 sin  [1]
r
Angle α can be determined using the above equation. The values of θ and φ to be taken in
w
this equation are those found for correct steering using the equation cotcot . [2]
L
This mechanism gives correct steering in only three positions. One, when θ = 0 and other
two each corresponding to the turn to right or left (at a fixed turning angle, as determined
by equation [1]).
The correct values of φ, [φc] corresponding to different values of θ, for correct steering
can be determined using equation [2]. For the given dimensions of the mechanism, actual
values of φ, [φa] can be obtained for different values of θ. T he difference between φ c and
φa will be very small for small angles of θ, but the difference will be substantial, for
larger values of θ. Such a difference will reduce the life of tyres because of greater wear
on account of slipping.
But for larger values of θ, the automobile must take a sharp turn; hence is will be moving
at a slow speed. At low speeds, wear of the tyres is less. Therefore, the greater difference
between φc and φa larger values of θ ill not matter.
As this mechanism employs only turning pairs, friction and wear in the mechanism will
be less. Hence its maintenance will be easier and is commonly employed in automobiles.

References:
1. Theory of Machines and Mechanisms by Joseph Edward Shigley and John
JosephUicker,Jr. McGraw-Hill International Editions.
2. Kinematics and Dynamics of Machines by George H.Martin.McGraw-
HillPublications.
3. Mechanisms and Dynamics of Machinery by Hamilton H. Mabie and Fred
W.Ocvirk. John Wiley and Sons.
4. Theory of Machines by V.P.Singh.Dhanpat Rai and Co.
5. The Theory of Machines through solved problems by J.S.Rao.New
ageinternational publishers.
6. A text book of Theory of Machines by Dr.R.K.Bansal.Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.

29
 Unit – II
KINEMATIC ANALYSIS OF MECHANISMS
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

 Introduction
Kinematics deals with study of relative motion between the various parts of the
machines. Kinematics does not involve study of forces. Thus motion leads study of
displacement, velocity and acceleration of a part of the machine.
Study of Motions of various parts of a machine is important for determining their
velocities and accelerations at different moments.
As dynamic forces are a function of acceleration and acceleration is a function of
velocities, study of velocity and acceleration will be useful in the design of
mechanism of a machine. The mechanism will be represented by a line diagram
which is known as configuration diagram. The analysis can be carried out both by
graphical method as well as analytical method.

 Some important Definitions

Displacement: All particles of a body move in parallel planes and travel by
samedistance is known, linear displacement and is denoted by ‘x’.
A body rotating about a fired point in such a way that all particular move in
circular path angular displacement and is denoted by ‘’.

Velocity: Rate of change of displacement is velocity. Velocity can be linearvelocity

of angular velocity.
dx
Linear velocity is Rate of change of linear displacement= V =
dt
d
Angular velocity is Rate of change of angular displacement =  =
dt

Relation between linear velocity and angular velocity.

x = r
dx = r d
dt dt
V = r

 = d
dt
Acceleration: Rate of change of velocity

30
 2
f = dv d x Linear Acceleration (Rate of change of linear velocity)
2
dt dt
2
Thirdly  = dw  d q Angular Acceleration (Rate of change of angular velocity)
2
dt dt

We also have,
Absolute velocity: Velocity of a point with respect to a fixed point (zero
velocitypoint).

2
O2

Va = 2 x r
Va = 2 x O2 A

Ex: Vao2 is absolute velocity.

Relative velocity: Velocity of a point with respect to another point ‘x’

B
3
A
4
2

O2 O4

Ex: Vba Velocity of point B with respect to A

Note: Capital letters are used for configuration diagram. Small letters are used for
velocity vector diagram.

This is absolute velocity

Velocity of point A with respect to O2 fixed point, zero velocity point.
B
3
A

31
 Vba = or Vab
Vba = or Vab Equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
B

O4

Vb Absolute velocity is velocity of B with respect to O 4 (fixed point, zero velocity
point)
b
Vba

Vb
O2, O4

Vab
a

Velocity vector diagram

Vector O2a = Va= Absolute velocity

Vector ab = Vab
Relative velocity
ba = Va

Vab is equal magnitude with Vba but is apposite in direction.

Vector O4b = Vb absolute velocity.

To illustrate the difference between absolute velocity and relative velocity.

Let, us consider a simple situation.
o
A link AB moving in a vertical plane such that the link is inclined at 30 to
the horizontal with point A is moving horizontally at 4 m/s and point B moving
vertically upwards. Find velocity of B.

32
Va = 4 m/s ab Absolute velocity Horizontal direction
(known in magnitude and directors)
Vb = ? ab Absolute velocity Vertical direction
(known in directors only)

O Va a
4 m/s Vab
o
A 30
Vb
C
B

Vba

Velocity of B with respect to A is equal in magnitude to velocity of A with

respect to B but opposite in direction.

 Relative Velocity Equation

y Rigid body

ya R
O 
O4 x
xA

Fig. 1 Point O is fixed and End A is a point on rigid body.

Rotation of a rigid link about a fixed centre.

Consider rigid link rotating about a fixed centre O, as shown in figure. The
distance between O and A is R and OA makes and angle ‘’ with x-axis next link
xA = R cos , yA = R sin .

Differentiating xA with respect to time gives velocity.

33
 d dθ
xA R sinθ
dt dt
= - R sin 

dy dθ
Similarly, A Rcosθ
dt dt
= - R cos 

d
x y
Let, d xA  VA  VA
yA

dt dt
dθ
= = angular velocity of
OA dt


x
 VA = -Rωsin
y
VA = - Rωcos

 Total velocity of point A is given by

VA = Rw sin q2Rw cosθ2

VA = Rω

 Relative Velocity Equation of Two Points on a Rigid

link Rigid body

B
yB

R sin 

A
yA
R cos 
x
xA xB

Fig. 2 Points A and B are located on rigid body

34
 From Fig. 2
xB = xA + R cos  yB = yA + R sin 

Differentiating xB and yB with respect to time

we get,
d d dθ
xB VBx  xA Rsinθ
dt dt dt
d
 xARsinθV
x
Rsin
A

d d
Similarly,
yB
y dθ yA

dt  VB  dt  R cos θ dt
d
yA y
  Rw cosθVA  Rw cosθ
dt

VA = V x y
V = Total velocity of point A
A A
x y
Similarly, VB = V V = Total velocity of point B
B B
x y
= VA (Rω sin ) VA Rω cos 
x y
= ( VA VA ) (Rω sin  + R ωcos )
x y
= ( VA VA ) VA Similarly, ( R ωsin  + Rω cos ) = Rω

VB = VA Rω = VA VBA
VBA = VB – VA

Velocity analysis of any mechanism can be carried out by various methods.

1. By graphical method
2. By relative velocity method
3. By instantaneous method

35
 By Graphical Method
The following points are to be considered while solving problems by this
method.
1. Draw the configuration design to a suitable scale.
2. Locate all fixed point in a mechanism as a common point in velocity diagram.
3. Choose a suitable scale for the vector diagram velocity.
r
4. The velocity vector of each rotating link is  to the link.
5. Velocity of each link in mechanism has both magnitude and direction. Start
from a point whose magnitude and direction is known.
6. The points of the velocity diagram are indicated by small letters.

To explain the method let us take a few specific examples.

1. Four–Bar Mechanism: In a four bar chain ABCD link AD is fixed and in 15
cmlong. The crank AB is 4 cm long rotates at 180 rpm (cw) while link CD
o
rotates about D is 8 cm long BC = AD and | BAD = 60 . Find angular velocity of
link CD.
C
15 cm
B
8 cm
ωBA
o
60
A D
15 cm

Configuration Diagram

Velocity vector diagram

2πx120
Vb = r = ba x AB = x4 = 50.24 cm/sec
60

Choose a suitable scale

1 cm = 20 m/s = ab

36
 r c V cb
 to CD
a, d
r
 to BC
r
 to AB

Vcb = bc
Vc = dc = 38 cm/sec = Vcd

We know that V =ω R
Vcd = CD x CD
Vcd 38
ωcD =  4.75 rad/sec (cw)
CD 8

2. Slider Crank Mechanism:

In a crank and slotted lever mechanism crank rotates of 300 rpm in a counter
clockwise direction. Find
(i) Angular velocity of connecting rod and
(ii) Velocity of slider.
A
60 mm 150 mm
o
45
B

Configuration diagram

Step 1: Determine the magnitude and velocity of point A with respect to 0,

2πx 300
VA = O1A x O2A = x 60
60
= 600  mm/sec

Step 2: Choose a suitable scale to draw velocity vector diagram.

37
 A Va

r r
 to AB  to OA

b
O
Along sides B
Velocity vector diagram

Vab = ab =1300mm/sec
Vba 1300
ba =  8.66 rad/sec
BA 150

Vb = ob velocity of slider

Note: Velocity of slider is along the line of sliding.

3. Shaper Mechanism:
In a crank and slotted lever mechanisms crank O 2A rotates at  rad/sec in
CCW direction. Determine the velocity of slider.
6
D 5 Scale 1 cm = ……x…. m

ω 3
O2 B
2

O1

Configuration diagram

38
 Scale 1 cm = ……x…. m/s a
VAO2 = VA
c VBA

b
VBO1
VDC
d O1O2
Velocity vector diagram

Va = w2 x O2A

Ob Oc
1 = 1

O1 B O1 C

To Determine Velocity of Rubbing

Two links of a mechanism having turning point will be connected by pins.
When the links are motion they rub against pin surface. The velocity of rubbing of
pins depends on the angular velocity of links relative to each other as well as
direction.

For example: In a four bar mechanism we have pins at points A, B, C and D.

Vra= wabx ratios of pin A (rpa)

+ sign is used wab is CW and Wbc is CCW i.e. when angular velocities are in
opposite directions use + sign when angular velocities are in some directions use -ve
sign.
Vrb = (ab + bc) radius rpb
VrC = (bc + cd) radius rpc
VrD = cd rpd

39
Problems on velocity by velocity vector method (Graphical solutions)

Problem 1:
In a four bar mechanism, the dimensions of the links are as given below:
AB = 50 mm, BC = 66 mm
CD = 56 mm and AD = 100 mm

o
At a given instant when | DAB60 the angular velocity of link AB is 10.5
rad/sec in CCW direction.

Determine,
i) Velocity of point C
ii) Velocity of point E on link BC when BE = 40 mm
iii) The angular velocity of link BC and CD
iv) The velocity of an offset point F on link BC, if BF = 45 mm, CF =
30 mm and BCF is read clockwise.
v) The velocity of an offset point G on link CD, if CG = 24 mm, DG
= 44 mm and DCG is read clockwise.
vi) The velocity of rubbing of pins A, B, C and D. The ratio of the
pins are 30 mm, 40 mm, 25 mm and 35 mm respectively.

Solution:
Step -1: Construct the configuration diagram selecting a suitable scale.
Scale: 1 cm = 20 mm
C

G
B
F

o
60
A D

Step–2: Given the angular velocity of link AB and its direction of rotation determine
velocity of point with respect to A (A is fixed hence, it is zero velocity point).
Vba = BA x BA
= 10.5 x 0.05 = 0.525 m/s

40
 Step–3: To draw velocity vector diagram choose a suitable scale, say 1 cm = 0.2 m/s.
 First locate zero velocity points.

r
 Draw a line  to link AB in the direction of rotation of link AB (CCW)
equal to 0.525 m/s.
b

Vba = 0.525 m/s

e, g

a, d
f
C Ved
r r
  From b draw a line  to BC and from d. Draw d line  to CD to interest at C.

  Vcb is given vector bc Vbc = 0.44 m/s

 Vcd is given vector dc Vcd = 0.39 m/s

Step–4: To determine velocity of point E (Absolute velocity) on link BC, first locate
the position of point E on velocity vector diagram. This can be done by taking
corresponding ratios of lengths of links to vector distance i.e.

be  BE
bc BC

BE 0.04
 be = x Vcb = x 0.44 = 0.24 m/s
BC0.066

Join e on velocity vector diagram to zero velocity points a, d / vector de = Ve

= 0.415 m/s.

Step 5: To determine angular velocity of links BC and CD, we know Vbc and Vcd.
 Vbc =ω BC x BC
Vbc 0.44
 ωBC =  6.6r/s.
(cw)BC0.066
Similarly, Vcd = ωCD x CD
Vcd 0.39
 ωCD =  6.96 r / s (CCW) CD
0.056

Step–6: To determine velocity of an offset point F

r
 Draw a line  to CF from C on velocity vector diagram.

41
 r
 Draw a line  to BF from b on velocity vector diagram to intersect the
previously drawn line at ‘f’.

 From the point f to zero velocity point a, d and measure vector fa to get
Vf = 0.495 m/s.

Step–7: To determine velocity of an offset point.

r
 Draw a line  to GC from C on velocity vector diagram.
 r
 Draw a line  to DG from d on velocity vector diagram to intersect
previously drawn line at g.

 Measure vector dg to get velocity of point G.
Vg = dg0.305 m / s

Step–8: To determine rubbing velocity at pins

 Rubbing velocity at pin A will
be Vpa = ab x r of pin A
Vpa = 10.5 x 0.03 = 0.315 m/s


 Rubbing velocity at pin B will be Vpb
= (ab + cb) x rpb of point at B.

 [ab CCW and cbCW]
Vpb = (10.5 + 6.6) x 0.04 = 0.684 m/s.

 Rubbing velocity at point C will
be = 6.96 x 0.035 = 0.244 m/s

Problem 2:
In a slider crank mechanism the crank is 200 mm long and rotates at 40
rad/sec in a CCW direction. The length of the connecting rod is 800 mm. When the
o
crank turns through 60 from Inner-dead centre.
Determine,
i) The velocity of the slider
ii) Velocity of point E located at a distance of 200 mm on the connecting
rod extended.
iii) The position and velocity of point F on the connecting rod having the
least absolute velocity.
iv) The angular velocity of connecting rod.

42
 v) The velocity of rubbing of pins of crank shaft, crank and cross head
having pins diameters 80,60 and 100 mm respectively.
Solution:
Step 1: Draw the configuration diagram by selecting a suitable scale.
E
A
F
o
45
B
O G

Va = Woa x OA
Va = 40 x 0.2
Va = 8 m/s

Step 2: Choose a suitable scale for velocity vector diagram and draw the velocity
vector diagram.
 Mark zero velocity point o, g.

r
 Draw oa to link OA equal to 8 m/s
e
a Scale: 1 cm = 2 m/s

f
b o, g

r
 From a draw a line  to AB and from o, g draw a horizontal line (representing
the line of motion of slider B) to intersect the previously drawn line at b.

 ab give Vba=4.8 m/sec

BE
Step–3: To mark point ‘e’ since ‘E’ is on the extension of link AB drawn be =
x ab mark the point e on extension of vector ba. Join e to o, g. ge will give
AB
velocity of point E.

Ve = ge =8.4 m/sec

43
 Step 4: To mark point F on link AB such that this has least velocity (absolute).

r
Draw a line  to ab passing through o, g to cut the vector ab at f. From f to
o, g. gf will have the least absolute velocity.

 To mark the position of F on link

AB. Find BF by using the relation.
fb ab
BF AB
fb
BF  x AB =200mm
ab

Step–5: To determine the angular velocity of connecting rod.

We know that Vab = ab x AB
Vab
ab = = 6 rad/sec
AB

Step–6: To determine velocity of rubbing of pins.

 Vpcrankshaft = ao x radius of crankshaft pin

= 8 x 0.08
= 0.64 m/s

  VPcrank pin = (ab + oa) rcrank pin= (6 +8)0.06 =0.84 m/sec

 VP cross head = ab x rcross head = 6 x 0.1 = 0.6 m/sec

44
 Problem 3: A quick return mechanism of crank and slotted lever type
shapingmachine is shown in Fig. the dimensions of various links are as follows.

O1O2 = 800 mm, O1B = 300 mm, O2D = 1300 mm and DR = 400 mm

o
The crank O1B makes an angle of 45 with the vertical and relates at 40 rpm
in the CCW direction. Find:
i) Velocity of the Ram R, velocity of cutting tool, and
ii) Angular velocity of link O2D.

 Solution:
Step 1: Draw the configuration diagram.

R
R 200
Tool D D
B on orank, O, B
B
C
o
O1 45
C on O2D 2
O1

O2
O2

Step 2: Determine velocity of point B.

Vb = O1B x O1B
2NO1B 2x 40
O1B =  4.18 rad / sec
60 60
Vb = 4.18 x 0.3 = 1.254 m/sec

Step 3: Draw velocity vector diagram.

Choose a suitable scale 1 cm = 0.3 m/sec

45
 b
d

r O1O2
r
o Draw O1b  to link O1B equal to 1.254 m/s.
r
o From b draw a line along the line of O2B and from O1O2 draw a line 

to O2B. This intersects at c bc will measure velocity of sliding of slider

and O2C will measure the velocity of C on link O2C.

o Since point D is on the extension of link O2C measure O2d

r
o From d draw a line  to link DR and from O1O2. Draw a line along the

line of stroke of Ram R (horizontal), These two lines will intersect at

point r O2r will give the velocity of Ram R.

o To determine the angular velocity of link O2D determine Vd = O2d .

We know that Vd = O2D x O2D.

46
  Problem 4: Figure below shows a toggle mechanisms in which the crank
OArotates at 120 rpm. Find the velocity and acceleration of the slider D.


 Solution:
120
All the dimensions in mm

o A
45

40
190

100
135 B 120
D

Configuration Diagram

Step 1: Draw the configuration diagram choosing a suitable scal.

Step 2: Determine velocity of point A with respect to O.

Vao = OA x OA
2 x120
Vao = 0.45.024 m / s

Step 3: Draw the velocity vector diagram.

o Choose a suitable scale
o Mark zero velocity points O,q
r
o Draw vector oa to link OA and magnitude = 5.024 m/s.
a b

D
O,q

Velocity vector diagram

47
 r r
o From a draw a line  to AB and from q draw a line  to QB to intersect
at b.

ab  Vba and qb  Vbq.

r
o Draw a line  to BD from b from q draw a line along the slide to
intersect at d.

dq  Vd (slider velocity)

 Problem 5: A whitworth quick return mechanism shown in figure has

thefollowing dimensions of the links.
The crank rotates
o
at an angular velocity of 2.5 r/s at the moment when crank
makes an angle of 45 with vertical. Calculate
OP (crank) = 240 mm
a) the velocity of the Ram S
OA = 150 mm
b) the velocity of slider P on the slotted level
AR = 165 mm
c) the angular velocity of the link RS.
RS = 430 mm

 Solution:
Step 1: To draw configuration diagram to a suitable scale.
R

S A

O
P on slider Q on
o
45 BA

Configuration Diagram

48
Step 2: To determine the absolute velocity of point P.
VP = OP x OP
2 x 240
Vao = x 0.24  0.6 m / s

Step 3: Draw the velocity vector diagram by choosing a suitable scale.

P

0.6 m
q

S
O, a, g

r
Velocity vector diagram

r
o Draw op link OP = 0.6 m.

r
o From O, a, g draw a line  to AP/AQ and from P draw a line along AP to

intersect previously draw, line at q. Pq = Velocity of sliding.

aq = Velocity of Q with respect to A.

Vqa = aq =

sr
o Angular velocity of link RS = RS rad/sec
SR

49
· Problem 6: A toggle mechanism is shown in figure along with the diagrams
ofthe links in mm. find the velocities of the points B and C and the angular
velocities of links AB, BQ and BC. The crank rotates at 50 rpm in the clockwise
direction.
C

Q 100

B
140
OA = 30
AB = 80
A 50 rpm
BQ = 100
BC = 100

All dimensions are in mm O

· Solution
Step 1: Draw the configuration diagram to a suitable scale.
Step 2: Calculate the magnitude of velocity of A with respect to O.
Va = wOA x OA
æ 2p x 50 ö
Va = ç ÷ x 0.03 = 0.05 p m / s = 0.1507 m / s
è 60 ø
b
a

O, q c

Vector velocity diagram

50
Step 3: Draw the velocity vector diagram by choosing a suitable scale.
r
o Draw Oa to link OA = 0.15 m/s
r r
o From a draw a link  to AB and from O, q draw a link  to BQ to intersect
at b.

ab  Vba and qbVb0.13 m / s

ab = ab  0.74 r / s (ccw) bq qb 1.3 r / s (ccw)

AB aB
r
o From b draw a line  to Be and from O, q these two lines intersect at
C. OC  VC 0.106 m / s

bC  VCb
bc
BC  1.33 r / s (ccw)
BC
 Problem 7: The mechanism of a stone crusher has the dimensions as shown
infigure in mm. If crank rotates at 120 rpm CW. Find the velocity of point K
o
when crank OA is inclined at 30 to the horizontal. What will be the torque
required at the crank to overcome a horizontal force of 40 kN at K.
500

o
60 A
M
100 hz
h2 100

200
600 K
400 600

D
360 320

B 200 C

Configuration diagram
 Solution:
Step 1: Draw the configuration diagram to a suitable scale.

51
Step 2: Given speed of crank OA determine velocity of A with respect to ‘o’.
æ 2p x 120 ö
Va = wOA x OA = ç ÷ x 0.1 = 1.26 m / s
è 60 ø
Vk(hz) o, q, m
d

c a

Velocity vector diagram

Step 3: Draw the velocity vector diagram by selecting a suitable scale.
r
o Draw Oa^ to link OA = 1.26 m/s
r r
o From a draw a link ^ to AB and from q draw a link ^ to BQ to intersect at b.
r r
o From b draw a line ^ to BC and from a, draw a line ^ to AC to intersect at c.
r r
o From c draw a line ^ to CD and from m draw a line ^ to MD to intersect at d.
r r
o From d draw a line ^ to KD and from m draw a line ^ to KM to x intersect
the previously drawn line at k.
o Since we have to determine the torque required at OA to overcome a
horizontal force of 40 kN at K. Draw a the horizontal line from o, q, m and c
r
line ^ to this line from k.
TITO
P P

V = wR T
T=FxP F=
r
\ wOATOA= FkVkhorizontal
FV
\ TOA= k khz

w
OA

TOA= 40000 X 0.45 = N-m

12.6

52
 Problem 8: In the mechanism shown in figure link OA = 320 mm, AC = 680
mmand OQ = 650 mm.
Determine,
i) The angular velocity of the cylinder
ii) The sliding velocity of the plunger
iii) The absolute velocity of the plunger

When the crank OA rotates at 20 rad/sec clockwise.

 Solution:
Step 1: Draw the configuration diagram.
A
B on AR (point on AR
below Q)
o C
60

O R

Step 2: Draw the velocity vector diagram

o Determine velocity of point A with respect to O.
Va = OA x OA = 20 x 0.32 = 6.4 m/s
o Select a suitable scale to draw the velocity vector diagram.
r
o Mark the zero velocity point. Draw vector oa to link OA equal to 6.4 m/s.
a

O, q c
b

r
o From a draw a line  to AB and from o, q, draw a line perpendicular to AB.
o To mark point c

AB
We know that 
AC

53
 o Mark point c on AB and joint this to zero velocity point.
o Angular velocity of cylinder will be.
ab = (V/AB) =5.61rad/s (CW)

o Studying velocity of player will

be = 4.1 m/s

o Absolute velocity of plunger= 4.22 m/s

 Problem 9: In a swiveling joint mechanism shown in figure link AB is the

drivingcrank which rotates at 300 rpm clockwise. The length of the various links
are:
Determine, AB = 650 mm
i) The velocity of slider block S AB = 100 mm
ii) The angular velocity of link EF BC = 800 mm
iii) The velocity of link EF in the swivel block. DC = 250 mm
BE = CF
EF = 400 mm
OF = 240 mm
FS = 400 mm
 Solution:
Step 1: Draw the configuration diagram.

F
400
S
O P
G

400
300
E
B

o
45
A D

54
Step 2: Determine the velocity of point B with respect to A.
Vb = BA x BA
2 x 300
V = x 0.1 = 3.14 m/s

Step 3: Draw the velocity vector diagram choosing a suitable scale.

o Mark zero velocity point a, d, o, g.
f
b

a, d, o, g
S
c

Velocity vector diagram

r
o From ‘a’ draw a line  to AB and equal to 3.14 m/s.
r
o From ‘b’ draw a line to DC to intersect at C.
o Mark a point ‘e’ on vector bc such that
be  bc x (BE/BC)

o From ‘e’ draw a line r to PE and from ‘a,d’ draw a line along PE to intersect
at P.
o Extend the vector ep to ef such that ef
r
o From ‘f’ draw a line  to Sf and from zero velocity point draw a line along
the slider ‘S’ to intersect the previously drawn line at S.
o Velocity of slider gS2.6 m / s . Angular Velocity of link EF.

o Velocity of link F in the swivel block =OP1.85 m / s.

 Problem 10: Figure shows two wheels 2 and 4 which rolls on a fixed link 1.
Theangular uniform velocity of wheel is 2 is 10 rod/sec. Determine the angular
velocity of links 3 and 4, and also the relative velocity of point D with respect to
point E.

55
  50 mm

 40 mm
B
3 C
o 60 mm
30

A
2
D
2
4

G
F

 Solution:
Step 1: Draw the configuration diagram.

Step 2: Given 2 = 10 rad/sec. Calculate velocity of B with respect to G.

Vb = 2 x BG
Vb = 10 x 43 = 430 mm/sec.

Step 3: Draw the velocity vector diagram by choosing a suitable scale.

B

C
o
30

E D

G F

50 mm
Redrawn configuration diagram

56
 Velocity vector diagram
c

e d g, f

r
o Draw gb = 0.43 m/s  to BG.
r r
o From b draw a line  to BC and from ‘f’ draw a line  to CF to intersect at C.
r r
o From b draw a line  to BE and from g, f draw a line  to GE to intersect at
e.
r r
o From c draw a line to CD and from f draw a line to FD to intersect at d.

 Problem 11: For the mechanism shown in figure link 2 rotates at constant
angularvelocity of 1 rad/sec construct the velocity polygon and determine.
i) Velocity of point D.
ii) Angular velocity of link BD.
iii) Velocity of slider C.

 Solution:
Step 1: Draw configuration diagram.
D O2 = 50.8 mm
6
AB = 102 mm
O6 BD = 102 mm
DO6 = 102 mm
5 AC = 203 mm

102 mm
A
3
B
o
45
C4
O2

57
Step 2: Determine velocity of A with respect to O2.
Vb = 2 x O2A
Vb = 1 x 50.8 = 50.8 mm/sec.

Step 3: Draw the velocity vector diagram, locate zero velocity points O 2O6.
a
d
Udb
Vd

C
O2O6

r
o From O2, O6 draw a line  to O2A in the direction of rotation equal to 50.8
mm/sec.
r
o From a draw a line  to Ac and from O2, O6 draw a line along the line of
stocks of c to intersect the previously drawn line at c.
o Mark point b on vector ac such that ab
r r
o From b draw a line  to BD and from O2, O6 draw a line  to O6D to
intersect at d.

Step 4: Vd = O6d = 32 mm/sec

bd

Vc = O2C

ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE

 Problem 1: In a slider crank mechanism shown in offset by a
perpendiculardistance of 50 mm from the centre C. AB and BC are 750 mm and
200 mm long respectively crank BC is rotating e at a uniform speed of 200
rpm. Draw the velocity vector diagram and determine velocity of slider A and
angular velocity of link AB.

58
 B

50 mm

 Problem 2: For the mechanism shown in figure determine the velocities at

pointsC, E and F and the angular velocities of links, BC, CDE and EF.

C All dimensions are in mm

120
E
B
100
100 60 120 150
rpm 120 o F
A D
50

 The crank op of a crank and slotted lever mechanism shown in figure rotates at
100 rpm in the CCW direction. Various lengths of the links are OP = 90 mm,
OA = 300 mm, AR = 480 mm and RS = 330 mm. The slider moves along an
r
axis perpendicular to  AO and in 120 mm from O. Determine the velocity of
o
the slider when |AOP is 135 and also mention the maximum velocity of slider.

o
45
B
O
C

D
A

59
 Problem 4: Find the velocity of link 4 of the scotch yoke mechanism shown
infigure. The angular speed of link 2 is 200 rad/sec CCW, link O 2P = 40 mm.

4
P

2
Q on link 4
o
45

 Problem 5: In the mechanism shown in figure link AB rotates uniformly in

Cdirection at 240 rpm. Determine the linear velocity of B and angular velocity
of EF.

E C AB = 160 mm
B BC = 160 mm
CD = 100 mm
o
A 45 AD = 200 mm
EF = 200 mm
100 mm CE = 40 mm
F

60
 Unit – III
PLANE MOTION OF BODY & GYROSCOPIC MOTION
PRECESSION

 Instantaneous Method
To explain instantaneous centre let us consider a plane body P having a non-
linear motion relative to another body q consider two points A and B on body P
having velocities as Va and Vb respectively in the direction shown.

Va
A
B Vb
I P

Fig. 1
r
If a line is drawn  to Va, at A the body can be imagined to rotate about
r
some point on the line. Thirdly, centre of rotation of the body also lies on a line  to
the direction of Vb at B. If the intersection of the two lines is at I, the body P will be
rotating about I at that instant. The point I is known as the instantaneous centre of
rotation for the body P. The position of instantaneous centre changes with the
motion of the body.

Va
A P

B Vb
q
I

Fig. 2
r
In case of the  lines drawn from A and B meet outside the body P as shown in Fig 2.

Va
A B Vb

I at 
Fig. 3
r
If the direction of Va and Vb are parallel to the  at A and B met at . This is the
case when the body has linear motion.

61
 Number of Instantaneous Centers
The number of instantaneous centers in a mechanism depends upon number
of links. If N is the number of instantaneous centers and n is the number of links.
nn 1
N=
2

 Types of Instantaneous Centers

There are three types of instantaneous centers namely fixed, permanent and
neither fixed nor permanent.

Example: Four bar mechanism. n = 4.

N= nn 1= 44 16

22
I13

I34
3

I23

4
2

I24
I12 1 I14

Fixed instantaneous center I12, I14

Permanent instantaneous center I23, I34
Neither fixed nor permanent instantaneous center I13, I24

 Arnold Kennedy theorem of three centers:

Statement: If three bodies have motion relative to each other, their
instantaneouscenters should lie in a straight line.

62
Proof:
I13
VA3 VA2
1
I12

2
3
I23
A

Consider a three link mechanism with link 1 being fixed link 2 rotating about
I12 and link 3 rotating about I13. Hence, I12 and I13 are the instantaneous centers for
link 2 and link 3. Let us assume that instantaneous center of link 2 and 3 be at point
A i.e. I23. Point A is a coincident point on link 2 and link 3.

Considering A on link 2, velocity of A with respect to I12 will be a vector

r
VA2 to link A I12. Similarly for point A on link 3, velocity of A with respect to I13
r
will be  to A I13. It is seen that velocity vector of V A2 and VA3 are in different
directions which is impossible. Hence, the instantaneous center of the two links
cannot be at the assumed position.

It can be seen that when I23 lies on the line joining I12 and I13 the VA2 and VA3
will be same in magnitude and direction. Hence, for the three links to be in relative
motion all the three centers should lie in a same straight line. Hence, the proof.

Steps to locate instantaneous centers:

Step 1: Draw the configuration diagram.

Step 2: Identify the number of instantaneous centers by using the relation

N =n 1n .
2

Step 3: Identify the instantaneous centers by circle diagram.

Step 4: Locate all the instantaneous centers by making use of Kennedy’s theorem.

To illustrate the procedure let us consider an example.

63
 A slider crank mechanism has lengths of crank and connecting rod equal to
200 mm and 200 mm respectively locate all the instantaneous centers of the
o
mechanism for the position of the crank when it has turned through 30 from IOC.
Also find velocity of slider and angular velocity of connecting rod if crank rotates at
40 rad/sec.
Step 1: Draw configuration diagram to a suitable scale.
Step 2: Determine the number of links in the mechanism and find number of
instantaneous centers.

N =n 1n
2

n = 4 links N = 44 1 = 6

2
I13

I24
A
3
2
200 I23 800
B
o
I12 30 4

O 1 1 I12

I14 to  I14 to 

Step 3: Identify instantaneous centers.

o Suit it is a 4-bar link the resulting figure will be a square.
1 I12 2
1 2 3 4
I24
I12 I23 I34
I41 I23 OR
I13 I24
I13
I14

4 I34 3

o Locate fixed and permanent instantaneous centers. To locate neither fixed

nor permanent instantaneous centers use Kennedy’s three centers theorem.

64
Step 4: Velocity of different points.
Va = 2 AI12 = 40 x 0.2 = 8 m/s
also Va = 2 x A13
3 =
Va
AI13

Vb = 3 x BI13 = Velocity of slider.

 Problem 2:
A four bar mechanisms has links AB = 300 mm, BC = CD = 360 mm and AD =
600 mm. Angle | BAD60o . Crank AB rotates in C direction at a speed of 100
rpm. Locate all the instantaneous centers and determine the angular velocity of link
BC.

 Solution:
Step 1: Draw the configuration diagram to a suitable scale.

Step 2: Find the number of Instantaneous centers

N = n 1n = 44 1 = 6

2 2

Step 3: Identify the IC’s by circular method or book keeping method.

1 I12 2

I12 1 2 3 4

I12 I23 I34

I14 I23 OR
I13 I24
I13
I14
4 I34 3

Step 4: Locate all the visible IC’s and locate other IC’s by Kennedy’s theorem.

65
 I13

C
3
I34
B
I23
4
2

I24 I12 I14D

A 1

Vb =  2 x BI12 = 2 x 100 x 0.3 m / sec

60
Also Vb = 3 x BI13
V
3 = b
 rad / sec
BI13
 For a mechanism in figure crank OA rotates at 100 rpm clockwise using I.C.
method determine the linear velocities of points B, C, D and angular velocities
of links AB, BC and CD.
OA = 20 cm AB = 150 cm BC = 60 cm
CD = 50 cm BE = 40 cm OE = 135 cm
C
A 5 D
2 6
o 3
30 E 10 mm
1
O 4
B

Va = OA x OA

Va = 2 x 100 x 0.2  2.1 m / s

60
n = 6 links

N = nn 115
2

66
 1 2 3 4 5 6 5
12 23 34 45 56 4
3
13 24 35 46 2
14 25 36 1
15 26 ---
15
16
---
I16 @  I16 @  I16 @ 
I13

I45
5
I23 6
2 3
1 I14 I56
I12

I34
I15

Link 3 I13

A
3
B

Va = 3AI13

3 = Va  2.5 rad / sec

AI13
Vb = 3 x BI13 = 2.675 m/s

67
 Link 4 C

I14

4
B

Also Vb = 4 x BI14

4 = Vb 6.37 rad / sec

BI
14

VC = 4 x CI14 = 1.273 m/s

Link 5 C 5 D

I15

VC = 5 x CI15 Answers
Vb = 2.675 m/s
5 = VC 1.72 rad / sec VC = 1.273 m/s
AI15 Vd = 0.826 m/s
Vd = 5 x DI15 = 0.826 m/s ab = 2.5 rad/sec
bc = 6.37 rad/sec
cd = 1.72 rad/sec

 In the toggle mechanism shown in figure the slider D is constrained to move in a

horizontal path the crank OA is rotating in CCW direction at a speed of 180 rpm
the dimensions of various links are as follows:
OA = 180 mm CB = 240 mm
AB = 360 mm BD = 540 mm
Find,
i) Velocity of slider
ii) Angular velocity of links AB, CB and BD.

68
 A

o
45

360 B
105

D
C
n = 6 links

N = nn 115
2

1 2 3 4 5 6 5
12 23 34 45 56 4
3
13 24 35 46 2
14 25 36 1
15 26 ---
15
16 ---

I16 @  I16 @ 

A I15
I23
2
I16 @
I12 3 
I46 O
I13 I45
B I35
I34
4 5

C
6
I24 I56

69
 Va = 2 x AI12 = 3.4 m/s

Link 3 A

3

I13

Va = 3 x AI13
3 = a2.44 rad / secAI13
V

Vb = 3 x BI13
B
Link 4
4

C I14

Vb = 4 x BI14

4 = Vb 11.875 rad / sec

AI14

I15
Link 5

B
5

Vb = 5 x BI15

5 = Vb  4.37 rad / sec Answers

AI15 Vd = 2 m/s
Vd = 5 x DI15 = 2 m/s ab = 2.44 rad/sec
bc = 11.875 rad/sec
cd = 4.37 rad/sec

70
 Figure shows a six link mechanism. What will be the velocity of cutting tool D
and the angular velocities of links BC and CD if crank rotates at 10 rad/sec.
Q 25
o B
90
All dimensions
15 are in mm
15
C

45 45

60
A

15
o
30

I13 I14 I34

I16 @  I46
4

3
I45
I24
2
I23

I26 I12
5
I16 @ 
O

6
I16 @  I15
I56

71
 Va = 2 x AI12 = 10 x 0.015
Va = 2 x AI12 = 0.15 m/s

Link 3 I13 B

3

A
Va = 3 x AI13
V
a
3 =

Vb = 3 x BI13

Link 4 Q B
I14 4

Vb = 4 x BI14

4 = Vb  4.25 rad / sec

BI14
VC = 4 x CI14
Link 5 C

D I15

Answers
VC = 5 x CI15
Vd = 1.66 m/s
5 = VC  1.98 rad / sec
bc = 4.25 rad/sec
AI15
Vd = 5 x DI15 = 1.66 m/s cd = 1.98 rad/sec

72
 A whitworth quick return mechanism shown in figure has a fixed link OA and
crank OP having length 200 mm and 350 mm respectively. Other lengths are AR
= 200 mm and RS = 40 mm. Find the velocity of the rotation using IC method
o
when crank makes an angle of 120 with fixed link and rotates at 10 rad/sec.
R

S
6
A

4
1 P

O 2 3
B

Locate the IC’s

n = 6 links

N = nn 115
2

1 2 3 4 5 6 5
12 23 34 45 56 4
3
13 24 35 46 2
14 25 36 1
15 26 ---
15
16 ---

73
 I15

I16 @ 
I46
I45

6
5

I14
I56
1
4
I12
2 I23
3
I34

I24

VP = 2 x OP = ……… m/s

 Acceleration Analysis
Rate of change of velocity is acceleration. A change in velocity requires any
one of the following conditions to be fulfilled:
o Change in magnitude only
o Change in direction only
o Change in both magnitude and direction

When the velocity of a particle changes in magnitude and direction it has two
component of acceleration.

1. Radial or centripetal acceleration

c 2
f = r
Acceleration is parallel to the link and acting towards centre.

74
 A Va
t
A’ Va’ cosδθ O1 f oa oa
r δθ
δθ
c
f oa
O Va’ sinδθ
Va’ f oa
a1

Va’ = (ω + δ t) r
Velocity of A parallel to OA = 0
Velocity of A’ parallel to OA = Va’ sin δ θ
Therefore change in velocity = Va’ sin δ θ – 0
c
wad trsindq
Centripetal acceleration = f =
dt

as δt tends to Zero sin δ θ tends to δ θ

wrdq  a rdqdt 
dt

c 2
f = ωr (dθ/ dt) =ω r

But V = ωr or ω = V/r
c 2 2
Hence, f =ω r= V /r

2. Tnagential Acceleration:
Va’ = (ω + δ t) r
Velocity of A perpendicular to OA = Va Velocity
of A’ perpendicular to OA = Va’ cos δ θ
Therefore change in velocity = Va’ cos δ θ – Va
t
wad trcosdqwr
Tnagnetial acceleration = f =
dt

as δt tends to Zero cos δ θ tends to 1

75
 wr  a rdt  wr
dt

t
f = r

Example:
B

C 2
f ab =  AB
Acts parallel to BA and acts from B to A.

r
f ab

fab

t
f ab

t r
f = BA acts  to link.
r t
fBA = f BA + f BA

 Problem 1: Four bar mechanism. For a 4-bar mechanism shown in figure

drawvelocity and acceleration diagram.
All dimensions C
are in mm 66
B
50 56
 = 10.5 rad/sec
o
60
A D
100

76
 Solution:
Step 1: Draw configuration diagram to a scale.

Step 2: Draw velocity vector diagram to a scale.

Vb = 2 x AB
Vb = 10.5 x 0.05
Vb = 0.525 m/s
Vc
C

a1d

Vbc
b

Step 3: Prepare a table as shown below:

Sl. Direction Sense
Link Magnitude
No.
c 2 A
1. AB f =  ABr Parallel to AB
c 2
f = (10.5) /0.525
c 2
f = 5.51 m/s
c 2
2. BC f =  BCr Parallel to BC B
c
f = 1.75
t
f = r r to BC –
c 2
3. CD f =  CDr Parallel to DC D
c
f = 2.75
t
f =? r to DC –

Step 4: Draw the acceleration diagram.

el
11 to CD a1d1
el
11 to CD

c1

 to BC fbc c1
el
b1 el
b1 11 to AB
11 to BC

77
 o Choose a suitable scale to draw acceleration diagram.
o Mark the zero acceleration point a1d1.
o Link AB has only centripetal acceleration. Therefore, draw a line parallel to
2
AB and toward A from a1d1 equal to 5.51 m/s i.e. point b1.
2
o From b1 draw a vector parallel to BC points towards B equal to 1.75 m/s
1
(b 1).
1 r
o From b 1 draw a line  to BC. The magnitude is not known.
o From a1d1 draw a vector parallel to AD and pointing towards D equal to 2.72
2
m/s i.e. point c1.
1 r r
o From c 1 draw a line  to CD to intersect the line drawn  to BC at c1, d1c1
= fCD and b1c1 = fbc.

To determine angular acceleration.

t 1
f cb
BC = bc  1 1 34.09 rad / sec (CCW)
BC BC
t 1
f cc
CD = cd  1 1  79.11rad / sec (CCW)
CD CD

 Problem 2: For the configuration of slider crank mechanism shown in

figurebelow.
Calculate
i) Acceleration of slider B.
ii) Acceleration of point E.
iii) Angular acceleration of link AB.
If crank OA rotates at 20 rad/sec CCW.
 Solution:
E All dimensions
450 are mm
A

1600
480
o B
60

78
Step 1: Draw configuration diagram.

Step 2: Find velocity of A with respect to O.

Va = OA x OA
Va = 20 x 0.48
Va = 9.6 m/s

Step 4: Draw velocity vector diagram.

e

5.25

b O1g
9.7

Step 4:
Sl.
Link Magnitude Direction Sense
No.
c 2
1. OA f aO =  OAr = 192 Parallel to OA O
c 2
2. AB f ab =  abr = 17.2 Parallel to AB A
t r
f ab –  to AB –
3. Slider B – Parallel to Slider –

Step 5: Draw the acceleration diagram choosing a suitable scale.

fb
fab o1g1
t
f ab

1
b 1 192
c
f ab
172
a1

e1 ee1

79
 o Mark o1g1 (zero acceleration point)

o Draw o1g1 = C acceleration of OA towards ‘O’.

1 2 1 r
o From a1 draw a1b 1 = 17.2 m/s towards ‘A’ from b 1 draw a line  to AB.
o From o1g1 draw a line along the slider B to intersect previously drawn line at
b1, a1b1fab
2
g1b1= fb= 72 m/s .
a1b1 A1R1
o Extend a1b1 = a1e1 such that  .
ABAE
2
o Join e1 to 1g1, g1 e1 = fe = 236 m/s .
fabt b1b1 167 2
o ab =   = 104 rad/sec (CCW).
ABAB1.6
Answers:
2
fb = 72 m/sec

 Problem 3: In a toggle mechanism shown in figure the crank OA rotates at

2
210rpm CCW increasing at the rate of 60 rad/s .

 Velocity of slider D and angular velocity of link BD.

 Acceleration of slider D and angular acceleration of link BD.

A
150
200
o
45

400 B
300 500
D D

Q G

Step 1 Draw the configuration diagram to a scale.

80
Step 2 Find
Va = OA x OA
2210
Va = x 0.2 = 4.4 m/s

Step 3: Draw the velocity vector diagram.

a b

d o1,q,g

Step 4:
2
Sl. Link Magnitude m/s Direction Sense
No.
c 2
1. f aO =  r = 96.8 Parallel to OA  O
AO 
t r –
f aO = r = 12  to OA

2. c 2  A
f ab =  r = 5.93 Parallel to AB

AB r
t
f ab = r =  to AB –

3. c 2  Q
f bq =  r = 38.3 Parallel to BQ

BQ r
t
f bq = r =  to BQ –

r
4. BD c 2
f bd =  r = 20  to BD  B

r
5. t
f bd = r =  to BD –
Slider D 
– Parallel to slider motion –

Step 5: Draw the acceleration diagram choosing a suitable scale.

o Mark zero acceleration point.

81
 fbd
fd
d1 O1q1g1

1
q1

fab
1 1
b 1 c d 1
f OA
b1
a1
ftOA
1
a 1
1 c 1 t r
o Draw o1a 1 = f OA and a 1a = f OA to OA from
o
o1a1= fa
c 1 r
o From a1 draw a1b1f ab , from b 1 draw a line  to AB.
1 c 1 r
o From o1q1g1 draw o1q 1 = f bq and from q 1 draw a line a line  to BQ to
intersect the previously drawn line at b1

q1b1 f bq a1b1= fab

c 1 c
o From b1 draw a line parallel to BD = f bd such that b1d 1 = f bd.
1 r
o From d 1 draw a line  to BD, from o1q1g1 draw a line along slider D to
meet the previously drawn line at .
2
o g1d1 f d= 16.4 m/sec .
2
o b1d1 f bd= 5.46 m/sec .
fbd 5.46 2
o BD =  109.2 rad / sec
BD0.5

Answers:
Vd = 2.54 m/s
bd = 6.32
rad/s 2
2

82
  Coriolis Acceleration: It has been seen that the acceleration of a body may
havetwo components.

 Centripetal acceleration and

 Tangential acceleration.

However, in same cases there will be a third component called as corilis

acceleration to illustrate this let us take an example of crank and slotted lever
mechanisms.
P P1

2 B2
Q B1

B on link 3 d

3 A1
A on link 2
d 2

Assume link 2 having constant angular velocity 2, in its motions from OP
to OP1 in a small interval of time t. During this time slider 3 moves outwards from
position B to B2. Assume this motion also to have constant velocity V B/A. Consider
the motion of slider from B to B2 in 3 stages.
1. B to A1 due to rotation of link 2.
2. A1 to B1 due to outward velocity of slider VB/A.
r
3. B1 to B2 due to acceleration  to link 2 this component in the coriolis
component of acceleration.

We have Arc B1B2 = Arc QB2 – Arc QB1

= Arc QB2 – Arc AA1
 Arc B1B2 = OQ d - AO d
= A1B1 d
2
= VB/A2dt

83
 r t
The tangential component of velocity is  to the link and is given by V =
r. In this case  has been assumed constant and the slider is moving on the link
with constant velocity. Therefore, tangential velocity of any point B on the slider 3
t
will result in uniform increase in tangential velocity. The equation V = r remain
r
same but r increases uniformly i.e. there is a constant acceleration  to rod.

2
 Displacement B1B2 = ½ at
2
= ½ f (dt)
2 2
 ½ f (dt) = VB/A2 dt
cr
f B/A = 22 VB/A coriolis acceleration

The direction of coriolis component is the direction of relative velocity

o
vector for the two coincident points rotated at 90 in the direction of angular
velocity of rotation of the link.

Figure below shows the direction of coriolis acceleration in different situation.

fcr

2
2
2

fcr
(a) Rotation CW slider (b) Rotation CW slider
moving up moving down

fcr

2 2

fcr
(c) Rotation CCW slider (d) Rotation CCW slider
moving up moving down

84
A quick return mechanism of crank and slotted lever type shaping machine is
shown in Fig. the dimensions of various links are as follows.

O1O2 = 800 mm, O1B = 300 mm, O2D = 1300 mm and DR = 400 mm

The crank O1B makes an angle of 45o with the vertical and rotates at
40 rpm in the CCW direction. Find:
iii) Acceleration of the Ram R, velocity of cutting tool, and
iv) Angular Acceleration of link AD.
Solution:
Step 1: Draw the configuration diagram.

R
R 200
Tool D D
B on orank, A B
B
C
O 45o
C on AD 2
O

A
A

Step 2: Determine velocity of point B.

85
 Vb = OB x OB

2 x 40
 OB=
2N
O1B   4.18rad / sec
60 60

Vb = 4.18 x 0.3 = 1.254 m/sec

Step 3: Draw velocity vector diagram.

Choose a suitable scale 1 cm = 0.3 m/sec

b
d

r o.a

Step 4: prepare table showing the acceleration components

2
Sl. Link Magnitude m/s Direction Sense
No.
c 2
f ob =  r =5.24 Parallel to OB O
1. OB
–
c 2
f ac =  r Parallel to AB A
2. AC t r
f ac = r  to AB –
s
f bc =r Parallel to AB _
3. BC cc r
f bc = 2v =  to AC –
c 2
f bd =  r = 20
Parallel to DR D
t r
4. DR f bd = r  to BD _
t
5. Slider R f bd = r Parallel to slider motion –

86
 r1 fr
o1a1
t
f dr

c
b ’’ f ob

fad
t
f ab
’
d1 b1
c
f dr
’
r1

fob
b1 s
f ab
cc
f bc

b1’’’

Acceleration of Ram = fr = o1 r

Angular Acceleration of link AD

f
bd
 bd = BD

KLENIN’S Construction

This method helps us to draw the velocity and acceleration diagrams on

the construction diagram itself. The crank of the configuration diagram
represents the velocity and acceleration line of the moving end (crank).

The procedure is given below for a slider crank mechanism.

87
 A
ω
800
200
45º B

To draw the velocity vector diagram:

Link OA represents the velocity vector of A with respect to O.

Voa = oa = ω r = ω OA.

b
b o

a
800
200 ω
a
45º

Draw a line perpendicular at O, extend the line BA to meet this

perpendicular line at b. oab is the velocity vector diagram rotated through
90º opposite to the rotation of the crank.

Acceleration diagram:
The line representing Crank OA represents the acceleration of A with
respect to O. To draw the acceleration diagram follow the steps given
below.
  Draw a circle with OA as radius and A as centre.
  Draw another circle with AB as diameter.
  The two circles intersect each other at two points C and D.
 Join C and D to meet OB at b1 and AB at E.

O1,a1,ba1and b1 is the required acceleration diagram rotated through 180º.

88
 fb O1
b1
t
f ab
fab
fa
ba1
c
f ab
a1 a
ω
ba1
200
800
45º
B

O1 b1

89
 Unit – IV
CAMS AND FOLLOWERS, STEERING GEARS
CAMS
INTRODUCTION
A cam is a mechanical device used to transmit motion to a follower by direct contact. The
driver is called the cam and the driven member is called the follower. In a cam follower pair,
the cam normally rotates while the follower may translate or oscillate. A familiar example is
the camshaft of an automobile engine, where the cams drive the push rods (the followers) to
open and close the valves in synchronization with the motion of the pistons.
Types of cams
Cams can be classified based on their physical shape.
a) Disk or plate cam (Fig. 4.1a and b): The disk (or plate) cam has an irregular contour
toimpart a specific motion to the follower. The follower moves in a plane perpendicular to the
axis of rotation of the camshaft and is held in contact with the cam by springs or gravity.

Fig. 4.1 Plate or disk cam.

b) Cylindrical cam (Fig. 6.2): The cylindrical cam has a groove cut along its
cylindricalsurface. The roller follows the groove, and the follower moves in a plane parallel to
the axis of rotation of the cylinder.

Fig. 4.2 Cylindrical cam.

c) Translating cam (Fig. 4.3a and b). The translating cam is a contoured or grooved platesliding
on a guiding surface(s). The follower may oscillate (Fig. 4.3a) or reciprocate (Fig. 4.3b). The
contour or the shape of the groove is determined by the specified motion of the follower.

90
Fig. 4.3 Translating cam
Types of followers:
(i) Based on surface in contact. (Fig.4.4)
(a) Knife edge follower
(b) Roller follower
(c) Flat faced follower
(d) Spherical follower

Fig. 4.4 Types of followers

(ii) Based on type of motion: (Fig.4.5)

(a) Oscillating follower
(b) Translating follower

Fig.4.5

91
(iii) Based on line of motion:
(a) Radial follower: The lines of movement of in-line cam followers pass through the
centers of the camshafts (Fig. 4.4a, b, c, and d).
(b) Off-set follower: For this type, the lines of movement are offset from the centers of the
camshafts (Fig. 4.6a, b, c, and d).

Fig.4.6 Off set followers

Cam nomenclature (Fig. 4.7):

Fig.4.7
Cam Profile The contour of the working surface of the cam.
Tracer Point The point at the knife edge of a follower, or the center of a roller, or the center
of a spherical face.
Pitch Curve The path of the tracer point.

92
Base Circle The smallest circle drawn, tangential to the cam profile, with its center on the
axis of the camshaft. The size of the base circle determines the size of the cam.

Prime Circle The smallest circle drawn, tangential to the pitch curve, with its center on the
axis of the camshaft.

Pressure Angle The angle between the normal to the pitch curve and the direction of motion
ofthe follower at the point of contact.
Types of follower motion:
Cam follower systems are designed to achieve a desired oscillatory motion. Appropriate
displacement patterns are to be selected for this purpose, before designing the cam surface.
The cam is assumed to rotate at a constant speed and the follower raises, dwells, returns to its
original position and dwells again through specified angles of rotation of the cam, during each
revolution of the cam.
Some of the standard follower motions are as follows:
They are, follower motion with,
(a) Uniform velocity
(b) Modified uniform velocity
(c) Uniform acceleration and deceleration
(d) Simple harmonic motion
(e) Cycloidal motion
Displacement diagrams: In a cam follower system, the motion of the follower is veryimportant.
Its displacement can be plotted against the angular displacement θ of the cam and it is
called as the displacement diagram. The displacement of the follower is plotted along the y-axis
and angular displacement θ of the cam is plotted along x-axis. From the displacement diagram,
velocity and acceleration of the follower can also be plotted for different angular displacements
θ of the cam. The displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams are plotted for one cycle of
operation i.e., one rotation of the cam. Displacement diagrams are basic requirements for the
construction of cam profiles. Construction of displacement diagrams and calculation of
velocities and accelerations of followers with different types of motions are discussed in the
following sections.
(a) Follower motion with Uniform velocity:
Fig.6.8 shows the displacement, velocity and acceleration patterns of a follower having
uniform velocity type of motion. Since the follower moves with constant velocity, during rise
and fall, the displacement varies linearly with θ. Also, since the velocity changes from zero to
a finite value, within no time, theoretically, the acceleration becomes infinite at the beginning
and end of rise and fall.

93
 Fig.4.8

(b) Follower motion with modified uniform velocity:

It is observed in the displacement diagrams of the follower with uniform velocity that the
acceleration of the follower becomes infinite at the beginning and ending of rise and return
strokes. In order to prevent this, the displacement diagrams are slightly modified. In the
modified form, the velocity of the follower changes uniformly during the beginning and end of
each stroke. Accordingly, the displacement of the follower varies parabolically during these
periods. With this modification, the acceleration becomes constant during these periods,
instead of being infinite as in the uniform velocity type of motion. The displacement, velocity
and acceleration patterns are shown in fig.4.9.

94
 fig.4.9

(c) Follower motion with uniform acceleration and retardation (UARM):

Here, the displacement of the follower varies parabolically with respect to angular
displacement of cam. Accordingly, the velocity of the follower varies uniformly with respect
to angular displacement of cam. The acceleration/retardation of the follower becomes constant
accordingly. The displacement, velocity and acceleration patterns are shown in fig. 4.10.

95
 Fig.4.10
s = Stroke of the follower
θo and θr = Angular displacement of the cam during outstroke and return stroke.
ω = Angular velocity of cam.
o
Time required for follower outstroke = to =

r
Time required for follower return stroke = tr =


Average velocity of follower =

s
t

96
 s vo vo
Average velocity of follower during outstroke = 2  s  min max

t
to 2 o 2
vomin = 0

 vo max  2s  2 s = Max. velocity during outstroke.

t 
o o
s vr vr
Average velocity of follower during return stroke = 2  s  min max
t
r tr 2
2
vrmin = 0

 vr  2s  2 s = Max. velocity during return stroke.

max t 
r r

Acceleration of the follower during outstroke = a o  vo max  4 s

2

to  2
o
2
4 s
2
Similarly acceleration of the follower during return stroke = a r 
 2
r

l
(d) Simple Harmonic Motion: In fig.4.11, the motion executed by point P , which is the
projection of point P on the vertical diameter is called simple harmonic motion. Here, P moves
with uniform angular velocity ωp, along a circle of radius r (r = s/2).

p' p

y r
a
x

Fig.4.11
Displacement = y  r sin r sinp t ; ymaxr [d1]

Velocity = y  prcos pt ; y maxr p [d2]

Acceleration = y  r sin t  r
2
p p p
2 y ; y max p
2 [d3]

97
 Fig.4.11
s= Stroke or displacement of the follower.
θo = Angular displacement during outstroke.
θr = Angular displacement during return stroke
ω = Angular velocity of cam.
o
to = Time taken for outstroke =

r
tr = Time taken for return stroke =

Max. velocity of follower during outstroke = vomax = rωp (from d2)

vomax = s   s
2 t o 2 o

Similarly Max. velocity of follower during return stroke = , vr max = s   s

2 tr 2 r

s   22 s
2
2
Max. acceleration during outstroke = ao max = rω p (from d3) =   
2t
 
2

o 2o
s   2   s
2 2
Similarly, Max. acceleration during return stroke = armax =
   2

2t
 

 r  2 r

98
(e) Cycloidal motion:
Cycloid is the path generated by a point on the circumference of a circle, as the circle rolls
without slipping, on a straight/flat surface. The motion executed by the follower here, is
similar to that of the projection of a point moving along a cyloidal curve on a vertical line as
shown in figure 4.12.

a7
F
a6 O
L
L
a5 O
CYCLOIDAL W
E
MOTION R
a4 66
M
a3 O
T
I
O
a2 N
a1
a

21

Fig.412
The construction of displacement diagram and the standard patterns of velocity and
acceleration diagrams are shown in fig.4.13. Compared to all other follower motions, cycloidal
motion results in smooth operation of the follower.
The expressions for maximum values of velocity and acceleration of the follower are shown
below.
s = Stroke or displacement of the follower.
s
d = dia. of cycloid generating circle = 
θo = Angular displacement during outstroke.
θr = Angular displacement during return stroke
ω = Angular velocity of cam.
o
to = Time taken for outstroke =

r
tr = Time taken for return stroke =

2s
vomax = Max. velocity of follower during outstroke = o
2 s
vrmax = Max. velocity of follower during return stroke =  r

99
 2 s
2
aomax = Max. acceleration during outstroke =
 2
o

2 s
2
armax = Max. acceleration during return stroke = 2
 r

Fig. 4.13

100
Solved problems
(1) Draw the cam profile for following conditions:
Follower type = Knife edged, in-line; lift = 50mm; base circle radius = 50mm; out stroke with
0 0 0
SHM, for 60 cam rotation; dwell for 45 cam rotation; return stroke with SHM, for 90 cam
rotation; dwell for the remaining period. Determine max. velocity and acceleration during out
stroke and return stroke if the cam rotates at 1000 rpm in clockwise direction.
Displacement diagram:

6 f g
5 e h
4 d i

c j LIFT=50mm
3
b k
2
a l
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
OUTSTROKE DWELL RETURNSTROKE DWELL

Cam profile: Constructbase circle. Mark points 1,2,3…..in direction opposite to the direction
of cam rotation. Transfer points a,b,c…..l from displacement diagram to the cam profile and join
them by a smooth free hand curve. This forms the required cam profile.

d
c
e
b
a
f
1
3 2
4
5
6 60°

45° 50

8 90°
g
9
10
11 12
h
l
i k
j

101
Calculations:
2N 21000
Angular velocity of cam =   =104.76 rad/sec
60 60
s
Max. velocity of follower during outstroke = vomax = 2o =
104.7650 
= =7857mm/sec =7.857m/sec2 
3
s
Similarly Max. velocity of follower during return stroke = , vr max = 2 r =

= 104.76  50 = 5238mm/sec = 5.238m/sec


2
2
2  2 2 s
Max. acceleration during outstroke = ao max = rω p (from d3) = =
2 o 2

 2 104.76  50  2469297.96mm/sec
2
2
= = 2469.3m/sec 2
 2
2  3
Similarly, Max. acceleration during return stroke = ar max =
22 s
=
2 r
2

2 104.76  50  1097465.76mm/sec 2 = 1097.5m/sec 2

2
=

2  2 2

102
(2) Draw the cam profile for the same operating conditions of problem (1), with the
follower off set by 10 mm to the left of cam center.
Displacement diagram: Same as previous case.

Cam profile: Construction is same as previous case, except that the lines drawnfrom 1,2,3….
are tangential to the offset circle of 10mm dia. as shown in the fig.

d c
e b
a
f 1 10
3 2
4
5
60°
6

50mm
45°

7 90°
8
g 9
10 11 12

h l
k
i j

103
(3) Draw the cam profile for following conditions:
Follower type = roller follower, in-line; lift = 25mm; base circle radius = 20mm; roller radius
0 0
= 5mm; out stroke with UARM, for 120 cam rotation; dwell for 60 cam rotation; return
0
stroke with UARM, for 90 cam rotation; dwell for the remaining period. Determine max.
velocity and acceleration during out stroke and return stroke if the cam rotates at 1200 rpm in
clockwise direction.

Displacement diagram:

f g
e h
d i

c j

25
LIFT

b k
a l
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

OUT STROKE DWELL RETURNSTROKE DWELL

Cam profile: Construct base circle and prime circle (25mm radius). Mark points 1,2,3…..in
direction opposite to the direction of cam rotation, on prime circle. Transfer points a,b,c…..l
from displacement diagram. At each of these points a,b,c… draw circles of 5mm radius,
representing rollers. Starting from the first point of contact between roller and base circle,
draw a smooth free hand curve, tangential to all successive roller positions. This forms the
required cam profile.

a
b
1 0
c
2
3
d
0°
20mm
4
12

5
e
60° 0°9 12 l
6 11
k
10
9
f 7 8
j

h
g

104
Calculations:
 2N 2 1200 
Angular velocity of the cam = 125.71rad/sec
60 60
Max. velocity during outstroke = vomax  2s  2 s =
to o
2125.7125
=  2999.9mm/sec =2.999m/sec
2 
3
Max. velocity during return stroke = vr 2s  2 s  2 125.71 25 
tr r 
max
2
= 3999.86mm/sec = 3.999m/sec
4 s
2
Acceleration of the follower during outstroke = a o  vo max  =
to  2
o
2

= 4 125.71  25  359975mm/sec = 359.975m/sec

2 2 2

2  3  2

4 s
2
Similarly acceleration of the follower during return stroke = a  =
r
r
2

= 4 125.71  25  639956mm/sec = 639.956m/sec

2 2 2

 2  2

105
(4) Draw the cam profile for conditions same as in (3), with follower off set to right of
cam center by 5mm and cam rotating counter clockwise.
Displacement diagram: Same as previous case.

Cam profile: Construction is same as previous case, except that the lines drawn from 1,2,3….
are tangential to the offset circle of 10mm dia. as shown in the fig.

a
1 b
5 2 c
20mm 12
3
0° d

l 12 90° 4

11 5 e
k 60°
10 6
9
j 8
7
f

h
g

106
(5) Draw the cam profile for following conditions:
Follower type = roller follower, off set to the right of cam axis by 18mm; lift = 35mm; base
circle radius = 50mm; roller radius = 14mm; out stroke with SHM in 0.05sec; dwell for
0.0125sec; return stroke with UARM, during 0.125sec; dwell for the remaining period. During
return stroke, acceleration is 3/5 times retardation. Determine max. velocity and acceleration
during out stroke and return stroke if the cam rotates at 240 rpm.
Calculations:
Cam speed = 240rpm. Therefore, time for one rotation =
60
0.25 sec240
0.05 0
Angle of out stroke = o  360  72
0.25
0.0125 0
Angle of first dwell = w1  360  18
0.25
0.125 0
Angle of return stroke = r 360180
0.25
0
Angle of second dwell = w290
Since acceleration is 3/5 times retardation during return
3 a 3
stroke, a  r (from acceleration diagram) 
5 r 5
v v t
But a max ; r max  a  r  3
t t
a r r ta 5
Displacement diagram is constructed by selecting ta and tr accordingly.

5 6 f g
e h i
4 d j
k
c LIFT = 35 mm
3 l
b
2 m
a
n
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
OUT STROKE DWELL RETURNSTROKE DWELL

ta
tr

vr-max

107
 2N 2240
Angular velocity of cam =   =25.14 rad/sec
60 60
s
Max. velocity of follower during outstroke = vomax = 2 o =
 25.14  35

= 
2 2 5  = 1099.87mm/sec =1.1m/sec
Similarly Max. velocity during return stroke = vr  2s  2  25.14  35 
max
r 
= 559.9 mm/sec = 0.56m/sec
Max. acceleration during outstroke = aomax = rω p (from d3) =   s
2 2 2
=
2 2
o

 25.14  35
2 2
 69127.14mm/sec 2 = 69.13m/sec 2
=

2 2 52

acceleration of the follower during return stroke =

vr
 2sr  16  s  16 25.14  35 = 7166.37 mm/sec = 7.17m/sec
2 2 2 2
a  max
r
ta 5  5 r 5  
8 
similarly retardation of the follower during return stroke =
vr
 2sr  16  s  16 25.14  35 = 11943.9 mm/sec = 11.94m/sec
2 2 2 2
r  max
r
tr 3  3 r 3 
8 
18

a b c
1 d

2
3 e

4
72°
f
5

6
14
18°
n

7 g

13
m 180°
8
12
9
11 h
10
l

i
k
j

108
(6) Draw the cam profile for following conditions:
Follower type = knife edged follower, in line; lift = 30mm; base circle radius = 20mm; out
0 0
stroke with uniform velocity in 120 of cam rotation; dwell for 60 ; return stroke with uniform
0
velocity, during 90 of cam rotation; dwell for the remaining period.
Displacement diagram:

f g
e h
d i
c j 30mm
b k
a l

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

OUT STROKE DWELL RETURNSTROKE DWELL

Cam profile:

b a
c
2 1
3 90°
d 4 20°
1

5 12
e
6 60° 0°9 11 l
10 k
f 78 9
j

i
h
g

109
(7) Draw the cam profile for following conditions:
Follower type = oscillating follower with roller as shown in fig.; base circle radius = 20mm;
0 0
roller radius = 7mm; follower to rise through 40 during 90 of cam rotation with cycloidal
0 0
motion; dwell for 30 ; return stroke with cycloidal motion during 120 of cam rotation; dwell
for the remaining period. Also determine the max. velocity and acceleration during outstroke
and return stroke, if the cam rotates at 600 rpm.

76
B
76

36
O

40°
A


Lift of the follower = S = length AB  arc AB = OA7640 = 53 mm.
180
53
Radius of cycloid generating circle = 2  = 8.4 mm
Displacement diagram;

9 8
16.8 10 7
11
12 f g
e h
d i

c j 53

b k
a l
4 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3 6
2 1

OUT STROKE DWELL RETURNSTROKE DWELL

110
 2N 2600
Angular velocity of cam =   = 62.86 rad/sec
60 60
2 s 2  62.86  53

vomax = Max. velocity of follower during outstroke = = 4240.2 mm/sec o  
2
2 s 2  62.86  53
vrmax = Max. velocity of follower during return stroke = r  2  = 3180 mm/sec
3
2 s 2 62.86  53
2 2
2

aomax = Max. acceleration during outstroke = o


2
 2
2

= 533077 mm/sec
2

= 533.1 m/sec .
2 s 2 62.86  53
2 2

armax = Max. acceleration during return stroke =  2 r =   2  3  2

2 2

= 299855.8mm/sec = 299.8 m/sec .

Cam profile: Draw base circle and prime circle. Draw another circle of radius equal to the

point as reference and draw lines indicating successive angular displacements of cam. Divide these
into same number of divisions as in the displacement diagram. Show points 1’, 2’, 3’… on
the outer circle. With these points as centers and radius equal to length of follower arm, draw arcs,
cutting the prime circle at 1,2,3…. Transfer points a,b,c.. on to these arcs from displacement
diagram. At each of these points a,b,c… draw circles of 7mm radius, representing
rollers. Starting from the first point of contact between roller and base circle, draw a smooth free
hand curve, tangential to all successive roller positions. This forms the required cam profile.

76
c
b
d a
12'
36 1' 3 2 1
4 120°
e 5
6
2' f 90° 1 20°

11'
7
8 30°
9 10 11 12
3' m

l 10'
g
4'
k
h 9'
5' i

6'
8'
7'

111
(8) Draw the cam profile for following conditions:
Follower type = knife edged follower, in line; follower rises by 24mm with SHM in 1/4
rotation, dwells for 1/8 rotation and then raises again by 24mm with UARM in 1/4 rotation and
dwells for 1/16 rotation before returning with SHM. Base circle radius = 30mm.
1 0
Angle of out stroke (1) = θ01 = 360  900
4
1
Angle of dwell (1) = 3600450
8
1
Angle of out stroke (2) = θ02 = 3600  900
4
1 0
Angle of dwell (2) =  3600  22.5
16
Angle of return stroke = θ r =  
1
1  1  1  1 
  360
 5  360 0  112.5 0
  4 8 4 16  16
Displacement diagram:
m n

k l o
24 j p
h
g
e f i q
d
c 24mm
r
b
a s

1 23 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

OUT STROKE1 DWELL 1 OUT STROKE2 DWELL 2 RETURNSTROKE

Cam profile:

r
c b a s q
d 2 1 19 18
3 p
e 4 90° 17
5
112.5°
16
f 6 60
15
45° o
22.5° 14
7
90°
8
9 12 13

10 11 n
g
h
i m
j l
k

112
(9) Draw the cam profile for following conditions:
0
Follower type = flat faced follower, in line; follower rises by 20mm with SHM in 120 of cam
0 0
rotation, dwells for 30 of cam rotation; returns with SHM in 120 of cam rotation and dwells
during the remaining period. Base circle radius = 25mm.
Displacement diagram:

f g
e h
d i
c j

20
b k
a l
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

OUT STROKE DWELL RETURNSTROKE DWELL

Cam profile: Construct base circle. Mark points 1,2,3…..in direction opposite to the direction
of cam rotation, on prime circle. Transfer points a,b,c…..l from displacement diagram. At each
of these points a,b,c… draw perpendicular lines to the radials, representing flat faced followers.
Starting from the first point of contact between follower and base circle, draw a smooth free hand
curve, tangential to all successive follower positions. This forms the required cam profile.

25
a
b
1
c 2
3 90°
d 4 2 0°

e 5 0°
6
3
120° 12 l

11
7
f 8 9 10 k

g j

i
h

113
(10) Draw the cam profile for following conditions:
Follower type = roller follower, in line; roller dia. = 5mm; follower rises by 25mm with SHM
0
in 180 of cam rotation, falls by half the distance instantaneously; returns with Uniform
0
velocity in 180 of cam rotation. Base circle radius = 20m.

Displacement diagram:

f
d e
c g
25
b h
a i j k l 12.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

OUTSTROKE RETURNSTROKE

Cam profile:

a l
b 1
11 k
2 10
c
3 9 j 45
20 R
8
4
d 7 i
5 6
h
g
e
f

114
(11) Draw the cam profile for following conditions:
Follower type = roller follower, off-set to the right by 5mm; lift = 30mm; base circle radius =
0 0
25mm; roller radius = 5mm; out stroke with SHM, for 120 cam rotation; dwell for 60 cam
0
rotation; return stroke during 120 cam rotation; first half of return stroke with Uniform
velocity and second half with UARM; dwell for the remaining period.

Displacement diagram:

f g
d e h
i
c j k l m no 30
b p
a q r
9
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Cam profile:

a
1 b

r 2 c
18
q
17 60° 3
p 16 120° d
15 4
o
14 120°
13 5
n
12 60° e
6
m 11
10
9
l 8 7
k f

i
h
g

115
(12) A push rod of valve of an IC engine ascends with UARM, along a path inclined to thevertical at
0
60 . The same descends with SHM. The base circle diameter of the cam is 50mm and the push rod has
a roller of 60mm diameter, fitted to its end. The axis of the roller and the cam fall on the same vertical
line. The stroke of the follower is 20mm. The angle of action for the outstroke and the return stroke is
0 0
60 each, interposed by a dwell period of 60 . Draw the profile of the cam.
Displacement diagram:

f g
e
h
d
i
c
20 j
b k l
a
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

OUT STROKE DWELL RETURNSTROKE DWELL

Cam profile:

60°

16 a b c de f
12 3
45
6
60°

66 50 60°
g
60° 7 h
8 i
12 10 9 j
l 11 k

116
 Unit - V
GEARS AND GEAR TRAINS, DESIGN OF FOUR BAR
MECHANISMS
Gear Trains

A gear train is two or more gear working together by meshing their teeth and turning each other in a
system to generate power and speed. It reduces speed and increases torque. To create large gear ratio,
gears are connected together to form gear trains. They often consist of multiple gears in the train.
The most common of the gear train is the gear pair connecting parallel shafts. The teeth of this type can
be spur, helical or herringbone. The angular velocity is simply the reverse of the tooth ratio.

Any combination of gear wheels employed to transmit motion from one

shaft to the other is called a gear train. The meshing of two gears may be
idealized as two smooth discs with their edges touching and no slip between
them. This ideal diameter is called the Pitch Circle Diameter (PCD) of the
gear.

Simple Gear Trains

The typical spur gears as shown in diagram. The direction of rotation is reversed from one gear to
another. It has no affect on the gear ratio. The teeth on the gears must all be the same size so if gear A
advances one tooth, so does B and C.

t = number of teeth on the gear,

v
D = Pitch circle diameter, N = speed in rpm
D v
m = module =
t
and 
module must be the same for all
A
B C
gears otherwise they would not mesh.

m = DA = DB = DC
tA tB tC
DA = m tA; DB = m tBandDC = m tC
 = angular velocity. GEAR 'A'
D GEAR 'B' GEAR 'C'
v = linear velocity on the circle. v =  = r (Idler gear )
2

Ref. from : Dr. T.V.Govindaraju. SSEC

117
Application:
a) to connect gears where a large center distance is required

b) to obtain desired direction of motion of the driven gear ( CW or CCW)

c) to obtain high speed ratio

Torque & Efficiency

The power transmitted by a torque T N-m applied to a shaft rotating at N rev/min is given by:
 2N T
P
60
In an ideal gear box, the input and output powers are the same so;

P 2N1T1  2N2T2
60 60
NT N T  T2  N1  GR
1 1 2 2
T1 N2
It follows that if the speed is reduced, the torque is increased and vice versa. In a real gear box, power is
lost through friction and the power output is smaller than the power input. The efficiency is defined as:
Power out 2N2 T260 N2 T 2
 Power In  2N T 60  N T
1 1 1 1
Because the torque in and out is different, a gear box has to be clamped in order to stop the case or body
rotating. A holding torque T3 must be applied to the body through the clamps.

The total torque must add up to zero.

T1 + T2 + T3 = 0

If we use a convention that anti-clockwise is positive and clockwise is negative we can determine the
holding torque. The direction of rotation of the output shaft depends on the design of the gear box.

Compound Gear train Input

Compound gears are simply a chain of simple gear
trains with the input of the second being the output of B
D
the first. A chain of two pairs is shown below. Gear B
is the output of the first pair and gear C is the input of A Output
the second pair. Gears B and C are locked to the same C
shaft and revolve at the same speed.
Compound Gears
For large velocities ratios, compound gear train GEAR 'B'
arrangement is preferred.
GEAR 'A'
The velocity of each tooth on A and B are the same GEAR 'D'
so: A tA = B tB -as they are simple gears. Likewise
for C and D, C tC = D tD. GEAR 'C'

Ref. from : Dr. T.V.Govindaraju. SSEC

118
 A  B and C   D
t t t t
B A D C

A  tBB and C tDD

tA TC
 t B tDD
A  C B 
tA tC
   t t 
A C B  D

 BDtCtA
Since gear B and C are on the same shaft
  B C
 t t 
t t   GR
A B D


D C A

Since 2 N
The gear ratio may be
written as :
N In t B t D
N Out   t A  tC  GR
Reverted Gear train
The driver and driven axes lies on the same line. These are used in speed reducers, clocks and machine
tools.
N tB tD
GR  
A
N t A tC
D

If R and T=Pitch circle radius & number of teeth of the gear

RA + RB = RC + RD and tA + tB = tC + tD

Ref. from : Dr. T.V.Govindaraju. SSEC

119
Epicyclic gear train:

Epicyclic means one gear revolving upon and

around another. The design involves planet and sun
gears as one orbits the other like a planet around the
sun. Here is a picture of a typical gear box.

This design can produce large gear ratios in a small

space and are used on a wide range of applications
from marine gearboxes to electric screwdrivers.

Basic Theory

The diagram shows a gear B on the end of an arm. Planet wheel

Gear B meshes with gear C and revolves around it B
B
when the arm is rotated. B is called the planet gear
and C the sun. Arm Arm 'A'

First consider what happens when the planet

gear orbits the sun gear. C
C
Sun wheel

Observe point p and you will see that gear B also revolves once on its own axis. Any object orbiting
around a center must rotate once. Now consider that B is free to rotate on its shaft and meshes with C.
Suppose the arm is held stationary and gear C is rotated once. B spins about its own center and the
tC
number of revolutions it makes is the ratio .Bwill rotate by this number for every complete
t
B
revolution of C.
tC
Now consider that C is unable to rotate and the arm A is revolved once. Gear B will revolve 1 
tB
because of the orbit. It is this extra rotation that causes confusion. One way to get round this is to
Ref. from : Dr. T.V.Govindaraju. SSEC

120
imagine that the whole system is revolved once. Then identify the gear that is fixed and revolve it back
one revolution. Work out the revolutions of the other gears and add them up. The following tabular
method makes it easy.

Suppose gear C is fixed and the arm A makes one revolution. Determine how many revolutions the
planet gear B makes.
Step 1 is to revolve everything once about the center.
Step 2 identify that C should be fixed and rotate it backwards one revolution keeping the arm fixed as it
should only do one revolution in total. Work out the revolutions of B.
Step 3 is simply add them up and we find the total revs of C is zero and for the arm is 1.

Step Action A B C
1 Revolve all once 1 1 1
Revolve C by –1 revolution, tC
2 0  -1
keeping the arm fixed tB
t
1
C
3 Add 1 0
tB

 tC 
The number of revolutions made by B is 1   Note that if C revolves -1, then the direction of B is
 
t
 B 
t

opposite so  C
.

Example: A simple epicyclic gear has a fixed sun gear with 100 teeth and a planet gear with 50 teeth.
Ifthe arm is revolved once, how many times does the planet gear revolve?

Solution:

Step Action A B C
1 Revolve all once 1 1 1
Revolve C by –1 revolution, 100
2 0  -1
keeping the arm fixed 50
3 Add 1 3 0

Gear B makes 3 revolutions for every one of the arm.

The design so far considered has no identifiable input and output. We need a design that puts an input
and output shaft on the same axis. This can be done several ways.

Ref. from : Dr. T.V.Govindaraju. SSEC

121
Problem 1: In an ecicyclic gear train shown in figure, the arm A is fixed to the shaft S. The wheel
Bhaving 100 teeth rotates freely on the shaft S. The wheel F having 150 teeth driven separately. If the
arm rotates at 200 rpm and wheel F at 100 rpm in the same direction; find (a) number of teeth on the
gear C and (b) speed of wheel B.

C
100 rpm

F150
S
B100

Arm A
C 200 rpm

Solution:
TB=100; TF=150; NA=200rpm; NF=100rpm:

Since the mod ule is same for all gears :

the number of teeth on the gears is proportional to the pitch cirlce :

  rF rB2rC
  TF TB2TC
 150  100  2 TC
TC25 Number of teeth on gears C

The gear B and gear F rotates in the opposite directions:

TB
 Train value 
TF
N
N NA
NL
TV   F
Arm
also N (general exp ression for epicyclic gear train)
NF Arm NBNA
T N N
   B F A

 N ATFNB
 100  100  200  N  350
E
150 N B200
The Gear B rotates at 350 rpm in the same direction of gears F and Arm A.

Ref. from : Dr. T.V.Govindaraju. SSEC

122
Problem 2: In a compound epicyclic gear train as shown in the figure, has gears A and an annular
gearsD & E free to rotate on the axis P. B and C is a compound gear rotate about axis Q. Gear A rotates
at 90 rpm CCW and gear D rotates at 450 rpm CW. Find the speed and direction of rotation of arm F
and gear E. Gears A,B and C are having 18, 45 and 21 teeth respectively. All gears having same module
and pitch.

P E
A
B
C Arm F
Q

Solution:
TA=18 ; TB=45; TC=21; NA = -90rpm; ND=450rpm:

Since the module and pitch are same for all gears :
the number of teeth on the gears is proportional to the pitch cirlce :

  rD rA rB rC

  TD TA TB TC
TD18452184 teeth on gear D

Gears A and D rotates in the opposite directions:

TA TC
 Train value   TB
T D
N N
NL D  N F
TV  
Arm
also N
NF NANF
T N N
Arm
T
   A
 C D F

TBNFTDNA

  18  21  450 NF
 84  90 NF45
 N F Speed of Arm 400.9 rpm  CW
Ref. from : Dr. T.V.Govindaraju. SSEC

123
 Now consider gears A, B and E:
rE rA2rB
 TE TA2TB
TE18245
TE108 Number of teeth on gear E

Gears A and E rotates in the opposite directions:

TA
 Train value 
TE
N E N F
also TV 
NANF
T N N
  A E FN

A N FTE

 18 NE 400.9
 90  400.9108
 N E Speed of gear E 482.72 rpm  CW

Problem 3: In an epicyclic gear of sun and planet type shown in figure 3, the pitch circle diameter ofthe
annular wheel A is to be nearly 216mm and module 4mm. When the annular ring is stationary, the spider
that carries three planet wheels P of equal size to make one revolution for every five revolution of the
driving spindle carrying the sun wheel.
Determine the number of teeth for all the wheels and the exact pitch circle diameter of the annular
wheel. If an input torque of 20 N-m is applied to the spindle carrying the sun wheel, determine the fixed
torque on the annular wheel.
Annular 'A'

Spider 'L'
Sun Wheel 'S'
Planet Wheel 'P'

Solution: Module being the same for all the meshing gears:
TA= TS+ 2TP
TAPCD of A21654 teeth
m 4
Ref. from : Dr. T.V.Govindaraju. SSEC

124
 Spider Annular wheel A
Operation Sun Wheel S Planet wheel P
arm L
TS TP TA= 54
Arm L is fixed & T T T T
Sun wheel S is 0 +1  S  S  P  S
given +1 revolution TP TP TA TA
Multiply by m T
(S rotates through 0 m 
TS
m  S
m
m revolution) TP TA
Add n revolutions T
T
n m+n n S m n S m
to all elements TP TA

If L rotates +1 revolution:  n=1 (1)

The sun wheel S to rotate +5 revolutions correspondingly:
 n+m=5 (2)
From (1) and (2) m=4

When A is fixed:

n  TS m 0 T  4T
A S
TA
54
 TS 13.5 teeth 4

But fractional teeth are not possible; therefore TS should be either 13 or 14 and TA
correspondingly 52 and 56.

Trial 1: Let TA= 52 and TS= 13

 T  TATS  52 13  19.5 teeth - This is impracticable
P
2 4
Trial 2: Let TA= 56 and TS= 14
 T  TATS  56 14  21teeth - This is practicable
P
2 4
 TA= 56, TS= 14 and TP = 21
 PCD of A = 56  4 = 224 mm
Also
Torque on LL = Torque on S S
Torque on LL = 20 5  100 Nm
1
 Fixing torque on A = (TL–TS) = 100 – 20 = 80 N-m

Ref. from : Dr. T.V.Govindaraju. SSEC

125
 D
Problem 4: The gear train shown in figure 4 A
isused in an indexing mechanism of a milling C Arm
machine. The drive is from gear wheels A and B B
to the bevel gear wheel D through the gear train. H
The following table gives the number of teeth on G
each gear.

Gear A B C D E F
Number of E
72 72 60 30 28 24 F
teeth
Diametral
08 08 12 12 08 08
pitch in mm

How many revolutions does D makes for one Figure 4

revolution of A under the following situations:
a. If A and B are having the same speed and same direction
b. If A and B are having the same speed and opposite direction
c. If A is making 72 rpm and B is at rest
d. If A is making 72 rpm and B 36 rpm in the same direction

Solution:
Gear D is external to the epicyclic train and thus C and D constitute an ordinary train.

Arm
Operation E (28) F (24) A (72) B (72) G (28) H (24)
C (60)
Arm or C is fixed
& wheel A is given 0 -1  28  7 +1 -1 +1 28  7
+1 revolution 24 6 24 6
Multiply by m
(A rotates through 0 -m  7m +m -m +m 7m
m revolution) 6 6
Add n revolutions 7 7
n n-m n m n+m n-m n+m n m
to all elements 6 6

(i) For one revolution of A: n+m=1 (1)

For A and B for same speed and direction: n+m = n–m (2)
From (1) and (2): n = 1 and m = 0

 If C or arm makes one revolution, then revolution made by D is given by:

N
 C 2
T 60
D

N C TD 30
 N D2 N C
(ii) A and B same speed, opposite direction: (n + m) = - (n–m) (3)
n = 0; m = 1
 When C is fixed and A makes one revolution, D does not make any revolution.
 
Ref. from : Dr. T.V.Govindaraju. SSEC

126
(iii) A is making 72 rpm: (n + m) = 72
B at rest (n–m) = 0  n = m = 36 rpm
60
  C makes 36 rpm and D makes36 72rpm30
(iv) A is making 72 rpm and B making 36 rpm
(n + m) = 72 rpm and (n–m) = 36 rpm
(n + (n–m)) = 72;  n = 54
60
 D makes54 108rpm
30 A2
P2 A1
Problem 5: Figure 5 shows a compound
P1
epicyclic gear train, gears S1 and S2 being
rigidly attached to the shaft Q. If the shaft P
rotates at 1000 rpm clockwise, while the P
Q
annular A2 is driven in counter clockwise
direction at 500 rpm, determine the speed S2
and direction of rotation of shaft Q. The S1
number of teeth in the wheels are S1 = 24;
S2= 40; A1= 100; A2= 120.
Figure 5
Solution:Consider the gear trainP A1S1:

Arm A1 Arm A1
Operation S1 (24) Operation S1 (24)
P (100) P (100)
100 P OR A1 P1
Arm P is fixed  P  1 Arm P is fixed  
1 24 & wheel A1 is P1 S1
&wheel A1 is 0 +1 0 -1
25 given -1 A1
given +1  revolution 
revolution 6 S1

Multiply by m 0 +m  25 m 0 -1 100  25
(A1 rotates through 6 24 6
m revolution) Add +1
n n+ m n  25 m revolutions to +1 0 25  1 31
Add n revolutions 6 6 6
to all elements all elements

n+ m; gives n=-m
If A1 is fixed:
NP  n 1  6
N n  25 n 31 31
S1 6 6

 N P  6 N S1
31
Ref. from : Dr. T.V.Govindaraju. SSEC

127
 Now consider whole gear train:

A1 A2 S1(24), S2 (40)
Operation
(100) (120) and Q Arm P

A1is fixed & 120 P2 3 6

 P  31
wheel A2 is given 0 +1 2 40
+1 revolution  3  18
31
Multiply by m 18
(A1 rotates through 0 +m 3m  m
m revolution) 31
Add n revolutions
n n+ m n3m n  18 m
to all elements 31

When P makes 1000 rpm: n  18 m =1000 (1)

31
andA2 makes – 500 rpm: n+ m = -500 (2)
18
from (1) and (2): 500m m1000
31
311000500  31 49 m
 m 949 rpm
and n 949500449 rpm
 NQ= n – 3 m = 449–(3-949) = 3296 rpm

Problem 6. An internal wheel

C
B with 80 teeth is keyed to a
shaft F. A fixed internal wheel Arm
B C
C with 82 teeth is concentric
E
with B. A Compound gears D- E D D
E meshed with the two internal B
F A
wheels. D has 28 teeth and
meshes with internal gear C A
while E meshes with B. The
compound wheels revolve B80
freely on pin which projects C82
D28
from a arm keyed to a shaft A N A=800rpm
co-axial with F. if the wheels
have the same pitch and the
shaft A makes 800 rpm, what is
the speed of the shaft F? Sketch
the arrangement.

Ref. from : Dr. T.V.Govindaraju. SSEC

128
Data: tB = 80; tC = 82; D = 28; NA = 800 rpm

Solution: The pitch circle radius is proportional to the number of teeth:

rC rD rB rE

tC tD tB tE
82  28  80 tE
tE26
 number of teeth on gear E

Compound Gear wheel

Operation Arm B (80) C (82)
E(26) D (28)
Arm is fixed & B
is given ONE 0 +1  80  80  80  28
revolution (CW) 26 26 26 82
Multiply by m
(B rotates 40 40 40 14
0 +m  m  m m
through m 13 13 13 41
revolution)
Add n 40 40 40 14
revolutions to all mn  mn
elements n m+n 13 m  n 13 13 41

Since the wheel C is fixed and the arm (shaft) A makes 800 rpm,

 n 800rpm
40 14
 mn
013 41
40 14
 m
800013 41
m 761.42rpm
Speed of gear B  m  n 761.4280038.58rpm
Speed of gear B  Speed of shaft F 38.58rpm

129
Problem 7: In the gear train shown, the wheel C is fixed, the gear B, is keyed to the input shaft and
thegear F is keyed to the output shaft.

Output
Shaft A E30

Input
Shaft
B20
F32

C80

The arm A, carrying the compound wheels D and E turns freely on the out put shaft. If the input speed is
1000 rpm (ccw) when seen from the right, determine the speed of the output shaft. The number of teeth
on each gear is indicated in the figures. Find the output torque to keep the wheel C fixed if the input
power is 7.5 kW.

Solution:
Data :
tB= 20; tC= 80; tD= 60; tE= 30; tF= 32; NB= 1000 rpm (ccw) (input speed); P = 7.5 kW

Compound Gear
Operation Arm B (20) wheel C (80) F (32)
Input
D (60) E (30)
1 60 1 30
Arm is fixed & 20 1 1  
B is given +1 0 +1  3 80 3 32
60 3 3
revolution  1  5
4 16
Multiply by m
1 1 1 5
(B rotates
through m
0 m m m  m  m
revolution) 3 3 4 16
Add n
revolutions to n m+n 1 m  n 1m  n n 1m n  5m
all elements 3 3 4 16

Input shaft speed = 1000 rpm (ccw)

i.e., gear B rotates – 1000 rpm
Ref. from : Dr. T.V.Govindaraju. SSEC

130
 m  n 1000
Gear C is fixed; n  1 m 0
4
 1000 m 0.25m 0
1000
m 800
1.25
n1000800200
5
Speed of F  n  m
16
5
  200  800  50
16
Speed of the output shaft F 50rpm (CW )
2N T
Input power  P  B B

60
21000T
7.51000 B
60
7500  60
TB 71.59Nm
2 1000
From the energy equation;
TB N B TF N F TC NC0
Since C is fixed: NC0
TB N B TF N F0
 71.59 1000 TF 50  0
TF1431.8Nm
From the torque equation :
TBTF TC0
  71.59 1431.8 TC 0
TC1360.21Nm
The Torque required to hold the wheel C = 1360.21 Nm in the same direction of wheel
Ref. from : Dr. T.V.Govindaraju. SSEC

131
Problem 8: Find the velocity ratio of two co- A1
axialshafts of the epicyclic gear train as shown in
A2
figure
6. S1is the driver. The number of teeth on the gearsare
S1 = 40, A1 = 120, S2 = 30, A2 = 100 and the sun P1 P2
wheel S2 is fixed. Determine also the magnitude and
direction of the torque required to fix S2, if a torque of
300 N-m is applied in a clockwise direction to S1

Solution: Consider first the gear trainS1,A1andA2for S1 S2

which A2 is the arm, in order to find the speed ratio
of S1 to A2, when A1 is fixed.

(a) Consider gear train S1,A1 and A2:

A2 A1
Operation
(100) (120)
S1(40) Figure 6
A2is fixed &
wheel A1 is given 0 +1  120  3
+1 revolution 40
Multiply by m
(A1 rotates through 0 +m 3m
m revolution)
Add n revolutions
n n+ m n 3 m
to all elements

A1 is fixed: m  n
N
S1
 n 3n  4
N
A2 n
N S14 N A2
(b) Consider complete gear train:

Operation A1(120) A2(100) S1(40) S2(30)

A1is fixed & wheel S2 is given 0  30  3  3  4  6 +1

+1 revolution 100 10 10 5
Multiply by m 0  3 m 6m +m
(A1 rotates through m revolution) 10 5

Add n revolutions to all elements n n 3 m n 6m n+ m

10 5

S2is fixed  m=-n

Ref. from : Dr. T.V.Govindaraju. SSEC

132
 N n 6 n
N 
S1 5  11  10  22
5 13 13
n 3 n
A2

10
Input torque on S1 = TS1 = 300 N-m, in the direction of rotation.

 Resisting torque on A2;

22
TA2300 507.7 N  m
13
 opposite to directiojn of rotation

Referring to the figure:

TS2507.7300207.7 N  m (CW )


S 1

T
S1

133