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ANTENNAS & WAVE PROPAGATION

Antenna fundamentals:

Unit - 1

Introduction
An antenna is defined by Webster’s Dictionary as “a usually metallic device (as a rod or
wire) for radiating or receiving radio waves.” The IEEE Standard Definitions of Terms
for Antennas (IEEE Std 145–1983) defines the antenna or aerial as “a means for radiating
or receiving radio waves.” In other words the antenna is the transitional structure between
free-space and a guiding device, as shown in Figure. The guiding device or transmission
line may take the form of a coaxial line or a hollow pipe (waveguide), and it is used to
transport electromagnetic energy from the transmitting source to the antenna or from the
antenna to the receiver. In the former case, we have a transmitting antenna and in the
latter a receiving antenna.

An antenna is basically a transducer. It converts radio frequency (RF) signal into

an electromagnetic (EM) wave of the same frequency.
It forms a part of transmitter as well as the receiver circuits. Its equivalent circuit is
characterized by the presence of resistance, inductance, and capacitance. The current
produces a magnetic field and a charge produces an electrostatic field. These two in turn
create an induction field.

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Definition of antenna
An antenna can be defined in the following different ways:
1. An antenna may be a piece of conducting material in the form of a wire, rod or
any other shape with excitation.
2. An antenna is a source or radiator of electromagnetic waves.
3. An antenna is a sensor of electromagnetic waves.
4. An antenna is a transducer.
5. An antenna is an impedance matching device.
6. An antenna is a coupler between a generator and space or vice-versa.

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Radiation Mechanism

The radiation from the antenna takes place when the Electromagnetic field generated
by the source is transmitted to the antenna system through the Transmission line and
separated from the Antenna into free space.

Radiation from a Single Wire

Assume the existence of a piece of very thin wire where electric currents can be excited.
The current I flowing through the wire cross-section S is defined as the amount of
charge passing through S in 1 second:
i S l1 S v, A 1.1

Where c / m 3  is the electric charge volume density,

vm / s is the velocity of the charges normal to the cross-section.
l1 m / s  is the distance traveled by a charge in 1 second.
Equation (1.1) can be also written as

J v , A / m2 1.2
Where j is the electric current density. The product 1 is the charge per unit
S
length (charge line density) along the wire. Thus, from (1.1) it follows that
i v 1.3
1
A.
It is then obvious that
di dv a, 1.4
1 1
dt dt A / s

Where am / s 2  is the acceleration of the charge. The time-derivative of a current source
would then by proportional to the amount of charge q enclosed in the volume of the
current element and to its acceleration :
di
l 1 a q a, 1.5
A m / s dt

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Radiation is produced by accelerated or decelerated charge (time-varying current

element)

Figure 1

It is not immediately obvious from Maxwell’s equations that the time varying current is
the source of radiated EM field. However, the system of the two first-order Maxwell’s
equations in isotropic medium,

h 1.6
 e
t
e
 h j
t
Can be easily reduced to a single second-order equation for the E vector, or for the H
vector. By taking the curl of both sides of the first equation in (1.6) and by making use of
the second equation in (1.6), we obtain
2
h j
 e  1.7

t2
t
From the vector wave equation (1.7), it is obvious that the time derivative of the
electric currents is the source for the wave-like propagation of the vector e in
homogeneous and isotropic medium. In an analogous way, one can obtain the wave
equation for the magnetic field H and its sources:

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To accelerate/decelerate charges, one needs sources of electromotive force and/or

discontinuities of the medium in which the charges move. Such discontinutities can
be bends or open ends of wires, change in the electrical properties of the region, etc.

. In summary:

It is a fundamental single wire antenna. From the principle of radiation there must be
some time varying current. For a single wire antenna,
1. If a charge is not moving, current is not created and there is no radiation.
2. If charge is moving with a uniform velocity:
a. There is no radiation if the wire is straight, and infinite in extent.
b. There is radiation if the wire is curved, bent, discontinuous, terminated, or
truncated, as shown in Figure.
3. If charge is oscillating in a time-motion, it radiates even if the wire is straight.

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Radiation from a Two Wire

Let us consider a voltage source connected to a two-conductor transmission line which is
connected to an antenna. This is shown in Figure (a). Applying a voltage across the two-
conductor transmission line creates an electric field between the conductors. The electric
field has associated with it electric lines of force which are tangent to the electric field at
each point and their strength is proportional to the electric field intensity. The electric
lines of force have a tendency to act on the free electrons (easily detachable from the
atoms) associated with each conductor and force them to be displaced. The movement of
the charges creates a current that in turn creates a magnetic field intensity. Associated
with the magnetic field intensity are magnetic lines of force which are tangent to the
magnetic field. We have accepted that electric field lines start on positive charges and
end on negative charges. They also can start on a positive charge and end at infinity, start
at infinity and end on a negative charge, or form closed loops neither starting or ending
on any charge. Magnetic field lines always form closed loops encircling current-carrying
conductors because physically there are no magnetic charges. In some mathematical
formulations, it is often convenient to introduce equivalent magnetic charges and
magnetic currents to draw a parallel between solutions involving electric and magnetic
sources.
The electric field lines drawn between the two conductors help to exhibit the
distributionof charge. If we assume that the voltage source is sinusoidal, we expect the
electric field between the conductors to also be sinusoidal with a period equal to that of
the applied source. The relative magnitude of the electric field intensity is indicated by
the density (bunching) of the lines of force with the arrows showing the relative direction
(positive or negative). The creation of time-varying electric and magnetic fields between
the conductors forms electromagnetic waves which travel along the transmission line, as
shown in Figure 1.11(a). The electromagnetic waves enter the antenna and have
associated with them electric charges and corresponding currents. If we remove part of
the antenna structure, as shown in Figure (b), free-space waves can be formed by

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“connecting” the open ends of the electric lines (shown dashed). The free-space waves
are also periodic but a constant phase point P0 moves outwardly with the speed of light
and travels a distance of λ/2 (to P1) inthe time of one-half of a period. It has been shown
that close to the antenna the constant phase point P0 moves faster thanthe speed of light
but approaches the speed of light at points far away from the antenna (analogous to phase
velocity inside a rectangular waveguide).

Radiation from a Dipole

Now let us attempt to explain the mechanism by which the electric lines of force are
detached from the antenna to form the free-space waves. This will again be illustrated by
an example of a small dipole antenna where the time of travel is negligible. This is only
necessary to give a better physical interpretation of the detachment of the lines of force.
Although a somewhat simplified mechanism, it does allow one to visualize the creation
of the free-space waves. Figure(a) displays the lines of force created between the arms of

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a small center-fed dipole in the first quarter of the period during which time the charge
has reached its maximum value (assuming a sinusoidal time variation) and the lines have
traveled outwardly a radial distance λ/4. For this example, let us assume that the number
of lines formed is three. During the next quarter of the period, the original three lines
travel an additional λ/4 (a total of λ/2 from the initial point) and the charge density on the
conductors begins to diminish. This can be thought of as being accomplished by
introducing opposite charges which at the end of the first half of the period have
neutralized the charges on the conductors. The lines of force created by the opposite
charges are three and travel a distance λ/4 during the second quarter of the first half, and
they are shown dashed in Figure (b). The end result is that there are three lines of force
pointed upward in the first λ/4 distance and the same number of lines directed downward
in the second λ/4. Since there is no net charge on the antenna, then the lines of force must
have been forced to detach themselves from the conductors and to unite together to form
closed loops. This is shown in Figure(c). In the remaining second half of the period, the
same procedure is followed but in the opposite direction. After that, the process is
repeated and continues indefinitely and electric field patterns are formed.

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Current distribution on a thin wire antenna

Let us consider a lossless two wire transmission line in which the movement of charges
creates a current having value I with each wire. This current at the end of the
transmission line is reflected back, when the transmission line has parallel end points
resulting in formation of standing waves in combination with incident wave.

When the transmission line is flared out at 900 forming geometry of dipole
antenna (linear wire antenna), the current distribution remains unaltered and the
radiated fields not getting cancelled resulting in net radiation from the dipole. If the
length of the dipole L< , the phase of current of the standing wave in each transmission
line remains same.

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If diameter of each line is small d<< , the current distribution along the lines will be
sinusoidal with null at end but overall distribution depends on the length of the dipole
(flared out portion of the transmission line).

The current distribution for dipole of length

l<<

For
l= /2

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For /2<l<

When l> , the current goes phase reversal between adjoining half-cycles. Hence,
current is not having same phase along all parts of transmission line. This will
result into interference and canceling effects in the total radiation pattern as shown in the
figure.

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ANTENNA PARAMETERS

INTRODUCTION:
To describe the performance of an antenna, definitions of various parameters are
necessary. Some of the parameters are interrelated and not all of them need be specified
for complete description of the antenna performance.

RADIATION PATTERN
An antenna radiation pattern or antenna pattern is defined as “a mathematical function or
a graphical representation of the radiation properties of the antenna as a function of space
coordinates. In most cases, the radiation pattern is determined in the far field region and
is represented as a function of the directional coordinates. Radiation properties include
power flux density, radiation intensity, field strength, directivity, phase or polarization.”
The radiation property of most concern is the two- or three dimensional spatial
distribution of radiated energy as a function of the observer’s position along a path or
surface of constant radius. A convenient set of coordinates is shown in Figure 2.1. A trace
of the received electric (magnetic) field at a constant radius is called the amplitude field
pattern. On the other hand, a graph of the spatial variation of the power density along a
constant radius is called an amplitude power pattern.

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Often the field and power patterns are normalized with respect to their maximum value,
yielding normalized field and power patterns. Also, the power pattern is usually plotted
on a logarithmic scale or more commonly in decibels (dB). This scale is usually desirable
because a logarithmic scale can accentuate in more details those parts of the pattern that
have very low values, which later we will refer to as minor lobes.

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For an antenna, the

a. field pattern( in linear scale) typically represents a plot of the magnitude of the electric
or magnetic field as a function of the angular space.
b. power pattern( in linear scale) typically represents a plot of the square of the magnitude
of the electric or magnetic field as a function of the angular space.
c. power pattern( in dB) represents the magnitude of the electric or magnetic field, in
decibels, as a function of the angular space.

Isotropic, Directional, and Omni directional Patterns:

An isotropic radiator is defined as “a hypothetical lossless antenna having equal radiation
in all directions.” Although it is ideal and not physically realizable, it is often taken as a
reference for expressing the directive properties of actual antennas. A directional antenna
is one “having the property of radiating or receiving electromagnetic waves more
effectively in some directions than in others. This term is usually applied to an antenna
whose maximum directivity is significantly greater than that of a half-wave dipole.”
Examples of antennas with directional radiation patterns are shown in Figures 2.5 and
2.6. It is seen that the pattern in Figure 2.6 is non directional in the azimuth plane [f (φ), θ
= π/2] and directional in the elevation plane [g(θ), φ = constant]. This type of a pattern is
designated as Omni directional, and it is defined as one “having an essentially non
directional pattern in a given plane (in this case in azimuth) and a directional pattern in
any orthogonal plane (in this case in elevation).” An Omni directional pattern is the
special type of a directional pattern.

Principal Patterns
For a linearly polarized antenna, performance is often described in terms of its principal
E- and H-plane patterns. The E-plane is defined as “the plane containing the electric field
vector and the direction of maximum radiation,” and the H-plane as “the plane containing
the magnetic-field vector and the direction of maximum radiation.” Although it is very
difficult to illustrate the principal patterns without considering a specific example, it is

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the usual practice to orient most antennas so that at least one of the principal plane
patterns coincide with one of the geometrical principal planes. An illustration is shown in
Figure 2.5. For this example, the x-z plane (elevation plane; φ = 0) is the principal E-
plane and the x-y plane (azimuthal plane; θ = π/2) is the principal H-plane. Other
coordinate orientations can be selected.
The omni directional pattern of Figure 2.6 has an infinite number of principal E-planes
(elevation plan es; φ = φc) and one principal H-plane (azimuthal plane; θ = 90◦).

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Radian and Steradian

The measure of a plane angle is a radian. One radian is defined as the plane angle with its
vertex at the center of a circle of radius r that is subtended by an arc whose length is r. A
graphical illustration is shown in Figure 2.10(a). Since the circumference of a circle of
radius r is C = 2πr, there are 2π rad (2πr/r) in a full circle.

The measure of a solid angle is a steradian. One steradian is defined as the solid angle

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with its vertex at the center of a sphere of radius r that is subtended by a spherical surface
area equal to that of a square with each side of length r. A graphical illustration is
showninFigure 2.10(b). Since the area of a sphere of radius r is A = 4πr2, there are 4π sr
(4πr2/r2) in a closed sphere.

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Beam Area (or beam solid angle):

In polar two dimensional coordinates an incremental area dA on the surface of a sphere is

the product of length rd in the direction (latitude) and rsin d in the
direction (longitude), as shown in the figure.

Thus,
dA rd r sin d  r2 d
Where
d = solid angle expressed in steradians (sr) or square degrees
d = solid angle subtended by the area dA

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Solid angle

In 1 steradian 3283

In sphere 41,253
The area of the strip of width rd extending around the sphere at a constant angle is
given by (2 rsin )(rd ).Integrating this for values from 0 to yields the area of the
sphere.
Thus,

Area of sphere = 2 r2 sin d 2 r 2  cos 0 4 r2

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Where 4 =solid angle subtended by the sphere,sr

Thus,
1steradian=1sr=(solid angle of sphere)/(4 )
= I rad2 =(180/ )2(deg)2 = 3282.8064 square degrees
Therefore,

4 steradians = 3283.8064 X 4 =41,252.96 41,253square deg rees 41,2530

= solid angle in the sphere.
The beam area or beam solid angle or A of an antenna is given by the integral
of normalized power pattern over a sphere (4 sr)

The bean area A is the solid angle through which all of the power radiated by
the antenna would stream if P ( , ) is maintained its maximum value over A and was
zero elsewhere. Thus the power radiated= P( , ) A watts.
The beam area of an antenna can often be described approximately in terms of the angles
subtended by the half-power points of the main lobe in the two principal planes.
Thus,
Beamarea A (sr )
HP HP
Where HP and HP are the half-power beam widths (HPBW) in the two principal
planes, minor lobes being neglected.

Radiation Intensity:

The power radiated from an antenna per unit solid angle is called the radiation intensity
U (watts per steradian or per square degree).

U ,  S , 
Pn  , 
U , S ,
max max

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Whereas the Poyinting vector S depends on the distance from the antenna (varying
inversely as the square of the distance), the radiation intensity U is independent pf the
distance, assuming in both cases that we are in the far field of the antenna.

Beam Efficiency
The total beam area A(or beam solid angle) consists of the main beam area (or solid
angle) M plus the minor –lobe area (or solid angle) m .

Thus,

The ratio of the minor-lobe area ( m) to the (total)beam area is called the stray factor.

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