Magnetic Fields and Electric Current

Goals:
To examine the effect that magnetic fields have on moving charges. To examine the magnetic field produced by a long, straight current-carrying wire.

Equipment:
Phys212 LabKit Module Magnetic compass (2) Stackable banana-plug connecting wires 2-m length of insulated wire Vertical stand, clamp, and horizontal rod e/m equipment (Helmholtz coil, discharge tube, power supply) Software: Microsoft Excel

Introduction:
Magnetic fields share many similarities to the electric fields which we have studied in detail, but there are some critical differences which will explore in this laboratory activity. First of all, magnetic fields will be measured in units of tesla (T), where 1 tesla = 1 newton per amp-meter (1 T = 1 N / Am). In the first portion of todays lab, we will explore the ways in which magnetic fields can exert a force on moving charges.

For a charge q moving with velocity v in the presence of a magnetic field B , the force exerted on the charge by the field is given by (Eq. 1) F qv B .
Note the cross product in the above calculation: this implies that the direction of the force on the charged particle will always be perpendicular to both the velocity and the field. We will make frequent use of the right-hand rule to help us determine the direction of this force. A magnetic field will also exert a force on a current-carrying wire. This should make sense, as an electric current is simply the flow of charge. So, very similarly to Eq. 1, we can write the force exerted by a magnetic field B on a straight wire of length L carrying a current i as F iL B , (Eq. 2) where the direction of L is defined to be the direction of the (conventional) current. In the second portion of todays lab activity, we will explore how magnetic fields are produced. We will come to find that magnetic fields are produced by moving charges (and hence, also by electric currents.) The magnetic field produced by a current or moving charge can be determined by using two fundamental laws: the Biot-Savart law (which is the magnetic analog of Coulombs

law for electricity) and Ampres law (which is the magnetic analog of Gauss law for electricity). Much as we can break down a complicated charge distribution into infinitesimal pieces of charge, and compute their infinitesimal contribution to the electric field some distance away, we can also break down a complicated current distribution into infinitesimal current elements and compute their infinitesimal contribution to the magnetic field some distance away. The Biot Savart law does exactly that. It states that the magnetic field contribution dB due to an infinitesimal length element ds carrying an electric current i is given by R 0 i ds , (Eq. 3) dB 3 4 R where 0 is a constant of nature known as the permeability of free space (defined to be equal to 0 = 4 107 Tm / A), and R is the displacement vector pointing from the current element to the point at which the field contribution is to be found. The total magnetic field at a point can be found by integrating Eq. 3 over the current distribution. Much as Gauss law afforded us with a simpler way of calculating the electric field when we could employ symmetry considerations, Ampres law provides us with a simpler method of finding the magnetic field around a current distribution when that distribution possesses some symmetries. It states that the integral of the magnetic field component along a closed path, integrated over that path, is proportional to the amount of current enclosed by the loop. In equation form, it reads (Eq. 4) B ds 0 ienc . To summarize, equations 1 and 2 allow us to determine the force on moving charges (or currents) due to any magnetic fields present, and equations 3 and 4 allow us to determine the nature of the magnetic fields created by moving charges (or currents).

We will employ all of these ideas today to help us gain a better understanding of magnetism, especially the motion of charged bodies moving in a uniform magnetic field. To begin, well repeat a classic experiment in which we attempt to determine the ratio of the charge on an electron to its mass, i.e., the ratio e/m for an electron. We will use a beam of electrons whose energy (and hence speed) can be controlled by varying a known accelerating voltage. The electron beam is formed inside a glass sphere containing nitrogen at a residual pressure of approximately 102 torr. When the electrons collide with the nitrogen molecules, they cause the latter to emit a faint bluish radiation. This glow will emanate from wherever the electrons collide with the gas molecules, and as such, will give us a visual cue (visible in a darkened room) as to what path the electrons are following. The electrons will be emitted from an indirectly heated cathode, and will be accelerated through a known electrostatic potential difference V after they are emitted. By conservation of energy, the potential energy lost by the electrons (recall: U = qV) as they move through the accelerating

voltage V will be converted into kinetic energy. Under the condition that the electrons accelerate from rest, we can relate the kinetic energy gained to the potential energy lost via
1 2

mv 2

eV
(Eq. 5)

or, equivalently,
v 2eV . m

After the electrons have been accelerated up to this speed v, the electron beam enters a region with a uniform magnetic field B , with the field oriented perpendicular to the motion of the beam. Upon entering this region, the electrons in the beam will travel a circular path at the constant speed v. Recall that, for any massive object to travel in a circular path at a constant velocity, a force must be continuously directed toward the center of the circle to provide what we call a centripetal acceleration. Here, the magnetic force on a moving charge is providing this centripetal force. We thus set the force on a charged particle in a magnetic field (Eq. 1) equal to the centripetal force, and solve for the ratio e/m:
evB e m m v rB v2 r

(Eq. 6)

Using Eq. 5 above, we can eliminate the speed of the electrons in favor of the accelerating voltage V:

e m e m
1

1 rB
2

2eV m 2V rB

(Eq. 6)

So, if we simultaneously measure the radius r of the circular path, the strength of the uniform magnetic field B, and the accelerating voltage V, then we will be able to determine the ratio e/m for an electron. As well see, the accelerating voltage and radius of the path will be fairly straightforward to measure, but well determine the magnetic field strength less directly. To create the uniform magnetic field in this experiment, we will use a a pair of current-carrying coils (known as a Helmholtz coil arrangement). In this configuration, the coil separation d is set equal to the coil radius a. The magnetic field along the axis has a uniform value B (cf. Halliday, Resnick & Walker, 7th Edition, problems 29.50P and 29.80P) given by
B 8 0 NI , 3 5 2a

(Eq. 7)

where N is the number of turns in each coil, I is the current in each coil, and a is again, the radius of the coil. For our apparatus, N= 130 and a = 0.15 m. With this information, you can determine the magnetic field strength by measuring the electric current passing through the coils.

Name: ____________________________ Name: ____________________________ Name: ____________________________

Date: ______________ Lab Sect.: __________ Lab Instructor: ______________________

Directions:
Lab Activity 1: Measuring the charge-to-mass ratio for electrons In this first activity, we will use the fact that magnetic fields exert a force on moving charges to determine the charge-to-mass (e/m) ratio for electrons. If you have not already done so, carefully read the introduction of this activity to decide what quantities you will need to measure and how you will need to combine them in order to determine e/m. The apparatus to be used for this activity is shown below. Helmholtz Coils Discharge Tube

DC Power Supply
Voltage Current

Helmholtz Coil Current Control This equipment should have already been properly set up for you. If it does not appear to be connected, please make sure you consult your instructor. Then follow the directions provided in precise order. The equipment consists of two separate items as shown in the figure above: o The e/m apparatus (Helmholtz coil and discharge tube). Note that the equipment as set up in the lab will have a wooden cover over this to make it easier to see the glowing electron path. o The discharge tube power supply.

Make sure that all the knobs on the power supply are turned all the way down (counterclockwise) and the Helmholtz coil current control indicated above is turned all the way up (clockwise). Switch the power supply on and wait for a couple of minutes for the cathode to heat up. Start turning up the left voltage knob on the power supply slowly until you read a voltage of around 200 V on the digital display. Record the exact value of this voltage. Accelerating voltage V: ______________________ Look through the window in the wooden cover at the right side of the glass sphere: you should be able to see a faintly glowing electron beam going vertically downwards. Turn the current knob on the power supply till the current display reads about 2 A. The maximum current through the Helmholtz coils is 2 A, so please do not exceed this value. The electron beam should now be visible as a circle. You should not need to change any settings on the power supply for the rest of this activity. Only adjust the Helmholtz coils settings. Q1. Why do the electrons follow a circular path when current flows through the Helmholtz coil?

Now, start varying the current using the Helmholtz coil current control on the e/m apparatus. Note that as you decrease the current, the diameter of the circle changes. You can see that the left side of the circle passes over numbers on a linear scale that glow as the beam hits them. The number that you read is the diameter of the circle in centimeters. Q2. Record (in the table provided) the current I through the Helmholtz coils and the diameter d of the circular electron path. Make sure that you convert the diameter into meters. Repeat this procedure for 10 different pairs of the current I and the diameter d. After youve taken all your data, switch off everything: first turn the Helmholtz current control knob on the e/m apparatus all the way up and then turn down the current to zero using the knob on the power supply. After this, turn down the voltage to zero. Finally, you can switch off the power supply. Enter the data from the table above into an Excel spreadsheet that: o Calculates the magnetic field B from your measured current I (refer to Eq. 7 in the introduction); o Calculates (1/r) from d, where r is the radius of the circle (in meters). Create a plot of (1/r) versus B.

Deduce an average value for the ratio e/m by fitting the data to a straight line. (Refer to Eq. 6 in the introduction for help in determining the ratio e/m from this plot.) Include your Excel spreadsheet, graph and any relevant analysis with your report. Coil current I (A) Circle diameter d (m)

Q3. How does your value of the charge-to-mass ratio for an electron compare with the established one (e/m = 1.756 1011 C/kg)? Identify any possible sources of error that might have caused a discrepancy.

Lab Activity 2: Measuring the magnetic field of a current-carrying wire If it is not already arranged for you, set up the experiment shown in the figure below using the LabKit module, the long insulated wire and the stand/clamps provided. Your goal is to create a long (~50 cm) vertical segment of current-carrying wire that is relatively isolated from other sources of magnetic fields so that you may qualitatively study the field immediately around the wire.

Try to arrange to have the thin, insulated wire run from the switch on the LabKit board vertically upward to the horizontal pole, where it can be taped or wrapped to keep the wire relatively straight. From there, the wire should run across the pole and back down to the battery module. We want to use the momentary position of the switch (position A) to let us connect the circuit for brief moments at a time, while we measure the magnetic field around the wire with a magnetic compass. The conventional current should travel from the positive terminal of the battery to the central terminal of the switch, from terminal A of the switch it should travel up the vertical wire segment, and then back to the negative terminal of the battery along the remainder of the wire. To connect the thin insulated wire to the LabKit board and batteries, you may want to use the holes on the sides of the posts near the switch and batteries (thread the post up and down to secure the thin wire). (Note: to achieve the greatest possible magnetic field, we will use both batteries connected together in series to generate our electric current.) Q4. For the wire segment shown below, use the Biot-Savart Law and/or a "right-hand rule" to qualitatively sketch the magnetic field lines produced by the current traveling up ward through the vertical segment of the insulated wire.

i I

side view

birds-eye view

Next, use your magnetic compass to confirm your expectations. Remember that the compass is always subject to the Earth's magnetic field, and is also affected by other external factors such as the proximity of other magnetic objects or electrical currents. Typical values for the strength of the Earths magnetic field are around 5 105 T. Keep in mind that magnetic fields obey superposition, so that you can always subtract the effect of any "background" magnetic fields by carrying out measurements with and without a current in the wire. Finally, a cautionary note: the painted end of your compass needle is supposed to be the "North" pole of the needle; however, your compass needle may be mislabeled! Check to make sure which end of the needle is "North." Now that you have located "North", slowly move your compass around the wire while the circuit is not connected. Does the compass point consistently to the "North"? If not, you will need to move your test set up to a location where stray magnetic fields are less noticeable.

Q5. While viewing your experimental set up from above, complete the following diagram to show the compass needle direction without and with current in the wire, when the compass is held midway up the wire at the four positions depicted.

Without current in wire

With current flowing up wire

Q6. By your observations in Q5, and predictions from Q4, how do the magnitudes of the field produced by the current in the wire and the Earths magnetic field compare; is one much larger than the other or are they comparable; which is larger? (The Earths magnetic field is approximately 5 105 T). Do your results of Q5 confirm your expectations for the magnetic field produced by the current in the wire? Explain clearly why or why not.

Q7. What do you expect will happen to the magnetic field lines if the current direction is reversed? Justify this using: (a) the right-hand rule (thumb in the direction of current version)

(b) the Biot-Savart Law

Describe the results of an experiment that tests your prediction.

Q8. Order of magnitude estimate: what is the approximate magnetic field strength in the experiment you just carried out at a distance of 1 cm from the center of the wire? Specify your approximations and assumptions.

Compare this with the magnetic field of the Earth. Do your results agree with what you observed in Q5? Explain.