Vol. 11(4) pp.

95-105, April 2017

DOI: 10.5897/AJFS2016.1544
Article Number: 2B0B62663349
ISSN 1996-0794 African Journal of Food Science
Copyright © 2017
Author(s) retain the copyright of this article
http://www.academicjournals.org/AJFS

Review

Traditional butter and ghee production, processing and

handling in Ethiopia: A review
Alganesh Tola Gemechu1* and Yetenayet Bekele Tola2
1
Agriculture and Nutrition Research Laboratories, Holeta Agricultural Research Center, Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural
Research, P. O. Box 036, Ethiopia.
2
Department of Post Harvest Management, Jimma University College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Jimma
University, P. O. Box 307, Ethiopia.

Received 26 November, 2016; Accepted 16 February, 2017

In this review, traditional methods of processing, handling and indigenous preservation techniques of
butter and ghee were assessed. In Ethiopia, butter and ghee processing are the responsibility of
women. Traditional butter and ghee making in Ethiopia are based on indigenous knowledge using local
materials and methods. Butter is made by churning naturally fermented milk. Butter is a raw material for
ghee making. Salting, spicing, nigur kibe and traditional ghee making are major methods of butter
preservation. Traditional ghee can be made from untreated butter, spiced butter, salted butter and nigur
kibe. Butter and ghee are important components of Ethiopian traditional diets. Furthermore, butter is
used for hair dressing and wound treatment. Ghee is commonly used for culinary, social functions and
therapeutic purposes. There is scanty information on chemical and microbial quality of butter. Both
butter and ghee are shelf stable dairy products but ghee is more shelf stable than butter. The chemical
composition and microbial quality of butter is substandard. However, so far there is no such
information on ghee quality. Hence, the quality and safety of traditional butter and ghee are subjects of
further investigation.

Key words: Traditional, butter, ghee, production, processing, handling, preservation.

INTRODUCTION

Demand for dairy products has increased in the tropical and value of butter as a food, sub Saharan Africa in self
areas including Ethiopia as people's income has been general and Ethiopia in particular have failed to attain
growing. Like other countries, Ethiopians have been sufficiency in dairy products. Butter fat is the second
using milk products such as butter and ghee as part of largest component of milk product and is of major
their diet since pre-historic times (Zelalem et al., 2011). commercial value. It serves as an energy source and
Despite milk's contribution to gross domestic product supplies essential fatty acids. Such indigenous dairy

*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]. Tel: 251912862017.

Author(s) agree that this article remains permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License 4.0 International License
96 Afr. J. Food Sci.

products made from different milk sources are processing p practices of butter and ghee from cow milk.
traditionally produced and consumed in most of African
countries including Ethiopia (Ashenafi, 2006; Almaz et al.,
2001). Milk collection, cleaning and fumigation of churns
Worldwide, butter is made from a variety of animal milk and traditional butter making
including cow, goat, camel, buffalo and sheep (Curry,
2013). However, in Ethiopia, butter, locally named as In Ethiopia, smallholder butter making is based on
„dhadha/kibe’ is solely produced from cow milk. Rural naturally fermented sour (ergo/ itittu) milk (O‟Connor,
producers make butter from the fat fraction of milk. In 1994). Souring milk has a number of advantages: it
Ethiopia large amount of dairy products such as butter retards the growth of undesirable microorganisms such
and ghee are produced on farm from sour milk through as pathogens and putrefactive bacteria and makes the
spontaneous fermentation (Alganesh and Fekadu, 2012; milk easier to churn (O‟Connor, 1994). Traditional butter
Fekadu, 1994; Getachew, 2003; Sintayehu et al., 2008). is processed and sold by women in every community
The vast majority of milk produced in the rural areas of (Yonad, 2009). Milk for churning is accumulated over
the country is processed at household level into milk several days by adding fresh milk to the milk already
products such as butter using traditional technologies accumulated in traditional spherical earthenware vessel
(O‟Connor, 1994). In the rural areas of Ethiopia about or wesso or bottle gourds and allowed to sour into itittu or
40% of the milk produced is converted to butter. At naturally fermented milk (Debela, 2016). To make butter,
national level, 80% of butter is used as food ingredient clay pot or bottle gourd (calabash) is used as a churner
(Getachew, 2003). Seventy percent of butter produced is (Brannang and Persson, 1990; Abebe et al., 2013).
used in rural and nearby urban areas (Getachew, 2003). Churners are smoked with chips of Olea Africana in
Dhadha /kibe is the most shelf stable of all traditionally Asela areas (Taye, 1998). Another report by Alganesh
processed fermented milk products except for niter kibe and Fekadu (2012) revealed that stems and leaves of
(Yonad, 2009). Ocimum hardiense is used for cleaning milk vessels and
Butter, in addition to its dietary value, is also a major churns in East Wollega. The same study showed that
dairy product marketed in different parts of the country as stems and leaves of Ocimum urticifolium and are also
an income source mainly for women (Fekadu, 1994; used for flavor impartation in to milk containers and
Zelalem and Inger, 2001a; Alganesh, 2002; Lemma et al., churners. For the purpose of fumigation of churns most
2004; Eyassu and Asaminew, 2014). A significant portion smallholders use chips of Deinboll kilimandshorica
of the community (rural women, retailers and assemblers (dabaqqaa). While, some smallholders use Gaarrii,
of butter) acquire their household expenditure from butter Syzygium guineense and Olea Africana (Alganesh and
sales. Fekadu, 2012). In southern Ethiopia, Mekdes (2008)
In Ethiopia, ghee is used in different traditional diets reported Gucha, Achynthes aspera and Eucalyptus
and culinary purposes in different communities. globules as the most important plants used for smoking
Traditional butter or its derivative ghee is used as oil in churns and milk containers. Another report by Fikirneh et
cooking and flavoring purposes for different foods and al. (2012) in mid rift valley revealed Juniperous procera,
snacks. The traditional materials and methods of dairy Eruchstrum arabicum and Sida cuneifolia being used for
processing are inefficient. Hence, the quality of dairy smoking milk vessels in addition to other trees. According
products including butter is substandard (Zelalem, 2010). to the local understanding, the practice of smoking
For instance, moisture content of dhadha/ kibe ranges vessels by burning wooden chips of specific trees and
from 20 to 43% as compared to the international shrubs has an advantage of imparting special flavour and
commercial standard of 16% (Mekdes, 2008). odour to the product, and to disinfect the vessels, thus
Occurrence of spoilage when dhadha/ kibe is stored at reducing the numbers of micro-organisms and thereby
room temperature for a long time is probably due to extending the shelf life of the product.
putrefactive microorganisms (Almaz et al., 2001; Wondu, The use of each tree and shrub species for the purpose
2007; Zelalem, 2010). of flavour impartation and disinfection depends on the
So far, in Ethiopia, no comprehensive review work was geographical location and tradition of the smallholders.
synthesized at national level to compile relevant All the plant species used are believed to impart flavour
endeavors on indigenous butter and traditional ghee and disinfect the vessels, but, the degree varies from
production and handling practices. Previous reports plant to plant. The report of Ashenafi (2006) supported
indicated that there were some efforts made by post this assumption, as greater numbers and a faster
graduate students and very few researchers in the same development of aerobic mesospheric microorganisms
area. However, comprehensive information on the occurred in milk kept in non-smoked as compared to
existing indigenous technologies of butter and ghee smoked containers. Besides imparting a distinct flavor to
handling is essential to plan effective intervention in the the butter,this practice has a bacteriostatic effect,andmay
future. Hence, the aim of this paper is to combine and reduce processing time by heating the churn (O‟Mahony
review existing information on traditional handling and and Ephraim, 1985). After smoking the churn, the curd is
 Gemechu and Tola 97

broken either by hand or by agitation with a wooden stick internal agitator was that every family member was able
and fermented milk is filled to about half of the capacity of to perform churning, on the other hand, in the case of
the local churner or filled to a level depending on the gourd churners; it is only women who performed
availability of fermented milk. After filling, the churner is churning. Besides, the internal agitator had 4% more
tightly closed with a plug, a false banana leaf, or piece of butter fat recovery efficiency as compared to the gourd
skin or leather (specifically made it for this purpose only) churners (Alganesh et al., 2001). According to another
over the mouth of the churner. Maize grain outer cover report by O'Connor (1993), the length of time required for
and pieces of skin or hides or plastic materials can also churning was 65 and 139 min for the traditional churners
be used. Finally, after the mouth of churn is securely tied in Debre Zeit and Debre Birhan areas, respectively. The
agitation is performed for 3-4 h depending on author attributed the longer churning time in the latter
environmental temperature, fat content, level of acidity of area to the prevailing low ambient temperature.
fermented milk and the speed at which the churning is Churning is the process whereby sour milk or cream is
done. Churning is exclusively done by women or children vigorously agitated in such a way that air is incorporated
(Coppock, 1994; Alganesh and Fekadu, 2012). in the liquid (Berg, 1988). Different ways of shaking the
Most smallholders perform churning when daily churner include putting of the churn on the floor and
collections of about 3-8 liters of milk are achieved. rocking back and forth. This method is most common with
Churning time usually takes 3-4 h using local churners. the clay pot churner. In this method, the churner is placed
'Ittitu' /fermented milk made from accumulated milk for a on a mat consisting of a layer of grass, sheep skin or
week (20–25 liters) could yield approximately one kg of straw. The other option is to hang the churner on tripod or
butter (O‟Mahony and Ephraim, 1985; O‟Connor, 1994; doorpost and swinging it to and fro until butter granules
Zelalem, 1999; Ashenafi, 2006; Eyassu and Asaminew, are formed. The third option is to rock the churner on the
2014). In the traditional butter making, the equipments lap of women and shaking it with two hands. The latter
required for processing sour milk are simple and locally option is only applicable to bottle gourd churners
available. Local churners are made from clay, gourds and (O‟Connor and Tripathi, 1992; Coppock, 1994). Besides,
wood, and can be woven from fibre, such as the gorfu among some pastoral families, women carry sour milk in
container used by the Borana pastoralists in Ethiopia goat skin bags on their backs and agitate it with their
(O'Connor, 1994). An on-farm report by Alganesh and elbows while walking or working (FAO, 1990).
Fekadu (2012) in East Wollega, Ethiopia revealed that The break point when butter starts to form can be
97.5% of smallholders use bottle gourd churn while 2.5% detected by a change in the sound of the fermented milk
use clay pot churn. The smallholders preferred bottle up on agitation. A straw is inserted frequently through the
gourd churner for milking and storage of different milk vent into the churn; if small butter grains adhere to the
products including butter and ghee. The reason for the straw surface, traditionally thought that the breakpoint
preference was that they believe that gourd churns are has been reached (O‟ Connor, 1994). After a few
better in flavor impartation from wood smokes than other minutes, the straw is again inserted through the vent. If it
local churners. is clean from grains of butter, it indicates that the butter
Most of the traditional methods of milk processing are granules have coalesced into larger grains. After butter
slow and inefficient. They give low yield of butter per unit granules coalesce into large grains, the churn is slowly
of sour milk and require high labor input (O‟Mahoney and rotated anticlockwise on its base). This step enables to
Peters, 1987). It may take from 2-3 h depending on collect the grains in the centre and forms large mass of
temperature, fat content, acidity and the milk volume to butter. The butter is then skimmed off, kneaded in cold
be churned. The time taken to make butter and to take it water multiple times and washed to remove visible
to market place is a considerable drain on the already residual buttermilk (O‟Mahoney and Ephraim, 1985; FAO,
limited time of women (O‟Connor, 1990). Wooden paddle 1990; O‟Connor, 1994).
wheel internal agitator developed by the former
International Livestock Center for Africa (ILCA) currently
ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute) had Butter
reduced churning time from an average of 139 min to 61
min (O‟Connor, 1993). A prototype of ILCA internal In Ethiopia, there are two types of butter, ripened/rancid
agitator was developed and used to introduce and verify and fresh locally called besal kibe and lega kibe,
the ILCA internal agitator around Bako for smallholder respectively (Mekedes, 2008). However, Abebe and
producers (Alganesh et al, 2001). others (2014) reported that there are three types of butter
The efficiency of ILCA internal agitator was also in Ethiopia, namely lega, mekakelegna and besal, which
compared with the traditional gourd churners. The result refer to fresh, semi-rancid and rancid butter, respectively,
of the on-farm verification revealed an average of 128 based on the degree of lipolysis of butter. Butter making
min of churning time using the gourd churns, while the and processing is solely done by women in every
churning time for the prototype of ILCA internal agitator community in Ethiopia. Dhadha has an attractive
was only 23 min. The other advantage of using the appearance with a white to light yellowish color. Like
98 Afr. J. Food Sci.

Table 1. Utilization of butter at regional level (2009/10) in Ethiopia.

Utilization (%)
Region Total
Household consumption Marketed Payment as a wage in kind Other
Oromia 60.38 36.28 0.11 3.23 100
Amhara 59.55 38.85 0.09 1.51 100
Tigray 91.8 1.34 0.42 6.43 100
Afar 74.35 20.48 0.13 5.04 100
Somali 64.61 33.39 0.28 1.73 100
Benshangul-Gumuz 51.55 46.16 0.01 2.28 100
SNNP 58.43 38.51 0.42 2.64 100
Gambella 73.1 24.53 0.41 1.96 100
Harari 66.3 - - 33.7 100
Dire Dawa 95 - - 5 100
Total 60.77 36.36 0.23 2.64 100
Source: Zelealem et al. (2011).

factory processed butter, locally produced butter is semi- facilitates bowl movement to assist ease of discharge of
solid at room temperature. It has a pleasant odor when feces. In a study conducted in the Borena region of
fresh, but with an increase in storage time, changes will Ethiopia, butter was found to be an important source of
occur in odor and taste, unless refrigerated or further energy as food for humans, and is used for cooking
processed into traditional ghee (dhadha baksaa/ nitir (Yonad, 2009). According to Zelalem et al. (2011) in
kibe) by boiling with spices (Lola and Haile, 2015). different regions of Ethiopia, 60.77% is utilized for home
Dhadha is the most stable product of all traditionally consumption, and the remaining 36.36% is sold and used
processed fermented milk products next to traditional for household expenditure, 0.23% is paid as wage in kind
ghee. It has relatively good keeping quality of 4-6 weeks for casual labor and 2.64% is meant for other purposes
at ambient temperature as compared to other dairy (Table 1).
products such as cottage type cheese (Layne, 1994). The
storage stability of butter gives it a distinct advantage
over fresh milk in terms of more temporal flexibility for Traditional methods of butter preservation
household use and marketing (Layne, 1994).
In different communities, producers use various
traditional preservatives and preservation techniques to
Use of butter from traditional processing increase shelf life of butter (Alganesh, 2002; Mekdes,
2008; Eyassu and Asaminew, 2014). The traditional
Butter and some dairy products are called yellow fats preservatives and preservation techniques are used as a
which contains a number of products for spreading on principle of acidification and moisture reduction and can
bread or for indirect consumption as ingredients in other give butter good storage stability (O'Mahony and Peters,
foods (Embaye, 2010). In Ethiopia, butter is exclusively 1987). Ghee has excellent storage stability. Where Ghee
used to make traditional ghee. Fresh/raw butter is used is not made, butter is occasionally spiced and heated for
for hair dressing for women as hair cosmetics and as a increasing its shelf life (O'Mahony, 1988).
skin cosmetic by both sexes. A report on the review of
Ethiopian dairy sector (Zelalem et al., 2011) revealed that
use of butter as hair oil is assumed to have dual Spicing butter
functions: for hairdressing and to cure headaches. Butter
is also used as ointment and for relief on wounds. Fresh In different rural areas of Ethiopia, spicing butter by
butter is also used by children of weaning age and the thoroughly mixing with powders of spices is one of the
elderly (Yonad, 2009). Traditionally, children of weaning traditional methods of butter preservation technique. To
age are fed on freshly made butter for different reasons make spiced butter, preservatives such as Curcuma
which vary from society to society. In some societies it is domestica, Trachyspermum ammi, Trigonella foenum,
believed to help the infants maintain body temperature Afruarum korerima) are mixed with butter (Alganesh,
during cold weather. In other societies, feeding freshly 2002). Spiced butter can be used for household
made butter is believed to help infants begin to speak consumption or for sale. According to different reports
some words earlier during childhood. Fresh butter is also butter preserved using such techniques can be kept with
fed to new born babies assuming that it lubricates and minimal spoilage at room temperature for 12 weeks
 Gemechu and Tola 99

Table 2. Spices used in traditional butter preservation (spiced butter) in Ethiopia.

Vernacular name Common Name Scientific name Plant part (s) used
Jinjibila Ginger Zingiber officinale Tuber
Habasuuda adii Bishop‟s weed Trachyspermum ammi Seeds
Habasuuda gurrachaa Black cumin Nigella sativa Seeds
Mimmixa Chillies Capsicum spp. Pods
Ogiyoo Korerima Elettaria cardamoum Seeds
Qulubbiiadi Garlic Allium sativum Tuber
Siqaqibee Basil Ocimum spp. Stems & leaves
Sunqoo Fenugreek Trigonella foenum Seeds
Xoosinyii Oregano Satujera species Leaves
Source: Alganesh and Fekadu, (2012) and Hailemariam and Lemma (2011).

Table 3. Traditional methods of butter preservation and salt/ kg of butter. Salting can also be done by sprinkling
their reported shelf life. salt on the surface of butter. Similarly, salting butter and
wrapping it in an air tight condition can partially prevent
Methods of preservation Shelf life (days) mould formation (O‟Connor, 1994).
Untreated butter (control) 19 According to O‟Connor (1994), butter should be salted
Spiced butter 84-540 at a rate of 16 g salt/kg or according to taste. The salt
Salting butter 111 used should be dry and evenly ground and of the best
Melted butter/Nigur kibe 111 quality available. Butter is highly stable against microbial
Traditional ghee 333 -870 spoilage after 2% salt addition, because of its high fat,
low moisture and nitrogen ratios (Almaz et al., 2001;
Source: Yitaye et al. (2009), Alganesh and Fekadu (2012),
Eyassu and Asaminew (2014) and Debela (2016). Wondu, 2007; Zelalem, 2010). The butter is worked
mechanically both to disperse the salt and water, and to
obtain the correct physical structure. This process greatly
especially during Ethiopian Orthodox fasting period influences the microbiological stability of butter. If most of
(Alganesh, 2002). Another study by Lemma et al. (2004) the water droplets present are less than 10 μm in
in east Shewa indicated that surplus butter produced diameter, any microorganisms within the butter will not be
during high production season was either sold at lower able to grow and will gradually die off, owing to nutrient
price or preserved and stored by mixing with spices for depletion and the inhibitory effect of salt. However, if
later use. According to Lemma et al. (2004), almost all larger water droplets are present in the butter, as a result
the women in Adami Tulu and Arsi Negelle and 63.3% of of either over or under working, the compartmentalization
the women in Lume District somehow used some form of effect is reduced and microbial survival and growth
preservatives to keep butter for longer period of time. The occurs.
same study revealed that, according to the respondents, A study conducted in Eastern Wollega by Alganesh
spiced butter can be kept for about 3 years if properly (2002) showed that some smallholder farmers preserve
worked, kept clean and mixed with fresh butter from time butter by salting. According to the study, it is reported that
to time. Another study in northwestern Ethiopia also salted butter can be kept for 3.70 months at room
reported that smallholders practice spicing of butter for temperature. A report from northwestern Ethiopia (Yitaye
preservation purpose (Eyassu and Asaminew, 2014). A et al., 2009) (Table 3) also revealed that smallholder
former report by Alganesh (2002) also revealed that producers use salting for preservation of butter. A recent
spiced butter can be kept for 2.80 months in eastern report from west Shewa (Debela, 2016) revealed that a
Wollega zone. However, in Northwestern Ethiopia, spiced shelf life of 3.79 to 4.65 months for salted butter under
butter can be kept for up to 11.40 months at an ambient smallholder storage condition.
temperature without deterioration (Eyassu and Even though the smallholders use salting to increase
Asaminew, 2014). Table 2 shows different types of spices shelf life of butter, they use ordinary type of coarse salt
used to preserve butter in different communities in (iodine free) which may be inferior in terms of quality and
Ethiopia. hygiene. A study report by Debela (2016) on fresh butter
samples treated with ordinary salt also showed high total
bacterial count of (9.58 log cfu/g) compared to melted,
Salted butter spiced butter and traditional ghee. The author suggested
that the salt used in butter treatment might be a source of
Butter can be slightly salted by kneading in about 10 g of contamination for high microbial load.
100 Afr. J. Food Sci.

Table 4. Requirements of butter set by Ethiopian Standard Authority.

Characteristics Milk fat/butter (%) Test method

Milk fat, min,% by mass 99.6 ES 3476
Moisture, max,% by mass 16 ES ISO 5536
Acidity, max, % by mass as oleic acid 0.4 ES ISO 1740
Peroxide value, max, milli equivalent of oxygen/ 1kg fat 0.6 ES ISO 3976
Copper, max, ppm 0.05 ES ISO 5738
Iron, max, ppm 0.2 ES ISO 6732
Salt, NaCI, max, % by mass 2.5 ES ISO 1738 WD
Source: Ethiopian standard (ES), Milk fat products specification, 2008 and 2009.

Melted butter/Nigur kibe practices and environmental conditions also influence

dairy product composition. Besides, the moisture content
In Ethiopia, melting of butter /mangor or making nigur of local butter can vary depending on the extent of
kibe is another traditional method of butter preservation kneading or working of butter (O'Connor, 1994). On the
technique. Butter made by the household or purchased other hand, in the case of butter that is made using
from local market is put in a clay pot or saucepan and modern technology, the main constituents are
kept on a slow open fire or heat source. In some cases, standardized.
during heating bishop‟s weed (Trachyspermum ammi) Alganesh (unpublished data) on butter samples
and cardamom (Elettaria cardamoum) are added to collected from different local markets and butter shops in
improve flavor and aroma of the butter. But in most the central high lands of Ethiopia revealed that
cases, sole butter is melted and refined. Melted butter is traditionally made butter has an average water activity of
kept for overnight in cool dry place to solidify. Impurities 0.974, titratable acidity of 1.482/mg KOH/g of butter
are decanted off from the re-solidified melted butter. All samples, an acid value of 3.0 mg KOH/gram and with
residues including residual butter milk and dirty materials peroxide value of 10.1 mg equivalent peroxide/1000
that are settled at the bottom of the saucepan/pot are grams of butter. According to O‟Mahony and Ephraim
filtered out by making a hole from one side in the (1985) older butter sold in Addis Ababa market had free
solidified butter. The melted butter is either kept by fatty acids content of as high as 23%. The findings do not
packing in plastic, gourds or wooden containers. The fulfill the requirements set by Ethiopian Standard
melted butter can also be directly processed into Authority (Table 4). This might highly contribute to
traditional ghee by further boiling and adding spices. oxidative and hydrolytic rancidity in butter due to poor
Traditional ghee made from nigur kibe has longer shelf processing, handling and hygienic practices. Moreover,
life and is cleaner due to the pre-removal of impurities. there is scanty information on chemical properties of
However, when traditional ghee is made directly from raw Ethiopian butter and ghee.
butter it can have some impurities after clarification and
has less shelf life. Melted butter contains about 10%
moisture (FAO, 1990). Alganesh and Fekadu (2012) Microbial quality of traditionally produced butter
reported that nigur kibe can be kept at room temperature
for 6 months. But Debela (2016) reported that only a shelf Butter samples collected from different parts of the
life 87 - 93 days. country revealed the following microbiological quality.
The average total bacterial count of butter samples
collected from Selale and Sululta areas had 6.18 cfu/g
Chemical composition and microbial quality of butter and 7.25cfu/g, respectively (Zelalem, 2010). Another
report by Wondu (2007) in Awassa, Southern, Ethiopia
According to Zelalem (1999), in the central high lands, indicated that an average total bacterial count of 7.49
traditionally made butter contains approximately 81.7% cfu/gram with high variation from different sources.
fat, 1.1% protein and 0.23% ash. However, a study Samples collected from southern Ethiopia from open
conducted by Mekdes (2008), in Southern Ethiopia, local markets and rural producers had higher counts
showed that a moisture content of kibe as 20 to 43%, compared to dairy farms and urban producers. Besides,
84.82-86.86% total solids, 80.53-82.53% fat and 0.12 - total bacterial count of fresh butter samples collected
0.2% ash. The quantities of the main constituents of dairy from Addis Ababa by ILCA (1992) showed a range of 4.7
products including butter can vary considerably log cfu/g to 8.27 cfu/g of butter samples. Report of
depending on the individual animal, its breed, stage of Debela (2016) in west Shewa showed a mean aerobic
lactation, age and health status. Herd management mesophilic bacteria count of 8.71 log cfu/gram of fresh
 Gemechu and Tola 101

Table 5. Microbiological limit specification for butter. heated and clarified butter.
Some ambiguity in the definition of ghee occurs mainly
Micro organism Maximum limit Method of test due to regional deference and preferences for the
Total plate count 1,000,000/ml ES ISO 6610 product. The characteristic flavor and aroma of ghee is its
E. Coli Absent / ml WD 13540, WD major criterion for acceptance. Flavor is greatly
13541 influenced by the fermentation of the cream or butter and
Salmonella Absent / 2.5 ml ES ISO 6785 the heating processes (Mohammed et al., 1998).
Molds and yeasts 10/ ml WD 13539 According to Illingworth et al. (2009) ghee can be defined
Source: Ethiopian standard (ES), Milk fat products specification (2008).
as a pure clarified fat that is exclusively obtained from
milk, cream or butter by application of heat for almost
total removal of moisture and solid nonfat to give a
product a unique flavor, physical structure and texture. A
butter samples. Un unpublished data of Alganesh also recent definition of ghee is stated as „a product
showed that a total bacterial count of 2.47 cfu/g of butter exclusively obtained from milk, cream or butter by means
samples collected from open markets and whole sale of processes which result in almost total removal of water
shops in the central high lands of the country. These and non-fat solids, with an especially developed flavor
results are higher than the acceptable level of 6 log and physical structure (Afsaneh et al., 2016). According
cfu/ml set by Ethiopian standard (Table 5) and world to Mohammed et al. (1998) carbonyls, lactones and free
standards indicating that traditionally made butter in fatty acids are reported to be the key ghee flavoring
different areas of the country are substandard. compounds. In the case of Ethiopian ghee, flavor
Studies conducted by different persons (Wondu, 2007; determinants are fermentation time, type of fumigants
Zelalem et al., 2007; and Mekdes. 2008) showed coliform used for milk vessels and churns and spices used in
counts in butter samples ranged from 1.92 to 4.5 ghee making. Ethiopian traditional ghee Nitir kibe is
cfu/gram. While a Debela (2016) had reported a mean made from butter made of sour milk. It has an attractive
total coliform count of 5.62 log cfu/gram of fresh butter appearance, a grainy texture and a light yellow color. At
samples from west Shewa, Ethiopia. All the results were room temperature it is semi-solid. It has a pleasant odor
higher than the standard showing that butter is produced and good taste. Its good keeping quality allows storage
under unhygienic conditions. This might be attributable to for more than a year without significant deterioration
the materials and methods of production, handling, (Almaz et al., 2001; Eyassu and Asaminew, 2014).
hygiene of the producer and the animal from which the The western world standard specifies ghee to have
milk is obtained. 96% minimum milk fat, 0.3% maximum moisture, 0.3%
The yeast and mould counts in butter samples maximum free fatty acids (FFA) (expressed as butyric
collected from southern Ethiopia (Mekdes, 2008) ranged acid), and a peroxide value (PV) less than 1.0. Its
from 5.52 to 5.74 cfu/g. Contrary to these findings, an physical structure should consist of a mixture of higher
average of 7.65 cfu/g of yeast and mold counts was softening point fats in crystalline form dispersed in the
reported in Awassa, Southern Ethiopia by Wondu (2007). liquid lower softening point fats and this gives the ghee a
A recent report of Debela (2016) revealed yeast and somewhat granular appearance (Mohammed et al.,
mould count of 6.7 cfu/g of fresh butter samples. Moulds 1998). However, there is no report on such parameters
are the primary spoilage factors in butter and their on the Ethiopian ghee. But the standard authority has set
presence in butter indicates post production minimum requirements for the parameters as indicated in
contamination from air or water. Table 6. Furthermore there is no information available on
the effects of traditionally made ghee on human health.
Traditional ghee is a more convenient product than
Traditional ghee butter in the tropics, because of its better shelf life even
under warm conditions (O‟Connor and Tripathi 1992). In
Ghee is a product that is made by indigenous methods in Ethiopia, traditional ghee is made exclusively for home
many countries around the world, largely in Asia, the consumption, not for market. Traditional ghee
Middle East and Africa (Afsaneh et al., 2016). In different manufacture is based on individual experience and taste.
parts of the world, products similar to ghee have been Addition of combinations of spice powders, chopped
available probably since prehistoric times. They are tubers and or dry herbs, leaves and stems of green
known as “Samna” in Egypt (Aboudhonia and Elagamy, spices are used in traditional ghee making (Alganesh,
1993), “Meshho” in ancient Assyrian empire (2400 BC to 2002; Hailemariam and Lemma, 2011).
612 BC) (Abdalla, 1994), “Samin” in Sudan (Hamid, The main features of clarified butter manufacturing are
1993), “Maslee” or “Samn” in Middle East, “Rogan” in identical in every country. However, some differences
Iran(Urbach and Gordon, 1994), and “Samuli” in Uganda exist specially in the duration of heating and whether or
(Mohammed et al., 1998). In Ethiopia ghee is known by not some clarifying agents are added to the boiling butter.
the name dhadha baksa/ Neter Kibe, which stands for According to survey reports (Alganesh and Fekadu,
102 Afr. J. Food Sci.

Table 6. Requirements of ghee set by Ethiopian standard.

Characteristics Value Test method

Milk fat, min,% by mass 99.6 ES 3476
Moisture, max,% by mass - ES ISO 5536
Acidity, max, % by mass as oleic acid 0.4 ES ISO 1740
Peroxide value, max, milliequivalent of oxygen/ 1kg fat 0.6 ES ISO 3976
Copper, max, ppm 0.05 ES ISO 5738
Iron, max, ppm 0.2 ES ISO 6732
Source: Ethiopian Standard (ES), Milk fat products specification, 2009).

2012; Eyassu and Asaminew, 2014; Debela, 2016) solid turns to brown and frothing stops, boiling is stopped
traditional ghee making is the major option of preserving (Kefyalew et al., 2016). Melted butter is then filtered
butter in Eastern Wollega, North Western and West through sieve or piece of cheese cloth to remove
Shewa of Ethiopia. According to the above authors‟ impurities and decanted into another vessel leaving the
reports from different sites, traditional ghee can be kept curd material in the pan. Well dried containers free from
at ambient temperature of between 20 to 30°C for moisture with tight stopper are used to keep refined
11.10, 19.20 and 7.3 to 7.7 months, respectively in East butter. Commonly ghee processed in such a step is
Wollega, North west and West Shewa, Ethiopia without stored in cool dark areas of the house. Small amount is
significant change on quality. Another report from daily removed and used in cooking and preparation of
Dewachefo area of Amhara region showed that various traditional foods (Almaz, et al., 2001; Alganesh
smallholders store ghee from 6 months up to 7 years and and Fekadu, 2012). Similar procedures have also been
use such ghee for medicinal purpose to cure chronic reported by Asamnew (2007) in Bahir Dar area. Some of
coughs (Kefyalew et al., 2016). O‟Mahony and Peters the spices used for traditional ghee making in different
(1987) showed that salt is added to traditional ghee as a communities are indicated in Table 7.
combination of preservative to prolong storage life. This
view has been refuted on grounds that salt is not fat
soluble and hence does not have a preservative effect Use of traditional ghee
against deteriorative reactions taking place in the fat.
Ghee is the most important ingredient in food and it is
rich source of dietary energy and contains high calorific
Procedure for traditional ghee making value. Indian ghee contains approximately 0.5%
moisture, 99% milk fat and other minor chemical
According to Illingworth et al. (2009), worldwide, there are components (Sukumar, 1980). Ghee contains certain
four methods for the production of ghee: the indigenous acids which are very important and essential for the
milk butter method, the direct cream method, the cream human beings. They are vehicle for the fat soluble
butter method and the pre-stratification method. In vitamins (Jariwala, 2014). So far, there is no information
Ethiopia, traditional ghee is made from butter made of on the chemical composition of Ethiopian ghee.
fermented milk, or butter preserved using different butter Traditional ghee is commonly used for culinary, social
preservation methods. Hence, raw materials used for functions and therapeutic purposes (Mohammed et al.,
ghee making can be nigur kibe, spiced butter, salted 1998). A major portion of ghee is utilized for culinary
butter, untreated rancid butter or fresh butter. Variety of purposes such as a dressing for various foods, cooking
herbs, powders and chopped tubers of spices are added and frying of different foods. In Ethiopia, traditional ghee
during ghee making (Alganesh, 2002; Debela, 2016). is usually utilized for flavoring and as condiment for
To make traditional ghee, butter is inspected and different types of pulse stews (lentils, beans and peas),
cleaned of any visible impurities and placed into a chicken and meat stews and sauces from different
saucepan or clay pot and put on open fire or heat source species of domestic animals. Particularly no chicken stew
(actual heating temperature not known) to melt. Heating is being thought with the absence of ghee, and commonly
and stirring continues until foam is formed and a clear is an indication of well-being of a family who used ghee in
liquid is obtained. Along heating the butter, combination their daily meal.
of one or more spices are added to induce good aroma, This is in agreement with a report of Zelalem et al.
increased shelf life and taste (Table 7). Heating of melted (2011) that stated that ghee is added to a variety of
butter is continued until bubbling ceases and all moisture Ethiopian traditional dishes such as Kitifo (minced beef
evaporates (assumed that foam and bubble are served raw or half cooked) and a variety of cereal, pulse
appearing due to water evaporation). When the non-fat and meat based sauces. It is also used in mixture with
 Gemechu and Tola 103

Table 7. Spices used in traditional ghee making in Ethiopia.

Vernacular name Common name Scientific name Plant parts used

Qullubii adii Garlic Allium sativum Tuber
Jinjibila Ginger Zingiber officinale Tuber
Irdii Turmeric Curcuma domestica Tuber
Sunqoo Fenugreek Trigonella foeniculum Seeds
Oogiyoo Kororima Aframomum korarimao Seeds
Qurunfudii Clove Syzygium aromatium Seeds
Qarafaa Cinnamon Cinnamomum verum Seeds
Habasuuda adii Bishop‟s weed Trachyspermum ammi Seeds
Habasuuda gurraacha Black cumin Nigella sativa Seeds
Kefoo Basobila Ocimum urticifolium Seeds, stems and leaves
Qundabarbarree Black pepper Piper nigrum Seeds
Siqaaqibee Basil Ocimum spp Seeds, stems and leaves
Kusaayee Ocimum hardiense Stems and leaves
Mimmixa Chillies Cupsicum spp. Pods
Gaawwuzii Myristica fragrans Pods
Qullubbii dhiima Onion Allium cepa Tuber
Cilaattama Rue Ruta graveolence Stems and leaves
Dimbilaala Cordiander Cordiandrum sativum Seeds, stems and leaves
Mekimeko Spinach Rhubarb abyssinicus Rumex Stems and leaves
Xoosinyii Oregano Satujera species Leaves
Source: Alganesh (2002), Hailemariam and Lemma (2011) and Bekele et al. (2015).

cottage type cheese and kochkocha and served with and non-harmful to its composition, flavor and
indigenous diets such as chumbo and chororsa. appearance. In smallholder farmers‟ case butter making,
Traditional ghee is occasionally drunk with coffee. It is contamination can come from packing material, unclean
also used as input in cultural ceremonies for roasting surface, the butter maker, the wash water, cups and
coffee to make buna kala that is served during special leaves. Moreover, traditional equipments are often
occasions and holidays. Ghee is also used to prepare porous and harbor dirt and microorganisms (O‟Mahoney,
delicious indigenous snack foods such as „chachabsa, 1988). Fellows (2008) recommended that, butter and
chiko, anababiro, silcho (traditional ghee and table salt ghee can have a longer shelf life if they are stored in cool
mixed with roasted or boiled maize green cobs) and place, using airtight, light-proof and moisture-proof
porridge (Yonad, 2009; Alganesh and Fekadu, 2012; Lola containers to slow down the development of rancidity.
and Haile, 2015). According to study conducted, Simon (2012) also stressed that the keeping quality of
traditionally made ghee stored for more than a year is ghee can be affected by many factors, such as type of
recommended for patients to treat chronic coughs packaging material, permeability to oxygen and moisture,
(Alganesh and Fekadu, 2012). Ghee is also consumed method of manufacture, presence of antioxidants, light
with coffee and tea especially when important guests are and others.
received in a home and during major holidays. A leaf of plant called koba/inset (false banana) is the
most common material used for butter packaging in
southern parts of Ethiopia. Koba/inset is believed to be
Packaging materials and methods for butter and important to keep butter fresh until marketed. However,
ghee some respondents indicated that the leaves may reduce
the weight of the butter because when the cover is
Ghee is susceptible to deterioration from exposure to removed some butter remains stacked on the leaves
light, air and metal ions (Illingworth et al., 2009). Ghee is (Mekdes, 2008). The same author recommended the
preserved by a combination of heat, which destroys need of further study on the effect of packaging butter
enzymes and contaminating microorganisms and by with leaves on the quality and sensory characteristics. In
removing water from the oil to prevent microorganisms other parts of Ethiopia, use of clay pot for storage or
growing during storage. According to ES (Ethiopian packaging of various dairy products including butter and
Standard Authority) (2009), butter shall be packed in ghee is common (O‟Mahony and Ephirem, 1985;
containers that are proof to water and fat, non absorbent Zelalemand Inger, 2001b; Eyassu and Asaminew, 2014).
104 Afr. J. Food Sci.

Use of gourd as a storage vessel or packaging material Almaz G, Foster HA, Holzapfel WH (2001). Field survey and literature
review on traditional fermented milk products of Ethiopia. Int. J. Food
for kibe and nitir kibe and packaging kibe in kobo (Castor
Microbiol. 68:173-186.
bean leaf) and other leaves during storage and while Asaminew T (2007). Production, handling, traditional processing
markets is common in east Wollega and Shashamane practices and quality of milk in Bahir Dar milk shed area, Ethiopia. M.
areas (Alganesh, 2002; Lemma et al., 2004). Sc. Thesis, Haramaya University, Ethiopia.
Ashenafi M (2006). A Review on the Microbiology of Indigenous
Fermented Foods and Beverages of Ethiopia. Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci.
189-245.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION Bekele A, Fekadu B, Mitiku E (2015). Handling, processing and
marketing of cow milk in urban and peri urban area of Dangila Town,
Western Amhara Region, Ethiopia. Global J. Food Sci. Technol.
Indigenous methods of production, processing and 3(3):159-174.
handling of butter and ghee were assessed. Butter is Berg J CT (1988). Dairy Technology in the Tropics and Subtropics.
made from sour/naturally fermented whole milk. Butter Pudoc, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
and ghee are important component of Ethiopian Brannang E, Persson S (1990). Dairy Technology- Traditional making
of butter and cottage cheese. A Handbook of Ethiopian Animal
traditional diets. Ghee can be made from untreated
Husbandry. Swedish university of Agriculture, Uppsala, Sweden. 98-
butter, spiced, salted butter and nigur kibe. During ghee 112.
making different types of spices are added for flavor Coppock DL (1994). The Borana plateau of southern Ethiopia:
impartation, acceptable taste and increased shelf life. Synthesis of pastoral research, development and change, 1980 - 91.
International Livestock center for Africa. Systems study 5, Addis
There is scanty information available on chemical and
Ababa, Ethiopia.
microbial quality of butter. However, the available Curry A (2013). Archaeology: The milk revolution. Nature.
information on the quality and safety of butter shows that 500(7460):20-22.
the products are in substandard state. Moreover, there is Debela B (2016). Traditional butter preservation techniques and
Comparison of their efficiency through Determination of microbial
limited or no information on the quality and safety of quality and Organoleptic properties of butter in west shewa Zone,
ghee. The safety and quality aspect of butter and ghee Oromia regional state, Ethiopia. MSc Thesis. Ambo University. pp.
and handling as well as processing practices still are 106
subject of further investigation. Besides, there is a need Embaye K (2010). Analysis of Butter supply chain in Wemberta and
Alamata Weredas, Tigray, Ethiopia.
to develop and optimize butter and ghee processing Ethiopian Standard, ES (2009). Butter Specification. 2nd ed., 2009, ES:
methods for better yield and quality for future 3460:2009.
commercialization. Eyassu S, Asaminew T (2014). Small-scale milk processing, utilization
and marketing of traditional dairy products in bahir dar zuria and
mecha districts, northwestern Ethiopia. J. Food Technol.
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CONFLICT OF INTERESTS FAO (1990) .Food and Agriculture Organization. The Technology of
Traditional Milk Products in Developing Countries. Animal Production
The authors have not declared any conflict of interests. and Health Paper. 85. Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations. Rome, Italy.
Fekadu B (1994). Present situation and future aspects of milk
production, milk handling and processing of dairy products in
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