Review Article

Hyperthyroidism
Amanda R. Doubleday, Rebecca S. Sippel

Division of Endocrine Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, USA
Contributions: (I) Conception and design: All authors; (II) Administrative support: None; (III) Provision of study materials or patients: None; (IV)
Collection and assembly of data: All authors; (V) Data analysis and interpretation: All authors; (VI) Manuscript writing: All authors; (VII) Final
approval of manuscript: All authors.
Correspondence to: Rebecca S. Sippel, MD. Division of Endocrine Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and
Public Health, Clinical Science Center-H4/722, Box 7375, 600 Highland Ave, Madison, WI 53792-3284, USA. Email: [email protected];
Amanda R. Doubleday, DO, MBA. Division of Endocrine Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public
Health, K4/739 Clinical Science Center, 600 Highland Ave, Madison, WI 53792-3284, USA. Email: [email protected].

Abstract: Hyperthyroidism is a condition where the thyroid gland produces and secretes inappropriately
high amounts of thyroid hormone which can lead to thyrotoxicosis. The prevalence of hyperthyroidism in
the United States is approximately 1.2%. There are many different causes of hyperthyroidism, and the most
common causes include Graves’ disease (GD), toxic multinodular goiter and toxic adenoma. The diagnosis
can be made based on clinical findings and confirmed with biochemical tests and imaging techniques
including ultrasound and radioactive iodine uptake scans. This condition impacts many different systems
of the body including the integument, musculoskeletal, immune, ophthalmic, reproductive, gastrointestinal
and cardiovascular systems. It is important to recognize common cardiovascular manifestations such as
hypertension and tachycardia and to treat these patients with beta blockers. Early treatment of cardiovascular
manifestations along with treatment of the hyperthyroidism can prevent significant cardiovascular events.
Management options for hyperthyroidism include anti-thyroid medications, radioactive iodine, and
surgery. Anti-thyroid medications are often used temporarily to treat thyrotoxicosis in preparation for more
definitive treatment with radioactive iodine or surgery, but in select cases, patients can remain on antithyroid
medications long-term. Radioactive iodine is a successful treatment for hyperthyroidism but should not
be used in GD with ophthalmic manifestations. Recent studies have shown an increased concern for the
development of secondary cancers as a result of radioactive iodine treatment. In the small percentage of
patients who are not successfully treated with radioactive iodine, they can undergo re-treatment or surgery.
Surgery includes a total thyroidectomy for GD and toxic multinodular goiters and a thyroid lobectomy for
toxic adenomas. Surgery should be considered for those who have a concurrent cancer, in pregnancy, for
compressive symptoms and in GD with ophthalmic manifestations. Surgery is cost effective with a high-
volume surgeon. Preoperatively, patients should be on anti-thyroid medications to establish a euthyroid
state and on beta blockers for any cardiovascular manifestations. Thyroid storm is a rare but life-threatening
condition that can occur with thyrotoxicosis that must be treated with a multidisciplinary approach and
ultimately, definitive treatment of the hyperthyroidism.

Keywords: Hyperthyroidism; Graves’ disease (GD); toxic multinodular goiter; toxic adenoma; surgery; radioactive
iodine (RAI)

Submitted Sep 10, 2019. Accepted for publication Oct 29, 2019.
doi: 10.21037/gs.2019.11.01
View this article at: http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/gs.2019.11.01

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Gland Surgery, Vol 9, No 1 February 2020 125

Introduction recur in subsequent pregnancies so these patients should have

continued monitoring. Painful thyroiditis is typically from
Hyperthyroidism is defined as an inappropriately high
an infection and is self-limited. Treatment can include beta
synthesis and/or secretion of thyroid hormones from the
blockers for symptoms associated with any thyrotoxicosis, non-
thyroid gland. Thyrotoxicosis is the clinical condition
steroidal anti-inflammatories and steroids for severe cases.
where the effect of excess thyroid hormone on the tissues
Amiodarone-induced thyroiditis can present as either type
causes systemic clinical manifestations (1). The prevalence
I or type II (4). Type I occurs from underlying TMNG or
of hyperthyroidism in the United States is 1.2% with overt
GD that are exposed to high iodine content from amiodarone
hyperthyroidism accounting for 0.5% and subclinical
causing excess thyroid hormone production. Treatment
hyperthyroidism accounting for 0.7% (1-3). In this review,
includes anti-thyroid medications and potassium perchlorate.
we will discuss the causes of hyperthyroidism, the clinical
Type II is a destructive thyroiditis from the toxicity of
manifestations and how to diagnose it, and the different
amiodarone on thyroid cells. It is usually self-limited, may
management options for the most common types of
not require discontinuation of amiodarone, and treatment
hyperthyroidism, including thyroid storm (TS), a rare but
includes steroids or surgery for refractory disease.
serious complication of hyperthyroidism.

Presentation and diagnosis

Causes
Biochemical
The most common causes of hyperthyroidism are Graves’
disease (GD), followed by toxic multinodular goiters TSH is the most sensitive and specific first-line biochemical
(TMNG) and toxic adenomas (TA). GD is an autoimmune test to examine thyroid function (10). Confirmatory
condition that occurs with the loss of immunotolerance testing with free T4 and total serum T3 can be done for
causing thyrotropin receptor antibodies (TRAb) to form, high suspicion of thyrotoxicosis or to further evaluate an
bind and subsequently stimulate the thyroid stimulating abnormal TSH level. Some laboratory protocols add on
hormone (TSH) receptors. This causes increased thyroid a free T4 and total T3 when the initial TSH is low to
hormone synthesis and secretion (4). Non-toxic nodular avoid subsequent phlebotomy. Overt hyperthyroidism will
goiters can sporadically develop and become autonomous show low TSH and high T3/T4 levels while subclinical
overtime causing hyperthyroidism (5). These conditions hyperthyroidism will show low TSH with normal T3/T4
demonstrate autonomous hormone production, which can levels. GD will usually have positive TRAbs (1).
be from mutations of genes that regulate thyroid hormone A ratio of the total T3 to total T4 can be calculated
synthesis or the TSH receptor causing familial and sporadic to help distinguish the etiology of thyrotoxicosis. Overt
non-autoimmune hyperthyroidism (6). The prevalence hyperthyroidism will produce more T3, creating a high
of TAs and TMNGs increases with age and iodine T3:T4 ratio. Thyroiditis will have higher T4 levels creating
deficiency (1). a low T3:T4 ratio (11). Exogenous ingestion of thyroid
Other causes of hyperthyroidism include iodine-induced, hormone will present with low thyroglobulin levels, which
TSH-producing pituitary tumors, trophoblastic and germ is released from the thyroid gland with thyroid hormones,
cell tumors, struma ovarii, thyroid cancer, silent or painless and a low T3:T4 ratio.
thyroiditis from pregnancy or medications such as lithium Other more rare etiologies can cause abnormal thyroid
or tyrosine kinase inhibitors, painful thyroiditis from function tests. Euthyroid hyperthyroxinemia can occur
infections, amiodarone-induced thyroiditis, and exogenous in certain circumstances when the free T4 and total T3
thyroid hormone intake (1,4,7,8). Hyperthyroidism in are high, without a low TSH, due to abnormal protein
pregnancy can be overt hyperthyroidism, most commonly binding (pregnancy, estrogen therapy, hepatitis, acute
from GD (4), or subacute thyroiditis in the post-partum intermittent porphyria, medications or drug abuse, and high
period. This type of thyrotoxicosis is usually self- altitudes) (12). High doses of biotin can interfere with assays
limited followed by a period of hypothyroidism and then and cause falsely elevated T4 levels because biotin competes
recovery of thyroid function (9). Therefore, anti-thyroid with biotinylated analogues in the binding assay. Patients
medications and radioactive iodine (RAI) treatment are should stop biotin for at least 2 days before having TSH
not recommended. Painless or postpartum thyroiditis can and T4 tested (1).

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126 Doubleday and Sippel. Hyperthyroidism

While thyroid function tests can confirm a diagnosis and activation of the angiotensin-aldosterone axis (17).
of hyperthyroidism, it doesn’t necessarily clarify the Additionally, thyroid hormone targets certain ion channels
etiology. A clinical diagnosis of GD can be made if the including calcium/calmodulin-dependent kinase IV which
thyroid gland is diffusely enlarged, there is moderate to plays a role in endothelial nitric oxide synthase activity
severe thyrotoxicosis, and Graves’ ophthalmopathy (GO) contributing to control of vascular tone and blood pressure
is present. If the clinical diagnosis is not clear due to lack regulation (8,18,19). Thus, thyrotoxicosis is associated
of GO, a TRAb level can be obtained and a positive TRAb with arterial stiffness (20). Thyroid hormone excess also
confirms the diagnosis. If the TRAb is negative or unclear, causes higher levels of atrial natriuretic peptide, brain
a RAI uptake (RAIU) scan can be done to distinguish GD natriuretic peptide, endothelin-1, vasodilating polypeptide
from other etiologies (1). Studies have shown that in the adrenomedullin, and erythropoietin which all effect
United States, testing TRAb over RAIU reduces costs and hemodynamics (8,16,21,22).
gives a faster diagnosis (13). Patients with autoimmune The clinical presentation will be HTN, tachycardia, and
causes of their hyperthyroidism often will have thyroid increased cardiac output which is similar in presentation
peroxidase antibodies as well. to increased adrenergic activity, yet catecholamines may be
low or normal in hyperthyroidism (22,23). Atrial fibrillation
and congestive heart failure (CHF) can occur as well. Older
Clinical
age, higher T4 levels, male gender and toxic nodules are
The clinical manifestations of hyperthyroidism can be associated with a risk of atrial fibrillation. Early studies
diverse as thyroid hormones can have an impact on a variety show that heart failure develops in 6–16% of patients with
of systemic symptoms. The cellular effects of T3 binding hyperthyroidism, but even higher rates are expected if there
to alpha and beta receptors increases thermogenesis and is underlying cardiovascular disease (8). Atrial fibrillation
basal metabolic rates. This can result in constitutional is an independent risk factor for developing heart
symptoms of weight loss, fatigue and heat intolerance. failure (24). These cardiovascular manifestations can be
Skin changes can occur including warm, moist skin reversible following treatment of hyperthyroidism and
with thinning of hair and pretibial myxedema in GD. achieving a euthyroid state (24,25).
Musculoskeletal manifestations include weakness, increased Treatment of cardiovascular manifestations should be in
bone resorption, osteoporosis and increased risk of fracture. conjunction with treatment of the hyperthyroidism. Studies
Patients can develop lymphadenopathy, gynecomastia in show that patients with untreated or insufficiently treated
men or oligomenorrhea in women. Gastrointestinal (GI) hyperthyroidism, compared to those who are treated, are
manifestations include dysphagia, hyperdefecation and at significantly higher risk of adverse cardiovascular events.
hunger (7). Ophthalmologic findings include lid retraction Timely treatment and careful monitoring of hyperthyroid
and infiltrative GO can be seen in patients with GD (1,14). patients can help to reduce this risk (26). The recommended
Older age, smoking, longer duration of symptoms and treatment for patients with hyperthyroidism is to block
female gender are risk factors associated with GO (15). the cardiovascular effects with beta blockers. If there is a
Significant cardiovascular manifestations are common in contraindication to beta blockers, angiotensin-converting
hyperthyroidism and it is important to recognize and treat enzyme (ACE)-inhibitors or calcium-channel blockers can
them appropriately (7). The most common cardiovascular be used (8,27).
manifestations of hyperthyroidism are hypertension There is evidence that subclinical hyperthyroidism
(HTN) and tachycardia. Approximately, 10% of the total can increase the risk of cardiovascular events, yet it has
population has HTN from secondary causes including not necessarily been proven to be associated with HTN.
endocrine etiology, and HTN may be the first presentation Nonetheless, many authors recommend treatment of
of a primary endocrine pathology (8). The pathophysiology subclinical hyperthyroidism to prevent cardiovascular risk,
of HTN with hyperthyroidism is multifaceted. Under among other reasons (8,28).
normal conditions, the tissue effects of T3 are important for
homeostasis. Problems occur when T3 is in excess because
Imaging
it directly increases cardiac contractility and (8,16) dilates
arterioles, which decreases systemic vascular resistance Once biochemical and clinical features have been identified,
and arterial filling. In turn, this stimulates renin release imaging modalities such as ultrasound and RAIU scans

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Gland Surgery, Vol 9, No 1 February 2020 127

play an important role in diagnosis and treatment planning. effects, risk of relapse or persistent hyperthyroidism, lack
A RAIU scan can distinguish between GD and TAs of definitive treatment, and a longer interval to establish a
or TMNGs. In GD, the scan will show diffuse RAIU euthyroid state.
throughout the gland. A TMNG will show irregular The primary anti-thyroid medications are
patterns of uptake and a TA will show a localized area of propylthiouracil (PTU) and methimazole. They don’t
uptake with no uptake in the remaining gland (4). In certain demonstrate peak efficacy for 4–6 weeks, so most patients
conditions when there is an acute release of excess thyroid need beta blockers for immediate symptomatic relief of
hormone but no ongoing overproduction, there will be thyrotoxicosis. Beta blockers are recommended in all
no RAIU. These conditions include painless thyroiditis, patients with symptomatic thyrotoxicosis, elderly patients,
amiodarone-induced thyroiditis, subacute thyroiditis, and those with tachycardia or co-existing cardiovascular
palpation (surgical manipulation) thyroiditis, iatrogenic disease (1). Beta blockers are contraindicated in patients
thyrotoxicosis, factitious ingestion of thyroid hormone, with bronchospastic asthma, and in such cases ACE-
struma ovarii, and metastatic disease from follicular thyroid inhibitors or calcium-channel blockers (diltiazem,
cancer (1). verapamil) can be used (8,27). Beta blockers inhibit the
Ultrasound with the use of color flow doppler can be an conversion of T4 to T3 while controlling tachycardia and
alternative method to help with the diagnosis, especially tremor. Propranolol is the most commonly used medication
when a RAIU scan is contraindicated (pregnancy, breast and is dosed at 10–40 mg 4 times a day (7).
feeding, allergies). In expert hands, the thyroidal blood flow Methimazole is recommended as first-line treatment,
can be measured and can help distinguish between GD except during pregnancy when PTU is preferred due to
which will show diffuse increased blood flow, thyroiditis the teratogenic effects of methimazole. Methimazole is
which may show patchy areas of increased flow (29,30), or a generally preferred due to better efficacy (32), longer
toxic nodule which will show nodular disease with a normal half-life and duration of action (4,33) allowing for once
thyroid in the background. a day dosing, and less side effects compared to PTU.
Methimazole is started at 10–30 mg daily and PTU is
started at 100 mg 3 times daily (7). Methimazole inhibits
Management
the early step in thyroid hormone synthesis by inhibiting
The treatment options for hyperthyroidism are based thyroid peroxidase (34), and also may inhibit thyroglobulin
on the cause and include medical management with beta synthesis (35). PTU inhibits new hormone synthesis
blockers or anti-thyroid medication, RAI and surgery. For but also decreases the conversion of T4 to T3 in the
GD, the most recent 2016 American Thyroid Association periphery (34).
(ATA) Guidelines consider RAI, anti-thyroid medications When starting anti-thyroid medications, it is
or surgery all reasonable effective options. For TAs and recommended to obtain a baseline set of labs to check
TMNGs, RAI and surgery are typically recommended complete blood count and liver enzymes due to the
with anti-thyroid medications used only for short- potential side effects, which are overall rare. Common
term management (1). Each treatment modality has minor side effects include fever, rash, pruritus, hair loss,
advantages and disadvantages that need to be considered. lymphadenopathy, headache, myalgias and arthralgias. More
These options are preference-sensitive meaning that the severe side effects include agranulocytosis, hepatotoxicity,
patient and provider must discuss the tradeoffs for each vasculitis, lupus-like syndrome, and neuritis (7,34). It is
individual (31). recommended to check a free T4 and T3 at 2–6 weeks
after initial therapy and adjust dosing according to the
levels. It is not recommended to check TSH because it may
Anti-thyroid and other medications
remain suppressed for months (1,7). Once euthyroidism
Generally, anti-thyroid medications are used as a bridging is achieved, the dose can be decreased by 30–50% with
therapy to establish euthyroidism in preparation for a continued monitoring every 4–6 weeks (1). Additional white
definitive treatment such as RAI or surgery (7). Patients blood cell counts should be obtained in any febrile patients,
that wish to avoid the risks of surgery or RAI may choose and a liver panel should be sent in any patients who develop
long-term anti-thyroid medications. However, the risks jaundice, pruritic rash, dark urine, light stools, joint or
of anti-thyroid medication include potential serious side abdominal pain. There are no recommendations for routine

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128 Doubleday and Sippel. Hyperthyroidism

monitoring of these labs once established on anti-thyroid or those planning a pregnancy and in those who cannot
medications, so it is provider preference (1). comply with radiation safety guidelines. RAI should be
Anti-thyroid medications should be discontinued after used with extreme caution in GD as it can exacerbate GO
12–18 months if a patient is considered in remission with (45,46). RAI treatment with steroids can be considered in
normal TSH and TRAb (in the case of GD) (1,4,34). the absence of GO and in mild GO in non-smokers, but it
Remission can be defined by normal thyroid function tests should be avoided in moderate to severe GO (1).
after 1 year. Approximately, half of patients taking anti- Clinical exacerbation of hyperthyroidism and even TS
thyroid medications will enter remission but this can vary can occur with RAI, especially in the elderly and those
from 30% to 70% depending on clinical and geographical who have comorbidities that may increase the risk of
population factors (34,36). Once a patient is able to stop their thyrotoxicosis (47,48) including cardiovascular disease,
anti-thyroid medication, the ATA guidelines recommend atrial fibrillation, heart failure, pulmonary HTN, diabetes,
thyroid function tests to be monitored every 2–3 months for renal failure, infection, trauma, or cerebrovascular disease.
the 1st 6 months, every 4–6 months for the next 6 months These patients should be given beta blockers (1,21,49)
and then every 6–12 months (1). and be considered for methimazole treatment before and
Patients need to be educated about symptoms of after RAI treatment. In individuals who will benefit from
hyperthyroid returning in relapse, which can happen years pre-treatment with methimazole, the recommendation is
later (1). Higher doses of anti-thyroid medications and to give it prior to RAI but discontinue it 2–3 days prior
longer courses of treatment do not increase the chance of to RAI treatment, and then resume 3–7 days after RAI
remission, but only increase side effects, so this practice is treatment with a taper while thyroid function tests should
not recommended (1,37,38). In GD, TRAb levels prior to simultaneously normalize. Young healthy individuals who
discontinuing the medication may predict which patients are clinically well compensated should be able to tolerate
can be successfully weaned. Those more likely to relapse RAI without pre-treatment (1). In patients who are not pre-
are younger, have severe disease with large goiters, high treated, thyroid levels should stabilize or decrease in the
T3/T4 levels, persistent suppression of TSH (4,39), high first month after RAI (50).
baseline levels of TRAb (40) or persistent elevated TRAbs A typical average dose of RAI is 10–15 mCi. The
and should be considered for definitive treatment with dose can be given in a fixed dose or calculated based on
RAI or surgery (1,41). Continued low dose anti-thyroid the RAIU by the thyroid gland and the size of the gland
medical treatment can be considered in mild disease or with with comparable successful treatment outcomes (51). A
contraindications to definitive treatment. A recent analysis pregnancy test should be done prior to treating. Dosing
of patients who relapsed after medical treatment compared must be carefully considered in patients on dialysis and with
follow up RAI ablation versus continued medical therapy jejunostomy or gastric feeding tubes. It is recommended
and found the medical therapy group had less GO, less to avoid high iodine diets and foods for 1 week prior to
persistent thyroid disfunction, and less weight gain (42). In treatment (1).
select patients, the authors of some studies have found long- After RAI treatment, it is recommended to recheck
term anti-thyroid medication treatment to be safe (43). thyroid function tests within 1–2 months. Monitoring
should be continued every 4–6 weeks for at least 6 months
or until achievement of hypothyroidism with a stable dose
RAI
of thyroid hormone replacement. Most patients respond to
Advantages of RAI include avoidance of surgical risk and treatment in 4–8 weeks, meaning clinical symptoms improve
potential avoidance of hormone replacement therapy. Yet, and thyroid function tests are normalized or even show a
the disadvantages include a risk of treatment failure and hypothyroid state. Starting thyroid hormone replacement
persistent hyperthyroidism requiring either re-treatment depends on thyroid function tests and clinical symptoms.
with more RAI or subsequent surgery and a longer interval Patients are biochemically hypothyroid when their free
to reach a euthyroid or hypothyroid state (44). RAI T4 is below normal. Thus, thyroid hormone replacement
treatment should be considered in the elderly, those with therapy can be instituted at that time with further
significant co-morbidities, contraindications for surgery, adjustments based on continued free T4 monitoring. TSH
previous neck radiation, small goiters, and limited access to levels may be suppressed for months, so this lab should not
high volume surgeons (1). It is contraindicated in pregnancy be used to determine the timing of initiation of thyroid

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Gland Surgery, Vol 9, No 1 February 2020 129

hormone replacement (7). Beta blockers can be tapered and to an increased risk of total cancer mortality and was
other medical therapy can be stopped after successful RAI safe (61). More recent studies however, have shown
treatment. mixed results. Some authors report a higher incidence
The success rate of RAI varies depending on the of stomach, kidney and breast cancers in those who
definition of success, the etiology of hyperthyroidism and underwent RAI ablation for hyperthyroidism (58). Others
the dose given. Thankfully, RAI treatment for the 3 most show no increase in overall cancer risk, but suspect trends
common causes of hyperthyroidism is generally successful. towards increased risk in thyroid, kidney, stomach and
One study evaluated RAI treatment in GD, TA, and respiratory tract cancers. The Cooperative Thyrotoxicosis
TMNG. The authors reported successful RAI treatment, Therapy Follow-up Study Group has been extended an
defined as subsequent hypothyroid or euthyroid state, to additional 24 years to examine the radiation dose-response
be 87.1% in GD, 93.7% in TA and 81.1% in TMNG (52). relationships for site-specific cancer death within the
For patients with GD who are unresponsive to RAI, have group of hyperthyroid patients who were treated with
persistent enlarged glands, higher T4 levels or continued RAI (56), and this study does now confirm an increased
symptoms of hyperthyroidism, re-treatment with a higher risk of secondary cancers (including breast) due to RAI
dose of RAI can be considered at 6 months (3 months in treatment for hyperthyroidism. This study included patients
select patients) (1). The goal of re-treatment should be with hyperthyroidism in 25 United States medical centers
hypothyroidism (1) and some authors recommend re- and 1 United Kingdom center between 1946 and 1964
treatment with a higher dose of RAI (53). One single- (56,62) with a total 18,805 patients analyzed. The average
institution study found a RAI failure rate of 23% and administered RAI activity was 10.1 mCi for GD and 17.6
reported certain predictors of failure to be more severe mCi for TMNG. The authors found that the relative risk of
tachycardia at presentation, more severe laboratory death from solid organ cancers (including breast) increases
abnormalities, and low doses of RAI <13 mCi (54). This with greater doses of RAI. In summary they found if
was consistent with other literature regarding dosing (53). patients are treated for hyperthyroidism at age 40, 1 in 31–
Providers often lack selection criteria between RAI and 52 patients would develop a secondary cancer, and of those
surgery for follow-up treatment after failed RAI, other treated at age 50, 1 in 32–55 would develop a secondary
than the known contraindications for either (55). Often cancer (56). This study may shift the decision-making
times patients are referred to surgeons after RAI has failed, process going forward with regards to definitive treatment,
however surgery after fibrosis caused by RAI can be more especially as the number of high-volume endocrine
challenging. surgeons continues to increase (63).

RAI and cancer risk Surgery

Postoperative RAI for thyroid cancer has been shown Advantages of surgery for hyperthyroidism allow for nearly
to increase the risk of second primary malignancies, 100% cure rates, identification of incidental cancers, and
including bone, leukemia, soft tissue sarcomas, salivary rapid achievement of euthyroid or hypothyroid states (1).
gland and GI tract as these doses are usually >100 mCi Disadvantages are perioperative and postoperative risks of
(56,57). Studies have been inconclusive for the risk of thyroid surgery including bleeding, hypocalcemia, recurrent
developing site-specific cancers after treatment with laryngeal nerve injuries, and the potential need for
RAI for hyperthyroidism (56,58-60). Doses of RAI are lifelong thyroid hormone replacement. Surgery should be
much less (10–15 mCi) for hyperthyroidism compared considered if there are compressive symptoms, suspicion for
to postoperative cancer treatment, and absorption of or known thyroid cancer, concurrent hyperparathyroidism,
radiation varies in different organs (1,56). However, given large or substernal goiters, low RAIU, in pregnancy
the significant retained uptake within the thyroid gland in planning, pregnancy in the 2nd trimester, GD with GO, or
hyperthyroidism, the total body radiation exposure may the need for fast definitive therapy in thyrotoxicosis (44).
actually be higher in treatment for hyperthyroidism versus Surgery, when done by a high-volume surgeon, is the
cancer. most cost-effective definitive treatment for GD (64), TA,
In 1998, the Cooperative Thyrotoxicosis Therapy and TMNG with failure rates <1% (1). Total thyroidectomy
Follow-up Study Group determined RAI did not contribute is recommended for GD and TMNG. TAs on the other

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130 Doubleday and Sippel. Hyperthyroidism

hand, should undergo ultrasound evaluation to assess the About 75% of patients will require subsequent dose
entire thyroid gland. If feasible, a lobectomy can be done adjustments before they are euthyroid (74). Patients
for isolated TAs (1). This offers the advantage of potentially can experience undesirable symptoms of hyper or
avoiding hormone replacement therapy. Preoperatively, hypothyroidism during this dose adjustment period, and
patients should be on anti-thyroid medications to establish a therefore it is important to achieve a euthyroid state in these
euthyroid state. Beta blockade should be initiated for higher patients as soon as possible. Recent studies are identifying
risk individuals including elderly, severe thyrotoxicosis, algorithms using machine learning and TSH values that
and existing cardiovascular disease (4). In the setting of can assist in these subsequent dose changes (75). TSH
GD (not TA or TMND), inorganic iodide administration should be measured every 1–2 months until stable, and then
preoperatively in the form of saturated potassium iodide every year.
solutions (SSKI) or potassium iodide-iodine (Lugol’s When thyroid nodules are found in patients with GD,
solution) is also recommended (7). It will decrease blood they should be managed according to guidelines and
flow to the thyroid, decrease intraoperative blood loss recommendations for euthyroid cases (76,77). There is an
and has been shown to improve the safety of surgery increased risk of cancer in GD, typically of papillary variant.
with decreased rates of transient hypoparathyroidism This may be due to increasingly sensitive preoperative
and hoarseness from transient recurrent laryngeal nerve evaluation modalities or increased incidental findings of
injury (65). microcarcinoma in surgical specimens. Nonetheless, a
The main risks of surgery include anesthesia, bleeding, recent international meta-analysis found that the incidence
hypocalcemia with hypoparathyroidism, and recurrent is likely at least 2 times higher than the previous reported
laryngeal nerve injury. These risks, however, remain very rate of 2% (78). If a nodule is suspicious or proven to be
low with high-volume surgeons, which some authors cancer, the recommended treatment for the hyperthyroidism
define as >100 thyroid surgeries per year (66,67). Risk of is surgery. In summary, surgical treatment for GD, TA and
recurrent laryngeal nerve injury remains <1% and transient TMNG is a safe option for surgical candidates with high-
hypocalcemia <10% (44). In GD, preoperative vitamin D volume surgeons.
deficiency, female gender, and perioperative parathyroid
autotransplantation have been shown to be predictors for
Thyroid storm
post-thyroidectomy hypocalcemia (68,69). Therefore,
the authors recommend preoperative and postoperative TS is a rare, potentially life-threatening condition that
supplementation with calcium carbonate and activated occurs in thyrotoxicosis leading to multiple organ system
vitamin D if needed, to decrease rates of postoperative decompensation that is usually triggered by severe
hypocalcemia (70). Additional advantages of surgery may stress (79) with a mortality rate ranging 8–25% (80).
apply to those of lower socioeconomic status and those Clinical presentation of TS includes thyrotoxicosis with a
with weight concerns. One study has shown that in their goiter most commonly from GD, fever, cardiopulmonary
institution’s population of patients, those with a lower dysfunction (tachycardia, CHF), central nervous system
socioeconomic status had more features of GD to make (CNS) manifestations (finger tremor, restlessness, psychosis,
surgery more favorable (71). Another study found that lethargy, coma), and GI-hepatic dysfunction (nausea, emesis,
patients who undergo surgery as first line treatment for diarrhea, abdominal pain, jaundice) (79). Many different
hyperthyroidism are less likely to become obese or gain triggers have been identified, with the most common
weight postoperatively (72). being non-compliance with anti-thyroid medications or
Postoperatively, anti-thyroid medications and iodide infection (79,81). Other predisposing conditions causing
solutions can be stopped and beta blockers should be major systemic stress include trauma, non-thyroid surgery,
weaned off. For patients undergoing a total thyroidectomy, direct pressure from thyroid surgery or strangulation (82),
thyroid hormone replacement should be started on a RAI therapy (1), acute illness such as sepsis or diabetic
weight based or body mass index (BMI) based calculation, ketoacidosis (83), and pregnancy or child birth (4).
typically between 1.2–1.8 μg/kg/day (73). For both total Diagnosis of TS is clinical and not always clear, but
thyroidectomy and lobectomy, TSH should be measured several diagnostic aids are available. Burch-Wartofsky
by 6–8 weeks postoperatively to assess remaining thyroid scores (BWS) identify criteria with a scoring system that
function or the dosing of thyroid hormone replacement. allocates points for various system dysfunctions including

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Gland Surgery, Vol 9, No 1 February 2020 131

thermoregulatory, CNS, GI-hepatic and cardiovascular. Conclusions

A score of <25 points is low suspicion for TS, a score of
In summary, hyperthyroidism is a complex pathology with
25–44 points allocates impending TS and a threshold of
many etiologies in which multiple diagnostic modalities can
≥45 points is highly suggestive of TS (80,84). The Japanese
be utilized to identify the best treatment. The treatment of
Thyroid Association recognizes different diagnostic criteria
choice is preference-sensitive and should involve a shared
formulated from a retrospective study by Akamizu et al.
decision-making process between the patient and provider.
that suggested TS1 and TS2 diagnostic criteria. It differs
Thus, patient education is important so that each individual
from BWS in that thyrotoxicosis was a prerequisite for
understands their options and can choose the treatment
diagnosis and they did not use a scoring system, but rather a
that best addresses their concerns. Successful treatment
combination of clinical features for diagnosis: thyrotoxicosis
of hyperthyroidism has been reported in many studies.
with different combinations of CNS manifestations, fever,
Although future research could close some of the gaps that
tachycardia or CHF, and GI-hepatic dysfunction (79).
exist in terms of long-term outcomes, patients and providers
Comparisons of the diagnostic criteria may suggest the
should be optimistic for good outcomes with the treatment
TS1/TS2 criteria is not as sensitive as BWS for diagnosing
modalities currently available.
TS (80).
Treatment of TS requires multiple modalities. According
to the BWS scores, patients in the intermediate category of Acknowledgments
25–44 points should be monitored closely and treated based Funding: None.
on provider discretion. Patients with 45 points or more
should absolutely be treated. Treatment strategies should
include blocking thyroid hormone synthesis and secretion, Footnote
blocking the peripheral effects of thyroid hormone, Conflicts of Interest: The authors have no conflicts of interest
reversing systemic hemodynamic decompensation, treating to declare.
the precipitating stressor and definitive therapy (1,84).
Several ways to decrease thyroid hormone include PTU as Ethical Statement: The authors are accountable for all
it blocks the synthesis of new hormone and the conversion aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related
from T4 to T3 in the periphery (34,85), glucocorticoids (86), to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are
and beta blockers, specifically propranolol (87). Lugol’s appropriately investigated and resolved.
solution or SSKI should be given to further rapidly decrease
both T3 and T4 levels (88). ATA guidelines recommend Open Access Statement: This is an Open Access article
the following dosing: PTU 500–1,000 mg load and then distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons
250 mg every 4 hours. Propranolol 60–80 mg every 4 hours. Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 International
Hydrocortisone 300 mg intravenous load and then 200 mg License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0), which permits the non-
every 8 hours. SSKI is given orally as 5 drops (0.25 mL or commercial replication and distribution of the article with
250 mg) every 6 hours (1). In a worst case scenario when the strict proviso that no changes or edits are made and
patients are unresponsive to the above treatment, plasma the original work is properly cited (including links to both
pheresis can be done. Decompensated hemodynamics the formal publication through the relevant DOI and the
in critically ill patients with TS can initiate many of the license). See: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-
secondary clinical features seen and thus, optimizing nd/4.0/.
cardiovascular function and hemodynamics with aggressive
volume resuscitation is of utmost importance (80). Cooling
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Cite this article as: Doubleday AR, Sippel RS. Hyperthyroidism.

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