Lesson 2 Endocrine System
Lesson 2 Endocrine System
Lesson 2 Endocrine System
Lesson 2/ finals
Endocrine system
The regulatory systems of the body, and aside from the endocrine
system, the nervous system is also one of the regulatory systems.
Nervous and Endocrine Systems – are the 2 major regulatory
systems of the body. Together, they regulate and coordinate the
activities, and essentially, all bodies structures.
o Nervous System – function like a telephone messages that is
sent along many telephone wires to their specific destinations.
Primarily, they transmit information in the form of action
potentials along with the axons of your cells but in a form of
neurotransmitters that can called messengers.
The neurotransmitters are released in the synapsis
between the neurons and cells they control.
o Endocrine System – more likely a satellite radio or a television Main regulatory functions of the endocrine
signal that broadcast widely that every radio or television system
with its receiver adjusted properly, can receive the signals. 1. Regulation of metabolism
The endocrine system sends information to the cells 2. Control of food intake and digestion.
in the form of Chemical Messengers that is called 3. Modulation of tissue development
Hormones. The hormones are primarily released by 4. Regulation of ion levels
the endocrine glands. 5. Control of water balance
Chemical Messengers 6. Changes in heart rate and blood pressure
Allow cells to communicate with each other to regulate body 7. Control of blood glucose and other nutrients
activities. 8. Control of reproductive functions.
It is produced by specific collection of cells or by a gland. Exocrine glands
o An organ consisting of epithelial cells specialized in secretion – This is the counterpart of the endocrine glands.
controlled release of chemical from a cell. Exocrine glands have ducts that carry their secretions to the
Types of chemical messengers outside of the body, or into a hollow organ, such as the stomach or
1. Autocrine Chemical Messengers – a cell targets itself intestines.
The signaling travels from itself Examples of exocrine secretions are saliva, sweat, breast milk, and
2. Paracrine Chemical Messengers – a cell targets a nearby cell. digestive enzymes.
3. Neurotransmitters – it is a cell that targets a cell that is connected Comparison of the nervous and endocrine system
by a gap junction. Similarities
4. Endocrine – a cell targets a distant cell through the blood stream. o They cooperate to regulate important processes.
THE MAIN DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF THIS CHEMICAL Regulate and coordinate the activities of essentially all body
MESSENGERS IS THE DISTANCE THAT THE SIGNALS TRAVELS THROUGH THE ORGANISM TO structures to achieve and maintain homeostasis.
REACH THE TARGET CELL. o Same molecule can be used as either a Neurotransmitter or a
Characteristics of the endocrine system Hormone.
Composed of Endocrine Glands and Specialized Endocrine Cells o They share same structures in the brain.
o Secrete very small amounts of hormones into the bloodstream o Some neurons secrete hormones
to specific cites called target tissues, or effectors where they (neuropeptides/neurohormones)
stimulate a specific response. o They both have chemical messengers that bind to the same
receptor type.
Differences
CATEGORY NERVOUS SYSTEM ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Neurotransmitters
MODE OF
(directly onto their Hormone (bloodstream)
TRANSPORT
target cells)
SPEED OF RESPONSE Faster Slower
Longer-lasting effects
DURATION OF As long as there is
(Days/minutes/days/
RESPONSE Action Potential
weeks)
CHARACTERISTICS NERVOUS SYSTEM ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
MEDIATOR Neurotransmitters Hormones delivered to
1
Anatomy and physiology
Lesson 2/ finals
released locally in 1. Stability – they are longer lasting, and they have long lasting effects
tissues throughout
MOLECULES response to nerve unlike the nervous system because of stability.
body to blood.
impulses Half-life (the amount of time it takes for 50% of the
Close to site of release, circulating hormone to be removed from the circulation and
Far from site of
at synapse; binds to excreted.)
SITE OF MEDIATOR release (usually); binds
receptors in 2. Communication – from a cell to a target cell
ACTION to receptor on or in
postsynaptic 3. Distribution
target cells
membrane. Binding proteins (transport chaperone/protection)
Muscle (smooth, Bound hormones (reservoir)
TYPES OF TARGET cardiac, and skeletal) Free hormones in
Cells throughout body.
CELLS cells, gland cells, and
other neurons.
Typically, within Three types of stimuli regulate hormone release:
TIME TO ONSET OF milliseconds Seconds to hours or Control of Hormone Secretion
ACTION (thousandths of a days. 1. Humoral
second) 2. Neural
DURATION OF Generally, briefer Generally, longer 3. Hormonal
ACTION (milliseconds) (seconds to days) Control by humoral stimuli
Differences according to the regulatory system in terms of Exhibited by hormones that are sensitive to circulating blood levels
modulation. of certain molecules such as glucose or calcium
o Endocrine System – Amplitude-modulated system is about the o Metabolites and other molecules in the bloodstream that can
concentration of the hormone determines the strength of the directly stimulate the release of some hormones are referred
signal and the magnitude of the response. For most hormones, to as: Humoral stimuli.
a small concentration
of a hormone is a
weak signal and
produces a small
response whereas a
larger concentration is a
stronger signal and
results in a greater
response.
Thereby, it determines the concentration of the THE HUMORAL STIMULI IN THIS FIGURE IS THE CALCIUM, THE ENDOCRINE CELLS ARE THE
hormone. ONE THAT RELEASE THE HORMONE. THE HUMORAL STIMULI ARE THE LEVEL OF THE
o Nervous System – Frequency modulated system is about the CALCIUM IN THE BLOODSTREAM. WHEN THE ENDOCRINE CELLS, DETECTS A LOW BLOOD
CALCIUM, THE ENDOCRINE CELL WILL RELEASE A HORMONE CALLED AS THE
strength of the signal depending on the frequency, not the size,
PARATHYROID HORMONE OR PTH. THIS PARATHYROID HORMONES ARE THE ONES WHO
of the action potentials. All action potentials are the same size
REGULATE THE CERUM CALCIUM TO ITS AFFECTS ON THE BONE, WITH THE USE OF
in a given tissue. A
OSTEOCLAST (WHICH IS KNOWN TO BE THE BONE RESORPTION. THE BONE RESORPTION IS
low frequency
THE NORMAL DESTRUCTION OF THE BONE. WHICH IS INDIRECTLY STIMULATED BY THE
of action
potentials is a PTH.) THEY USES THIS BONE RESOPTION IN ORDER TO ENCHANCE THE RELEASE OF THE
CALCIUM IN THE BLOOD STREAM. THAT IS WHY, ONES THE RELEASE OF THE CALCIUM IN
weak stimulus,
THE BLOODSTREAM INCREASES. THERE IS NOW AN INCREASE OF CALCIUM IN THE BLOOD
and a higher
STREAM.
frequency is a
stronger
stimulus. TO PROVIDE A CONTINUOUS HOMEOSTASIS:
IF THERE IS AN EXCESSIVE HIGH CALCIUM IN THE BLOOD STREAM THEN THE ENDOCRINE
Hormones CELL WILL NO LONGER SECRETE THE PARATHYROID HORMONE, THEN THERE IS NO
Derived from the OSTEOCLAST ACTIVITY. THEREFORE, THERE IS NOW A DECREASE IN CALCIUM IN THE
Greek word Hormone (set into motion) BLOOD STREAM.
Chemical messenger that is secreted into the blood, travels to a
Control by neural stimuli
distant target tissue, and binds to specific receptors to produce a
Cause hormone
coordinated set of events in that target tissue.
secretion in direct
Secreted by endocrine gland.
General characteristics of hormones
2
Anatomy and physiology
Lesson 2/ finals
response to action potentials in neurons, as occurs during stress or ITSELF IN RELEASING THE RELEASING HORMONE. WHILE THE PARACRINE, WHERE THEY
exercise. RELEASE HORMONE TO STIMULATE A NEARBY HORMONE. BECAUSE THE HYPOTHALAMUS
Hormones from the hypothalamus that cause the release of other RELEASES A RELEASING HORMONE TO ITS NEARBY TARGET TISSUE WHICH IS THE
hormones called releasing hormones. ANTERIOR PITUITARY. WHICH IS THE ANTERIOR PITUITARY RELEASES TROPIC HORMONE.
WHILE FOR ENDOCRINE, BECAUSE THE TROPIC HORMONE IS RELEASE FROM THE
ANTERIOR PITUITARY GOES ONTO THE BLOOD STREAM.
THE CONTROL OF THE NEURAL STIMULI IS ACT UPON BY THE NEURON AND BY THE Inhibition of hormone release
ACTION POTENTIALS. (1) AN ACTION POTENTIAL IN A NEURON INNERVATING AN Although the stimulus of hormone secretion is important, inhibition is
ENDOCRINE CELL STIMULATES SECRETION OF A STIMULATORY NEUROTRANSMITTERS. equally important.
WHEREIN THEY HAVE A DIRECT TARGET TISSUE, FROM A CELL TO A TARGET TISSUE. 1. Humoral substances can inhibit the secretion of hormones.
THIS TYPE OF CHEMICAL MESSENGER, THEY ACT UPON DIRECTLY FROM CELL TO 2. Neural stimuli can prevent hormone secretion.
ANOTHER CELL. (2) THE ENDOCRINE CELL SECRETES ITS HORMONE INTO THE BLOOD, 3. Inhibiting hormones prevent hormone release.
WHERE IT WILL TRAVEL TO ITS TARGET CELL/TISSUE. TO PROVIDE A HOMEOSTASIS, THE Regulation of hormone levels in the blood
STIMULATION OF THE ENDOCRINE CELL SHOULD BE INHIBIT/STOP. (3) AN ACTION
Two processes regulate the overall blood levels of hormones.
POTENTIAL IN THE NEURON STIMULATES SECRETION OF AN INHIBITORY
1. Negative feedback. Prevents further hormone secretion once
NEUROTRANSMITTER. WHEN IT IS ALREADY STIMULATED, IT WILL NOW ACT ON THE
a set point is achieved.
ENDOCRINE CELLS. (4) THE ENDOCRINE CELL IS INHIBITED AND DOES NOT SECRETE ITS
2. Positive feedback. Is a self-promoting system whereby the
HORMONE TO THE BLOOD.
stimulation of hormone secretion increases over time.
Control by hormonal stimuli Negative feedback by hormones
Hormonal stimulation of other hormone secretion is common in the
endocrine system.
Hormones from the anterior pituitary that stimulate hormones from
other endocrine glands are called tropic hormones
3
Anatomy and physiology
Lesson 2/ finals
Endocrine Glands 3. In the posterior pituitary gland, action potentials cause the release
1. Pituitary Gland of neurohormones (blue circles) from axon terminals into the blood.
2. Thyroid Gland 4. The neurohormones pass through the blood and influence the
3. Parathyroid Gland activity of their target tissues.
4. Adrenal Gland
5. Pancreas WE HAVE 2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF INPUT COMING FROM THE BRAIN, IT COULD BE
Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus STIMULATORY OR INHIBITORY. THE GREEN ARROW IN THE FIGURE ABOVE, REPRESENTS
Both these structures integrate Nervous System and Endocrine THE STIMULATROY, WHICH MEANS THERE IS A STIMULI AND THERE SHOULD BE AN
System. INCREASE OF ACTIVITY. WHILE THE RED ARROW PERTAINS TO THE INHIBITORY, MEANS
The pituitary gland secretes nine major hormones that regulate THAT THE STIMULI WOULD LIKE TO DECREASE THE ACTIVITY.
numerous body functions and the secretory activity of several
other endocrine glands. THESE INPUT COMING FROM THE HIGHER BRAIN CENTERS WILL BE RELAYED TO THE
The hypothalamus regulates the secretory activity of the pituitary POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND VIA THE HYPOTHALAMIC NEURONS IN THE SUPRAOPTIC
gland in response to other hormones, sensory information, and NUCLEUS. WITH THIS HYPOTHALAMIC NEURONS IN THE SUPRAOPTIC NUCLEUS, THE
emotions. STIMULI WITHIN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM CAUSE THE HYPOTHALAMIC NEURONS TO EITHER
Pituitary gland INCREASE OR DECREASE THEIR ACTION POTENTIAL FREQUENCY. THE POSTERIOR
Located to the base PITUITARY GLAND IS REGULATED BY THE NERVOUS SYSTEM . THE AMPLIFICATION, IT IS
of the brain, inferior FREQUENCY-AMPLITUDE SYSTEM. THEY ARE DEPENDING TO THE ACTION POTENTIAL.
to hypothalamus
Connected to the THE ACTION POTENTIAL ARE CONDUCTED BY THE AXONS OF THE HYPOTHALAMIC
hypothalamus by the NEURONS, AND THE SIGNALS THAT WILL PASS THROUGH VIA THE HYPOTHALAMOHYPO
infundibulum. PHYSIAL TRACT TO THE POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND. IN THE POSTERIOR PITUITARY
Has 2 lobes: Anterior GLAND, THE ACTION POTENTIALS CAUSE THE RELEASE OF THE NEUROHORMONES (THE
Pituitary BLUE CIRCLES IN THE FIGURE, REPRESENTS THE NEUROHORMONES) FROM THE AXON
Gland(Adenohypophysi TERMINALS GOING TO THE BLOOD. THE NEUROHORMONES PASS THROUGH THE BLOOD,
s) and Posterior THEN INFLUENCE THE ACTIVITY OF THEIR TARGET TISSUE.
Pituitary Gland Posterior Pituitary Hormones
(Neurohypophysis). HORMONES TARGET TISSUE RESPONSE
Posterior pituitary Increased water
gland (Neurohypophysis) ANTIDIURETIC reabsorption (less
Kidneys
continuous with the HORMONE (ADH) water is lost in the
hypothalamus in the form of urine)
brain Increased uterine
forms from an contractions;
outgrowth of the increased milk
Uterus; Mammary
inferior part of the OXYTOCIN expulsion from
glands
brain (distal end of mammary glands;
infundibulum that unclear function in
enlarges) males.
is a part of the nervous Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
system 1. STIMULUS: CHANGE IN BLOOD OSMOLALITY(concentration of the
its hormones are called blood) / BP CHANGES
neuropeptides, or 2. RECEPTORS: OSMORECEPTORS/ BARORECEPTORS to Central
neurohormones* Nervous System
o Will be stimulated - The receptors are the one that perceive the stimuli.
when the signal coming from the nervous system is received or 3. Receptors synapse with the ADH neurosecretory neurons in the
relayed by the hypothalamohypo physial tract. hypothalamus
Process of the secretion of the pituitary hormones 4. Stimulus (Increase in Blood osmolality/ Decrease in BP/Decreased
1. Stimuli within the nervous system cause hypothalamic neurons to Blood volume) will create INCREASE FREQUENCY INCREASE ACTION
either increase or decrease their action potential frequency. POTENTIAL = ADH RELEASE
2. Action potentials are conducted by axons of the hypothalamic 5. TARGET TISSUE AND EFFECT: Kidney tubules retain water/ Blood
neurons through the hypothalamohypophysial tract to the posterior Vessels constrict
pituitary. The axon endings of neurons store neurohormones in the 6. RESPONSE: Increased blood volume OR Reduced blood osmolality/
posterior pituitary. Increase in Blood Pressure
4
Anatomy and physiology
Lesson 2/ finals
PREGNANT WOMEN: During childbirth, milk-let down
NON-PREGNANT WOMEN: DURING MENSTRUATION: Rid uterine wall
lining; AFTER SEXUAL ACTIVITY: Movement of sperm cell
Control of oxytocin secretion
1. Stretch of the uterus and the uterine cervix or mechanical
stimulation of the breasts’ nipples increases action potentials in
axons of oxytocin-secreting neurons.
2. Action potentials are conducted by sensory neurons from the
uterus and breast to the spinal cord and up ascending tracts to the
hypothalamus.
3. Action potentials are
conducted by axons of
Flow of the ADH oxytocin-secreting
neurons in the
THE STIMULI COULD EITHER BE CHANGES IN THE BLOOD OSMOLALITY OR A CHANGE IN
hypothalamohypophysial
BLOOD PRESSURE. THE OSMORECEPTOR OR THE RECEPTORS ARE THE ONE THAT
tract to the posterior
PERCEIVED IN THE CHANGES IN THE STIMULI. FOR THE OSMORECEPTORS, THEY ARE THE
pituitary, where they
ONE THAT DETECTS THE CHANGES IN THE BLOOD OSMOLALITY. WHILE THE
increase oxytocin
BARORECEPTORS, THEY ARE THE ONE THAT DETECTS THE CHANGES IN THE BLOOD
secretion.
PRESSURE. BOTH OF THEM, IF THERE IS A CHANGE IN THE STIMULI, THE FREQUENCY OF
THE ACTION POTENTIALS WILL ALSO CHANGE AND THE ACTION POTENTIALS WILL
4. Oxytocin enters the
PROCED OR DELIVER THE INFORMATION TO THE VAGOS NERVE GOING TO THE circulation, increasing
HYPOTHALAMUS. contractions of the
uterus and milk letdown
AN INCREASE IN THE OSMOLALITY AND A DECREASE IN THE BLOOD PRESSURE, from the lactating breast
INCREASE NOW THE ACTION POTENTIAL IN THE ADH SECRETING NEURON. THE ACTION
POTENTIALS ARE CARRIED BY THE AXONS OF THE ADH SECRETED NEURONS THROUGH THIS EVENT IS WHAT WE CALL AS POSITIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM, SINCE THERE IS AN
THE HYPOTHALAMOHYPO PHYSIAL TRACT TO THE POSTERIOR PITUITARY. IN THE CONTINUOUS STIMULATION OF THE RELEASE OF THE OXYTOCIN.
POSTERIOR PITUITARY, ACTION POTENTIALS CAUSE THE RELEASE OF ADH FROM THE Anterior pituitary gland (Adenohypophysis)
AXON TERMINALS INTO THE BLOOD. INCREASING ADH ACTS ON THE KIDNEY TUBULES TO develops as an
INCREASE WATER REABSORPTION, RESULTING IN REDUCED URINE VOLUME, INCREASED outpocketing of the roof of the
URINE OSMOLALITY, AND DECREASED BLOOD OSMOLALITY AND INCREASE BLOOD embryonic oral cavity called the
VOLUME AND BLOOD PRESSURE. THIS HELPS MAINTAIN BLOOD OSMOLALITY AND pituitary diverticulum, or Rathke
VOLUME. pouch.
1. Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect changes in blood Hormones secreted
osmolality, and baroreceptors detect changes in blood pressure and from the anterior pituitary are
change the frequency of action potentials in axons of the vagus traditional hormones, not
nerve to the hypothalamus. neurohormones.
2. An Increase in osmolality and a decrease in blood pressure increase
action potentials in ADH-secreting neurons.
3. Action potentials are carried by axons of ADH- secreting neurons
through the hypothalamohypophysial tract to the posterior I N THE FIGURE ABOVE SHOWS THE
pituitary. DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESS OF THE
4. In the posterior pituitary, action potentials cause the release of ADH PITUITARY GLAND STARTING FROM THE AN EMBRYO TO THE 4 TH WEEKS. WHERE IT
from the axon terminals into the blood. SHOWS (IN THE FIGURE) THE NEUROHYPOPHYSIAL BUD AND THE PITUITARY DIVERTICULUM
5. Increasing ADH acts on the kidney tubules to increase water THAT IS STATED. ON THE 8TH WEEKS, WHEREIN THE HYPOPHYSIAL POUCH IN THE
reabsorption, resulting in reduced urine volume, increased urine NEUROHYPOPHYSIAL BUD CONNECTS WITH EACH OTHER. WITHIN THE 16TH WEEK, THESE
osmolality, and decreased blood osmolality. This helps maintain blood ARE NOW CALLED AS THE PITUITARY GLAND SEPARATED WITH THE ANTERIOR AND
osmolality and volume and increase blood volume and blood pressure. POSTERIOR.
Oxytocin
SECRETED BY: oxytocin-secreting neurons in the hypothalamus WHEREIN THE ANTERIOR GLOBE OF THE PG, ADENOHYPOPHYSIS. HORMONES THAT ARE
SECRETED IN THE ANTERIOR PITUITARY ARE TRADITIONAL HORMONES, NOT A
STIMULUS: UTERINE STRETCH, CERVIX MECHANICAL STIMULATION
NEUROHORMONES, IN COMPARE TO THE HORMONES SECRETED BY THE POSTERIOR
and BREAST NIPPLE STIMULATION
EFFECT: smooth muscle contraction
5
Anatomy and physiology
Lesson 2/ finals
PITUITARY GLAND. BECAUSE THE HORMONE SECRETED BY THE POSTERIOR PITUITARY
GLAND IS CALLED AS NEUROHORMONE.
FOR THE ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND, THEY ARE THE TYPICAL OR TRADITIONAL OF
HORMONES.
Hormones of anterior pituitary
HORMONES TARGET TISSUE RESPONSE
Increased growth in
tissues
- Increased amino
acid uptake and
protein synthesis
- increased Control growth Hormone (GH) secretion
breakdown of lipids 1. Stress and decreased blood glucose levels increase of growth
GROWTH HORMONE and release of fatty hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH), and decrease the release of
(GH), OR Most tissues acids from cells growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH), from the hypothalamus.
SOMATOTROPIN - Increased glycogen 2. GHRH and GHIH through the hypothalamohypophysial portal system to
synthesis and the anterior pituitary.
increased blood 3. Increased GHRH reduced GHIH act on the anterior pituitary and result
glucose levels. in increased GH secretion.
- increased 4. GH Acts on target tissues.
somatomedin 5. Increasing GH and somatomedins have a negative-feedback effect
production on the hypothalamus, resulting in decreased GHRH and increased
GHIH release.
THYROID-STIMULATING Increased thyroid GH in target tissues:
Thyroid gland
HORMONE (TSH) hormone secretion o Increases protein synthesis and decreases protein
Increased breakdown.
ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC
Adrenal cortex glucocorticoid o Increases tissue growth
HORMONE (ACTH)
hormone secretion. o Increases lipid breakdown
GROWTH HORMONE: DIRECT EFFECTS o Increases glucose synthesis and reduces glucose usage
determining how tall a person becomes o Increases somatomedin secretion
It also regulates metabolism.
THERE ARE 2 TYPES OF GROWTH HORMONE, GHIH AND GHRH, WHICH ARE ACTIVATED
o GH plays an important role in regulating blood nutrient levels BY THE STIMULUS. THE STIMULUS CAN EITHER BE LOW BLOOD GLUCOSE OR ORTHER
after a meal and during periods of fasting. STRESSORS. FOR THE GREEN ARROW, REPRESENTS THE STIMULATION. WHILE RED
Slows protein breakdown ARROW, REPRESENTS INHIBITORY.
Use of lipids to promote growth and protein synthesis
o Increases lipolysis FOR THE STRESS AND DECREASE BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS INCREASE THE RELEASE OF
o Increase release of fatty acids from adipocytes into blood GROWTH HORMONE RELEASING HORMONE AND DECREASE THE GROWTH HORMONE
Increase glucose synthesis by liver INHBITING HORMONE. FROM THE HYPOTHALAMUS. THE GHIH AND GHRH TRAVELS TO
GROWTH HORMONE: INDIRECT EFFECTS THE HYPOTHALAMOHYPOPHYSIAL PORTAL SYSTEM TO THE ANTERIOR PITUITARY. THE
Increases PRODUCTION OF SOMATOMEDINS INCREASED GHRH AND REDUCED GHIH ACT ON THE ANTERIOR PITUITARY AND RESULT
o best-known are insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) TO AN INCREASE GROWTH HORMONE SECRETION. THE GROWTH HORMONE ACTS ON THE
stimulate growth in cartilage and bone and increase TARGET TISSUES 5. INCREASING GH AND SOMATOMEDINS HAVE A NEGATIVE-
the synthesis of protein in skeletal muscles. FEEDBACK EFFECT ON THE HYPOTHALAMUS, RESULTING IN DECREASED GHRH AND
GROWTH HORMONE INCREASED GHIH RELEASE.
Two neurohormones released from the hypothalamus regulate the
secretion of GH THE INCREASE IN GROWTH HORMONE AND SOMATOMEDIN RESULTS TO THE NEGATIVE
FEEDBACK MECHANISM TO MAINTAIN HOMEOSTASIS.
o growth hormone–releasing hormone (GHRH)
Low blood glucose levels and other stressors GROWTH DISORDERS
o growth hormone–inhibiting hormone (GHIH) PITUITARY DWARFISM
high blood glucose level o chronic hyposecretion, or insufficient secretion, of GH in
infants and children
6
Anatomy and physiology
Lesson 2/ finals
7
Anatomy and physiology
Lesson 2/ finals
Gonadotropin- Anterior pituitary cells
Increased secretion
Via hypothalamohypophysial Portal system releasing hormone that secrete LH and
of LH and FSH
o From the floor of the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary. (GnRH) FSH
The signal will be transported to the anterior pituitary. Anterior pituitary cells
Prolactin- releasing Increased prolactin
o Neurohormones enter from hypothalamus to anterior that secrete
hormone (PRH) secretion
pituitary prolactin
Anterior pituitary cells
Prolactin- inhibiting Decreased prolactin
that secrete
hormone. (PIH) secretion
prolactin
10
Anatomy and physiology
Lesson 2/ finals
PARATHYROID HORMONE Neuromuscular system
HORMONE TARGET TISSUE RESPONSE less excitable; possible
PARATHYROID Bone, Increased rate of breakdown of muscular weakness
HORMONE kidneys, bone by osteoclasts. Increased force of
(PTH) small increased reabsorption of Ca2+ in contraction of cardiac
intestine kidneys. muscle; at very high blood
Increased absorption of Ca2+ Ca2+ levels, possible
from the small intestine; cardiac arrest during
increased vitamin D synthesis. contraction
increased blood Ca2+ levels SECONDARY caused by
MAJOR REGULATOR OF BLOOD CALCIUM, PHOSPHATE AND MAGNESIUM HYPER conditions
LEVELS PARATHYROIDISM that reduce
HYPOCALCEMIA blood Ca2+ Neuromuscular system less
INACTIVE PARATHYROID GLAND levels, such excitable; possible muscular
ABN LOW LEVELS OF CA2+ IN BLOOD as: weakness
DECREASE EXTRACELLULAR CALCIUM = INCREASE Na channels Inadequate Increased force of
OPEN = Na+ diffuses into cells and causes depolarization Ca2+ in the contraction of cardiac
SYMPTOMS diet, muscle; at very high blood
o nervousness
inadequate Ca2+ levels, possible cardiac
o muscle spasms
levels of arrest during contraction.
o cardiac arrhythmia
vitamin D
o convulsions.
pregnancy, or
Extreme cases may lead to tetany of skeletal muscles, including the lactation
respiratory muscles, which can cause death.
The blood calcium level directly controls the secretion of both
Causes and Symptoms of Hyposecretion and calcitonin and parathyroid hormone via negative feedback loops
Hypersecretion of PTH that do not involve the pituitary gland.
CAUSE SYMPTOMS ADRENAL GLANDS
HYPO Accidental Hypocalcemia AKA suprarenal glands
PARATHYROIDISM removal Increased neuromuscular LOCATION: lies superior to each kidney in the retroperitoneal space,
during excitability, possible tetany, SHAPE: flattened pyramidal shape.
thyroidectomy laryngospasm, and death SIZE: 3–5 cm in height, 2–3 cm in width, and a little less than 1 cm
from asphyxiation thick, with a mass of 3.5–5 g, only half its size at birth.
Flaccid heart muscle; possible o HAS 2 REGIONS
cardiac arrhythmia ADRENAL CORTEX
Diarrhea o ZONA GLOMERULOSA – secretes
PRIMARY a result of Hypercalcemia or normal mineralcorticoids
HYPER abnormal blood Ca2+ levels; calcium o ZONA FASCICULATA – secrets glucocorticoids
PARATHYROIDISM parathyroid carbonate salts may be o ZONA RETICULATA – secretes androgens
function deposited throughout the ADRENAL MEDULLA – secretes epinephrine and
Adenomas of the body, especial y in the norepinephrine
- parathyroid renal tubules (kidney
gland (90%) stones), lungs, blood
- idiopathic vessels, and gastric
(unknown cause) mucosa
hyperplasia of Bones weakened as a
parathyroid cells result of reabsorption;
(9%) some cases are first
- carcinomas (1%) diagnosed when a
radiograph is taken of a
broken bone
11
Anatomy and physiology
Lesson 2/ finals
o Increase the release of fatty acids from adipose tissue into the
HORMONES OF THE ADRENAL MEDULLA blood.
The adrenal medulla is a modified sympathetic nervous system o Increase heart rate
ganglion. o Decrease blood flow through blood vessels of most internal
In response to stimulation by sympathetic neurons organs.
STIMULUS: Emotional excitement, injury, stress, exercise, and low blood o Increase blood flow through blood vessels of skeletal muscle and
glucose levels the heart.
AM secretes two major hormones: o Increase blood pressure
o EPINEPHRINE/ADRENALINE (80%) o Decrease the function of visceral organs.
o NOREPINEPHRINE/ NORADRENALINE (20%) ADRENAL CORTEX
o Secretion of adrenal medullary hormones prepares the The adrenal cortex produces steroid hormones
individual for physical activity and to sustain it. COMPLETE LOSS of adrenocortical hormones - death
o EFFECTS: SHORT-LIVED 3 LAYERS
HORMONES OF ADRENAL MEDULLA o ZONA GLOMERULOSA – MINERALOCORTICOIDS
TARGET o ZONA FASCICULATA – GLUCOCORTICODS
HORMONE TISSUE
RESPONSE
o ZONA RETICULATA – ANDROGEN
• Increased cardiac output; HORMONES OF ADRENAL CORTEX
• increased blood flow to skeletal TARGET
Heart, HORMONE RESPONSE
muscles and to the heart TISSUE
blood Increased Na+ reabsorption and
EPINEPHRINE • vasoconstriction of blood vessels, MINERALOCORTIC
vessels,
PRIMARILY; especial y in the viscera and skin; OIDS Kidney K+ and H+ excretion; enhanced
liver, (ALDOSTERONE)
NOREPINEPHRINE • increased release of glucose and water reabsorption
adipose
fatty acids into the blood; Increased protein and lipid
cells
• in general, preparation for breakdown; increased glucose
physical activity GLUCOCORTICOIDS Most
(CORTISOL) production; inhibition of immune
tissues
REGULATION OF ADRENAL MEDULLA SECRETIONS response and decreased
inflammation
Of minor importance in males.
Many in females, development of some
ANDROGENS
tissues secondary sex characteristics,
such as axil ary and pubic hair
MINERALOCORTICOIDS
MINERAL HOMEOSTASIS
Aldosterone is the major mineralocorticoid
o ADJUST BP and BLOOD VOLUME
promotes excretion of H in the urine
Increase Na blood levels
Decrease K blood levels
Renin–angiotensin–aldosterone or RAA pathway controls secretion
1. Stress, physical activity, and low blood glucose levels act as stimuli to of aldosterone
the hypothalamus, resulting in increased sympathetic nervous Returns Blood Pressure to its (N) range through modulation of
system activity. kidney function
2. An increased frequency of action potentials conducted through the STIMULUS: Low BP
sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system stimulates RESPONSE: Increase BP
the adrenal medulla to secrete epinephrine and some TARGET TISSUE: KIDNEY
norepinephrine into the blood. MECHANISM OF ACTION:
3. Epinephrine and norepinephrine act on their target tissues to o INCREASE NA REABSORPTION IN KIDNEYS – INCREASE NA
produce responses. BLOOD LEVELS - INCREASE BLOOD VOLUME - INCREASE
Epinephrine and norepinephrine in the target tissues: BLOOD PRESSURE
o Increase the release of glucose from the liver into the blood. o INC K+ excretion into the urine- DEC. K+ BLOOD LEVELS
12
Anatomy and physiology
Lesson 2/ finals
o INC RATE OF H+ SECRETION into the urine - DEC. PH of body
fluids
HYPOSECRETION HYPERSECRETION
Removal of gland or loss
Tumor in gland or
of function or Addison
CAUSE aldosteronism
disease (low levels of
aldosterone and cortisol)
Hyponatremia
(low blood levels of Na)
Slight hypernatremia
Hyperkalemia
Hypokalemia Alkalosis 1. Corticotroponin-releasing hormone (CRH) is released from
(high blood levels of K)
High BP hypothalamic neurons in response stress or low blood glucose and
Acidosis
SYMPTOMS Weakness of skeletal passes, by way of the hypothalamohypophysial portal system to the
Low BP
muscles anterior pituitary.
Tremors and tetany of
Acidic urine 2. In the anterior pituitary, CRH binds to and stimulates cells that
skeletal muscles
Polyuria secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
3. ACTH binds to membrane-bound receptors on cells of the adrenal
GLUCOCORTICOIDS cortex, primarily the Zona fasciculata, and stimulates the secretion
help to provide energy for cells by stimulating the increased use of of glucocorticoids, primarily cortisol.
lipids and proteins. 4. Cortisol acts on target tissues, resulting in increased lipid and protein
breakdown, increased glucose levels, and anti-inflammatory effects.
Most abundant is CORTISOL
5. Cortisol has a negative-feedback effect because it inhibits CRH
STIMULUS OF CRH: Stress and Hypoglycemia
release from the hypothalamus and ACTH secretion from the
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) is necessary to maintain the anterior pituitary.
secretory activity of the adrenal cortex. Cortisol in the target tissues:
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) released from the o Increases lipid and protein breakdown
hypothalamus stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete ACTH - o Increases blood glucose
Zona fasciculata is very sensitive to ACTH - increasing cortisol o Has an anti-inflammatory effect.
secretion. GLUCOCORTICOIDS
ACTH is inhibited by high cortisol level in the blood HYPOSECRETION HYPERSECRETION
ACTH and cortisol inhibit CRH through Negative Feedback Removal of gland or Tumor in gland or Cushing
TARGET TISSUE RESPONSE CAUSE loss of syndrome (high
PERIPHERAL TISSUES: - INHIBIT GLUCOSE USE function cortisol and androgens)
- SKELETAL - GLUCONEOGENESIS (from amino acids Hyperglycemia (high blood glucose
MUSCLE and from lipids – liver) Hypoglycemia (low levels; adrenal diabetes; leads to
- LIVER = ELEVATED BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS blood glucose levels) diabetes mellitus) Depressed
- ADIPOSE - GLYCOGEN SYNTHESIS IN CELLS Depressed immune immune system
TISSUE - INCREASE LIPOLYSIS system Destruction of tissue proteins,
- DECREASE PROTEIN SYNTHESIS Unused proteins and causing muscle atrophy and
IMMUNE TISSUES Anti-inflammatory; depress antibody, WBC lipids from diet, weakness, osteoporosis, weak
production, and the release of inflammatory resulting in weight capillaries (easy bruising), thin
components in response to injury; loss skin, and impaired wound
suppress the immune system SYMPTOMS
Loss of appetite healing; mobilization and
TARGET CELLS FOR Receptor molecules for epinephrine and nausea, vomiting redistribution of lipids, causing
EPINEPHRINE norepinephrine decrease without adequate Bronzing of skin due depletion of adipose tissue from
amounts of glucocorticoid to increased limbs and deposition
pigmentation (if in face (moon face), neck
Regulation of corticol secretion ACTH levels are (buffalo hump), and abdomen
elevated) (Cushing syndrome)
Emotional effects, including
euphoria and depression
13
Anatomy and physiology
Lesson 2/ finals
SIZE: ~12.5–15 cm (5–6 in.) in length, 85-100 grams
LOCATION: between the greater curvature of stomach and
duodenum
ANDROGENS
males and females: small amounts of weak androgens ACINI MAKE UP THE EXOCRINE PORTION OF THE PANCREAS, WHICH SECRETES ENZYMES
The major androgen secreted by the adrenal gland is THAT MOVE THROUGH THE DUCTS TO THE SMALL INTESTINE. WHERE THEY ARE
dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). After puberty in males, the RESPONSIBLE IN DIGESTING OUR FOOD.
androgen testosterone is also released in much greater quantity by PANCREATIC HORMONES
the testes regulating the concentration of glucose and amino acids.
In females, however, adrenal androgens play important roles. GLUCAGON
o stimulate pubic and axillary hair growth and sex drive in INSULIN
females. SOMATOSTATIN
o prepubertal growth spurt
o After menopause
CELLS IN HORMONE TARGET TISSUE RESPONSE
HYPOSECRETION HYPERSECRETION
ISLETS
Undescended
testes, loss of ALPHA Glucagon Primarily liver Glycogen breakdown;
CAUSE testes, Tumor in gland or release glucose in the
complications adrenogenital syndrome blood
following
mumps BETA Insulin Especialy liver, Increased uptake and use
In women, hirsutism (excessive skeletal muscle, of glucose and amino acids
In women, adipose tissue
facial and body hair), acne,
SYMPTOM reduction of DELTA Somatostatin Alpha and beta cells Inhibition of insulin and
increased sex drive,
S pubic and glucagon secretion
regression of breast tissue, and
axillary hair
loss of regular menstruation
PANCREAS
ENDOCRINE and EXOCRINE GLAND INSULIN
BOTH ENDOCRINE AND EXOCRINE. SINCE PANCREAS HAS THE ABILITY TO SECRETE FUNCTION: lower blood glucose levels by stimulating glucose
CHEMICALS TO THE BLOOD STREAM AND EXOCRINE BECAUSE IT SECRETE ITS PRODUCT transport into body cells.
INTO A DUCT. STIMULUS: Elevated Blood glucose (After a meal)
o ACINI – pancreatic juice to the small intestine RESPONSE: Increased ability of taking up and use of glucose and
IT IS THE FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF THE PANCREAS, THE PANCREATIC ACINER. IT IS amino acids
RESPONSIBLE FOR THE SYNTHESIS, STORAGE AND SECRETION OF ENZYMES IN THE TOO LITTLE TO NO INSULIN: INCREASE BLOOD GLUCOSE
DIGESTION OF THE SMALL INTESTINE. PRIMARILY, PANCREATIC JUICE. o POLYPHAGIA – an intense sensation of hunger
ACINI – RESPONSIBLE FOR THE EXOCRINE ACTIVITY. o POLYURIA – increased urine volume and loss of water in the
o PANCREATIC ISLETS(ISLETS OF LANGERHANS)– responsible in urine.
secreting hormones in the pancreas; resposible for the o POLYDIPSIA – increased sensation of thirst
endocrine activity. TOO MUCH INSULIN: DECREASE BLOOD GLUCOSE
alpha (α) cells (20%) – secrete glucagon o HAS AN EFFECT TO THE NS
beta (β) cells (75%) – secrete insulin TARGET TISSUE RESPONSE
delta (δ) cells – secrete somatostatin, SKELETAL MUSCLE, Increased glucose uptake and glycogen
14
Anatomy and physiology
Lesson 2/ finals
CARDIAC MUSCLE,
CARTILAGE, BONE,
synthesis; increased uptake of certain
FIBROBLASTS,
amino acids
LEUKOCYTES, AND
MAMMARY GLANDS
LIVER Increased glycogen synthesis; increased use
of glucose for energy (glycolysis)
ADIPOSE CELLS Increased glucose uptake, glycogen
synthesis, lipid synthesis, and fatty acid
uptake; increased glycolysis
NERVOUS SYSTEM Little effect, except increased glucose
uptake in the satiety center
16
Anatomy and physiology
Lesson 2/ finals
Organs of the endocrine system
SOON AFTER A MEAL: BLOOD LEVELS OF NUTRIENTS, SUCH AS GLUCOSE, AMINO ACIDS,
AND FATTY ACIDS, INCREASE. BECAUSE OF THE HAPPENINGS INSIDE OF THE STOMACH.
FROM THE STOMACH, THE NUTRIENTS ENTERS THE BLOOD. THE PARASYMPATHETIC
STIMULATION AND INCREASING BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS CAUSE ELEVATED INSULIN
SECRETION FROM THE PANCREAS. AFTER THIS THE NUTRIENTS NOW MOVE TO THE
CELLS, FOR THEM TO BE ABLE TO UTILIZE THE NUTRIENTS. AFTER UTILIZING THE
NUTRIENTS, WITHIN 1-2 HOURS AFTER A MEAL, NUTRIENTS LEVELS DECLINE. THIS
RESULTS NOW TO THE FOLLOWING: THE LOWERED BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS AND
INCREASING SYMPATHETIC STIMULATION CAUSE INSULIN SECRETION TO DECLINE. THE
LOWERED BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS AND INCREASING SYMPATHETIC STIMULATION CAUSE
ELEVATED GLUCAGON SECRETION. LOWERED BLOOD NUTRIENT LEVELS PROMOTE GH
SECRETION. LOWERED BLOOD NUTRIENT LEVELS PROMOTE CORTISOL SECRETION. THESE
RESPONSES, PARTICULARLY IN THE NUTRIENT LEVEL DECLINE, TARGETS THE FOLLOWING:
MOST OF THE CELLS, THE GLUCOSE UPTAKE DECREASES AND SWITCHES TO LIPID AND
PROTEIN METABOLISM. TO THE LIVER, THE RELEASE GLUCOSE, KETONES AND
TRIGLYCERIDES INTO THE BLOOD. AND TO THE ADIPOSE TISSUE, THE RELEASE FATTY
ACIDS INTO THE BLOOD.
REGULATION OF BLOOD NUTRIENT LEVELS AFTER A MEAL
17
Anatomy and physiology
Lesson 2/ finals
18