Chapter 2  Pressure Distribution in a Fluid 69

Solution: First sum moments clockwise about the hinge A of the handle:

Σ MA  0  F(15  1)  P(1),
or: F  P/16, where P is the force in the small (1 in) piston.
Meanwhile figure the pressure in the oil from the weight on the large piston:
W
p   2000 lbf

 40744 psf,
oil
A3-in ( /4)(3/12 ft) 2

 2
Hence P  poil Asmall  (40744) |⎛ 1 ⎞|  222 lbf
⎠
4 ⎝12
Therefore the handle force required is F  P/16  222/16  14 lbf Ans.

2.21 In Fig. P2.21 all fluids are at 20C.

Gage A reads 350 kPa absolute. Determine
(a) the height h in cm; and (b) the reading
of gage B in kPa absolute.

Solution: Apply the hydrostatic formula

from the air to gage A:

pA  pair  Σ  h Fig. P2.21

 180000  (9790)h  133100(0.8)  350000 Pa,

Solve for h  6.49 m Ans. (a)
Then, with h known, we can evaluate the pressure at gage B:

pB  180000 + 9790(6.49  0.80) = 251000 Pa  251 kPa Ans. (b)

2.22 The fuel gage for an auto gas tank

reads proportional to the bottom gage
pressure as in Fig. P2.22. If the tank
accidentally contains 2 cm of water plus
gasoline, how many centimeters “h” of air
remain when the gage reads “full” in error?

Fig. P2.22

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70 Solutions Manual  Fluid Mechanics, Fifth Edition

Solution: Given gasoline  0.68(9790)  6657 N/m3, compute the pressure when “full”:

pfull   gasoline (full height)  (6657 N/m3 )(0.30 m)  1997 Pa

Set this pressure equal to 2 cm of water plus “Y” centimeters of gasoline:
pfull  1997  9790(0.02 m)  6657Y, or Y  0.2706 m  27.06 cm
Therefore the air gap h  30 cm  2 cm(water)  27.06 cm(gasoline)  0.94 cm Ans.

2.23 In Fig. P2.23 both fluids are at 20C.

If surface tension effects are negligible,
what is the density of the oil, in kg/m3?

Solution: Move around the U-tube from

left atmosphere to right atmosphere:
pa  (9790 N/m3 )(0.06 m)
  oil (0.08 m)  pa ,
solve for  oil  7343 N/m3, Fig. P2.23
or: oil  7343/9.81  748 kgm3 Ans.

2.24 In Prob. 1.2 we made a crude integration of atmospheric density from Table A.6
and found that the atmospheric mass is approximately m  6.08E18 kg. Can this result be
used to estimate sea-level pressure? Can sea-level pressure be used to estimate m?

Solution: Yes, atmospheric pressure is essentially a result of the weight of the air
above. Therefore the air weight divided by the surface area of the earth equals sea-level
pressure:
Wair mairg (6.08E18 kg)(9.81 m/s2 )
psea-level     117000 Pa Ans.
A earth 4 R 2
earth 4  (6.377E6 m)2

This is a little off, thus our mass estimate must have been a little off. If global average
sea-level pressure is actually 101350 Pa, then the mass of atmospheric air must be more
nearly

Aearth psea-level 4 (6.377E6 m)2 (101350 Pa)

mair    5.28E18 kg Ans.
g 9.81 m/s2

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 Chapter 2  Pressure Distribution in a Fluid 71

2.25 Venus has a mass of 4.90E24 kg and a radius of 6050 km. Assume that its atmo-
sphere is 100% CO2 (actually it is about 96%). Its surface temperature is 730 K, decreas-
ing to 250 K at about z  70 km. Average surface pressure is 9.1 MPa. Estimate the pressure on
Venus at an altitude of 5 km.

Solution: The value of “g” on Venus is estimated from Newton’s law of gravitation:
GmVenus (6.67E11)(4.90E24 kg)
g Venus  2
 2
 8.93 m/s2
R Venus (6.05E6 m)
2 2
Now, from Table A.4, the gas constant for carbon dioxide is RCO2  189 m /(s  K). And
we may estimate the Venus temperature lapse rate from the given information:
T 730  250 K
BVenus    0.00686 K/m
z 70000 m
Finally the exponent in the p(z) relation, Eq. (2.27), is “n”  g/RB  (8.93)/(189  0.00686) 
6.89. Equation (2.27) may then be used to estimate p(z) at z  10 km on Venus:
6.89
「 0.00686 K/m(5000 m)  6.5 MPa
p5 km  o o
n
p (1 MPa)) |1
(9.1Bz/T | Ans.
730 K ]

2.26* A polytropic atmosphere is defined by the Power-law ppo  (o)m, where m is

an exponent of order 1.3 and po and o are sea-level values of pressure and density.
(a) Integrate this expression in the static atmosphere and find a distribution p(z).
(b) Assuming an ideal gas, p  RT, show that your result in (a) implies a linear
temperature distribution as in Eq. (2.25). (c) Show that the standard B  0.0065 Km is
equivalent to m  1.235.

Solution: (a) In the hydrostatic Eq. (2.18) substitute for density in terms of pressure:
p
dp gz
dp  g dz  [o ( p/po )1/m ]g dz, or: ∫ 1/m   1/m o

p
p p o 0
∫ dz
o m/( m1)
p  「1  (m  1) gz
| m( p / ) |
Integrate and rearrange to get the result p Ans. (a)
o o o ]

(b) Use the ideal-gas relation to relate pressure ratio to temperature ratio for this process:
m
p ⎛⎞ ⎛ p RT ⎞
m
Solve for T  |⎛ p|⎞
(m1)/m
| |  o
| |
po ⎝ o ⎠ ⎝ RT po ⎠ To ⎝ po ⎠

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 72 Solutions Manual  Fluid Mechanics, Fifth Edition

Using p/p from Ans. (a), we obtain T「 (m 1)gz Ans. (b)


1 |
o
To |
mRTo ]
Note that, in using Ans. (a) to obtain Ans. (b), we have substituted poo  RTo.
(c) Comparing Ans. (b) with the text, Eq. (2.27), we find that lapse rate “B” in the text is
equal to (m  1)g(mR). Solve for m if B  0.0065 Km:
g 9.81 m/s2
m   1.235 Ans. (c)
g  BR 9.81 m/s2  (0.0065 K/m)(287 m2/s2  R)

2.27 This is an experimental problem: Put a card or thick sheet over a glass of water,
hold it tight, and turn it over without leaking (a glossy postcard works best). Let go of the
card. Will the card stay attached when the glass is upside down? Yes: This is essentially a
water barometer and, in principle, could hold a column of water up to 10 ft high!

2.28 What is the uncertainty in using pressure measurement as an altimeter? A gage on

an airplane measures a local pressure of 54 kPa with an uncertainty of 3 kPa. The lapse
rate is 0.006 Km with an uncertainty of 0.001 Km. Effective sea-level temperature is
10C with an uncertainty of 5C. Effective sea-level pressure is 100 kPa with an
uncertainty of 2 kPa. Estimate the plane’s altitude and its uncertainty.

Solution: Based on average values in Eq. (2.27), (p  54 kPa, po  100 kPa, B  0.006 Km,
To  10C), zavg  4835 m. Considering each variable separately (p, po, B, To), their predicted
variations in altitude, from Eq. (2.27), are 8.5, 3.1, 0.9, and 1.8, respectively. Thus
measured local pressure is the largest cause of altitude uncertainty. According to uncertainty
theory, Eq. (1.43), the overall uncertainty is z  [(8.5)2  (3.1)2  (0.9)2  (1.8)2]1/2  9.3, or
about 450 meters. Thus we can state the altitude as z  4840  450 m. Ans.

2.29 Show that, for an adiabatic atmosphere, p  C()k, where C is constant, that
k/(k1)
「 (k  1)gz
p/po  |1  | , where k  cp /cv
kRTo ]
Compare this formula for air at 5 km altitude with the U.S. standard atmosphere.

Solution: Introduce the adiabatic assumption into the basic hydrostatic relation (2.18):
dp
  d(Ck ) k1 d

g


 kC
dz dz dz

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 Chapter 2  Pressure Distribution in a Fluid 73

Separate the variables and integrate:

k2 g Ck1 gz
dz, or:   constant
∫ C d  ∫ k k 1 k

The constant of integration is related to z  0, that is, “constant”  Cok1/(k  1). Divide
this constant out and rewrite the relation above:
k1
⎛  ⎞ (k 1)gz
|⎝ o |⎠  1   (p/po )(k1)/k since p  Ck
kCo
k1

Finally, note that C k1  C k /  p /  RT , where To is the surface temperature.

o o o o o o
Thus the final desired pressure relation for an adiabatic atmosphere is
k/(k1)
p 「 (k 1)gz
 1 | Ans.
po |
kRTo ]
At z  5,000 m, Table A.6 gives p  54008 Pa, while the adiabatic formula, with k  1.40,
gives p  52896 Pa, or 2.1% lower.

2.30 A mercury manometer is connected

at two points to a horizontal 20C water-
pipe flow. If the manometer reading is h 
35 cm, what is the pressure drop between
the two points?

Solution: This is a classic manometer

relation. The two legs of water of height b
cancel out:

p1  9790b  9790h  133100h  9790b  p2

p1  p2  (133,100  9790 N/m3 )(0.35 m)  43100 Pa Ans.

2.31 In Fig. P2.31 determine p between points A and B. All fluids are at 20C.

Fig. P2.31

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