Dahilog Adv Ecology Activity 2

NAME: YBUR CLIEVE OLSEN B.
DAHILOG
COURSE: MS GENERAL SCIENCE EDUCATION
PROFESSOR: DR. MARIA MELANIE GUIANG
DATE: SEPTEMBER 21, 2020
Republic of the Philippines
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
CENTRAL MINDANAO UNIVERSITY
University Town, Musuan, Maramag, Bukidnon
ACTIVITY 2: DETERMINING THE SAMPLE SIZE
INTRODUCTION
It has long been recognized that sampling procedures play an important role
in population and community studies in ecology (Greig-Smith 1983 ; Green 1979).
Over the past few decades, however, the clarification of sampling objectives and the
elucidation of sampling problems in ecology have received little attention. Indeed,
ecologists have generally applied uncritically the well-established principles and
procedures of classical sampling theory (Cochran 1977) to ecological problems.
While realizing that many of these fundamental principles (e.g. randomization)
underly all sampling decisions, it is also important to recognize that the objectives of
an ecological study may differ from those considered by the classical theory.
Specifically, classical sampling theory is largely concerned with population parameter
estimation, in which the sampling units are discrete, recognizable entities. Ecological
investigations, by contrast, often involve pattern recognition in communities, in which
the sampling unit is arbitrarily defined (e.g. a plot). Failure to fully recognize such
differences has resulted in the superficial treatment of many sampling problems in
ecology.
Why is there a need to clarify sampling principles and procedures in ecology?

We note that in recent years considerable progress has taken place in the
development of methodological procedures for analyzing multivariate data (Digby &
Kempton 1987; Ludwig & Reynolds 1988) and spatial pattern (Upton & Fingleton
1985). During the same period, however, many fundamental problems in ecological
sampling have been all but ignored (Greig-Smith 1983). Because sampling
represents the first step in an ecological study, sampling decisions will necessarily
affect information flow and so impact upon final conclusions. It is therefore imperative
that sampling decisions be made which are consistent with the objectives of a study
(c.f. Sukhatma et al. 1984,
Very general sampling procedures are often recommended in the ecological

literature, which may create problems if the objectives of the study are at variance
with the recommended procedure. As a simple example, consider the problem of
determining an adequate sample size. The solution is quite straightforward given the
objective of population parameter estimation (e.g. mean or total). First, a small
preliminary random sample is taken from the population to estimate the sampling
variance. A simple formula is then used to calculate the sample size required to
obtain an estimate within specified probability limits (e.g. Green 1979, pp. 40, 126;
Elliott 1983, p. 128). This technique, while useful, is largely irrelevant when the
objective is pattern recognition. Furthermore, it is applicable only to the population
(single species) case. Sample size determination under objectives other than
population parameter estimation is not discussed in monographs on community
ecology, however.
A further problem is that very general statements regarding sampling

decisions are made in the ecological literature. Should such statements be taken out
of context, sampling procedures which are inconsistent with stated objectives may be
used. As an example, consider the following statement in a discussion of plot shape
(Gauch 1982, p. 57):
'On the whole, a rectangle that is two to four times as long as it is wide is
ordinarily most accurate . . . '
Such a general statement invites a number of questions: How can a single

sampling unit be accurate? What is meant by accuracy in this context? What does
'ordinarily' imply? And most importantly, under what objectives does this statement
hold? As we shall see, the determination of plot shape should be dictated by the
objectives of a study. Many other examples of this problem could be cited from the
literature: suffice to say that sampling decisions must be dictated by the study
objectives, rather than by recommended 'general principles'.
The objective of this review is to point out that ecological studies have very
divergent objectives, and that these objectives are of fundamental importance in
making intelligent and meaningful sampling decisions. We begin our discussion by
introducing some basic terms and concepts, and follow this with a discussion of eight
sampling alternatives. We then examine the problem of determining sample size and
the selection (or spatial arrangement) of sampling units, and discuss problems in the
determination of plot size and shape. Our hope is to clarify some of the existing
confusion in the ecological literature regarding sampling, and to indicate problem
areas which are deserving of greater attention. In Ecology, it has aIways been known
that sampling procedures play indispensable role in population and community
studies. Over the past few decades, be that as it may, the clarification of testing
targets and the explanation of sampling issues in ecology have gotten small
consideration. Undoubtedly, scientists have by and large connected uncritically the
well-established standards and strategies of classical sampling studies to biological
issues (Barkman et al., 1979). Whereas realizing that numerous of these principal
standards (e.g. randomization) underly all examining choices, it is additionally
imperative to recognize that the goals of an ecological study may vary from those
considered by the classical theory. Particularly, classical sampling theory is to a
great extent concerned with populace parameter estimation, in which the examining
units are discrete, recognizable substances. Ecological examinations, by
differentiate, regularly include design recognition in communities, in which the
examining unit is self-assertively characterized (e.g. a plot). Disappointment to
completely recognize such differences has come about within the shallow treatment
of numerous sampling issues in Ecology (Williams & Brown, 2019).
Why is there a need to clarify examining standards and methods in ecology? It

is noted that in later a long time impressive advance has taken put within the
advancement of methodological methods for analyzing multivariate information and
spatial design. Amid the same period, in any case, numerous fundamental problems
in ecological sampling have been all but overlooked. Since testing speaks to the
primary step in an environmental think about, inspecting choices will fundamentally
influence data stream and so affect upon last conclusions. It is in this manner basic
that sampling choices be made which are steady with the targets of a study.
Exceptionally common sampling methods are frequently suggested within the
ecological writing, which may make issues in the event that the objectives of the
study are at change with the suggested strategy. A further issue is that exceptionally
common articulations with respect to sampling decisions are made within the
ecological writing. Ought to such explanations be taken out of setting, sampling
methods which are inconsistent with expressed targets may be utilized (Retrieved
from https://www.cloudresearch.com/resources/guides/sampling/what-is-the-
purpose-ofsampling-in-research/). Such a common explanation welcomes a number
of questions: How can a single sampling unit be precise? What is implied by
exactness in this context? What does 'ordinarily' infer? And most vitally, beneath
what goals does this statement hold? As we should see, the assurance of plot shape
ought to be managed by the objectives of a study.
The objective of this study was to point out that ecological studies have very
divergent objectives, and that these objectives are of fundamental importance in
making intelligent and meaningful sampling decisions. Specifically, this laboratory
exercise aimed to determine the number of sample size, identify the sampling
method in selecting the sample, and locate the sample size using the Google Earth
android application.
METHODOLOGY
Locale of the Study
The activity was conducted last September 16, 2020, at Villa de Azura
Subdivision, Casisang, Malaybalay City, Bukidnon
Materials
The materials which were used in the study include ruler, calculator,
topographic map, pencil and Google Earth Android Application.
Procedure
A schematic diagram of the place of study was sketched. The hypothetical

area and actual size of the sketched map was calculated with the scale of 1 cm: 100
m using the formula:
Total area = Length x Width
Actual Total Area = Total area x (Equivalent size)
The sample size of the total area was calculated with 10% error using the
formula:
Sample size = Total area .
1 + (Total area x e2)
The number of quadrats were computed using a 4 cm 2 quadrat size with the formula:
Number of quadrats = Sample size
Quadrat size
Using a pencil, gridlines were drawn in the sketched map resulting into 1.0
cm2 quadrat. Designated numbers were written in each of the square plots which
served as quadrats. Using a calculator, 3 quadrats were chosen randomly and
shaded accordingly after clicking the Ran # and =.
Using a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver, the quadrats were located
and described in terms of latitude, longitude and elevation.
RESULTS
The findings of the study on the on-sampling procedures in population and

community ecology are presented herein. Using the Google Earth Android
application, the area of focus was located. Shown in Figure 1 is the map is the 3D
generated map of Villa de Azura Subdivision, Casisang, Malaybalay City, Bukidnon.
It is situated at approximately 8.125112, 125.126899, in the island of Mindanao.
Elevation at these coordinates is estimated at 568 meters.
Figure 1. 3D generated map of Villa de Azura Subdivision,

Casisang, Malaybalay City, Bukidnon.
At the scale of 1 cm: 100 m, the hypothetical total area of the 3D generated
map is 627.5 cm2. The actual total area was also calculated using the given scale and
it resulted to a value of 62,750 m2.
In computing the sample size, a margin of 10% error was deliberated. With its
value, the number of quadrats was determined using a 4 cm 2 quadrat size, which
amounted to 19.84 rounded off to 20 quadrats.
After placing the 1.0 cm2 gridlines in the map, there were 382 quadrats/plots in
total. It was decided to keep the scope narrower so it only covered the focused area
with 262 quadrats/plots.
Using the calculator, 5 quadrats/plots in designated number were randomly

chosen namely quadrat 74, 121, 232, 235 and 61. Among these quadrats, three (3)
were chosen to be described in terms of latitude, longitude and elevation using
Google Earth Android app feature.
Table 1. Quadrat descriptions
Quadrats Latitude Longitude Elevation in meters

74 8.125102 125.146573 559
232 8.124914 125.024889 564
235 8.123713 125.134697 568
As shown in Table 1, quadrat number 235 has the highest value for elevation. It should
also be noted that these three quadrats are separated far from each other. It can be
observed in the values that they have same first sets of numbers for longitude and
longitude with elevations with little differences.
DISCUSSION
Field biologists obtain information in one or two ways: observational

(reconnaissance of an area, in which no data are recorded) or analytical (data
collected, usually for further processing). Data collection necessarily involves the
application of a sampling procedure (measurements, counts, and so forth).
Using a 3D generated map, Villa de Azura Subdivision, Casisang, Malaybalay City,
Bukidnon was described to have an elevation of 568 meters with coordinates
included at approximately 8.125112, 125.126899. With this rea of focus, the
sampling was done.
With a total area of 627.5 cm 2, each centimeter is equivalent to 100 m 2. With

this value of actual total area, one would not be able to cover it in the research as it
would take much time and effort. That is why sampling is done in the research as it
is obviously less costly to obtain data for a selected subset of a population, rather
than the entire population. Furthermore, data collected through a carefully selected
sample are highly accurate measures of the larger population. Observations are
easier to collect and summarize with a sample than with a complete count.
Sometimes highly trained personnel or specialized equipment limited in availability
must be used to obtain the data. A complete census (enumeration) is not practical or
possible. Thus, surveys that rely on sampling have greater flexibility regarding the
type of information that can be obtained. In the study, out of the total area of 627.5
cm2. It is just over a fourth of the actual total area. It is important to keep in mind that
the primary point of sampling is to create a small group from a population that is as
similar to the larger population as possible. In essence, it is wanted to have a little
group that is like the big group.
Of the sample size determined, only 20 quadrats would be established with a size of
4 cm2. It only meant that of the sample size calculated, there was a total of 8, 000
cm2 actual total area which will be included in plotting. In this computation, 10% error
was used. According to Helmenstine (n.d.) the purpose of a percent error calculation
is to gauge how close a measured value is to a true value. A sample is expected to
mirror the population from which it comes, however, there is no guarantee that any
sample will be precisely representative of the population. Chance may dictate that a
disproportionate number of untypical observations will be made. Sampling error can
make a sample unrepresentative of its population. Sampling error comprises the
differences between the population that are due solely to the particular participants
that have been selected.
Of the plots made out of the grids laid down in the map, five (5) quadrats were
chosen randomly generated by a calculator. In this simple method of sampling,
problems may occur. With a simple random sample, there has to be room for error
represented by a plus and minus variance. Although simple random sampling is
intended to be an unbiased approach to surveying, sample selection bias can occur.
When a sample set of the larger population is not inclusive enough, representation of
the full population is skewed and requires additional sampling techniques (Horton,
2020).
Using the GPS, the three (3) of the randomly chosen quadrats were described
in terms of longitude, latitude and elevation. Quadrat #121 had the highest elevation
among the three amounting to 323 meters. However, this elevation is considered to be
very low. Areas are often considered "high-altitude" if they reach at least 2,400 meters
(8,000 feet) into the atmosphere (National Geographic Society, 2012).
CONCLUSION
It has been emphasized that sampling is a very important way in order to run
a research by not covering the entire population just cover gather data. With results
of the study, the following conclusions were drawn.
The number of sample size that will be covered out of the 627.5 cm 2, it can
already represent the total population value of focused area which is Villa de Azura
Subdivision, Casisang, Malaybalay City, Bukidnon.
In selecting the sample, the random sampling was employed as indicated in

the methodology. However, according to literature simple random sampling may
cause some problems for the representative size as it could be not inclusive. Thus,
there is a need to use or combine another method.
Using the Global Positioning System, descriptions were determined for each
of the quadrat chosen. It was determined that Villa de Azura Subdivision, Casisang,
Malaybalay City, Bukidnon is not highly elevated as respect to its coordinates.
REFERENCES
Greig-Smith, P. 1952. The use of random versus contiguous quadrats in the study of the
structure of plant communities. Ann. Bot. Lond. N.S. 16: 293-316.
Cochran, W. G. 1977. Sampling techniques. 3rd ed. J. Wiley & Sons, New York.
Digby, P. G. N. & Kempton, R. A. 1987. Multivariate analysis of ecological communities.
Chapman & Hall, London.
Upton, G. J. G. & Fingleton, B. 1985. Spatial data analysis by example. Vol. l. Point pattern
and quantitative data. J. Wiley & Sons, New York.
Gauch, H. G. 1982. Multivariate analysis of community data. Cambridge Univ. Press,
Cambridge.
Barkman, J., S.. Bartha, .., D. W.. Bigwood, D., Bormann, G., Bourdeau, P., Bouxin,
G., . . . D. O.. Yandle, H. (1979, January 01). On sampling procedures in
population and community ecology. Retrieved September 17, 2020, from
https://link.springer.c om/article/10.1007/BF00031692.
What Is the Purpose of Sampling in Research? (2020, August 10). Retrieved

September 18, 2020, from https://www.cloudresearch.com/resources/g
uides/sampling/what-is-the-purpose-of-sampling-in-research/.
National Geographic Society. (2012, October 09). Altitude. Retrieved September 15,
2020, from https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/altitude/.

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NAME: YBUR CLIEVE OLSEN B.

ACTIVITY 2: DETERMINING THE SAMPLE SIZE

Why is there a need to clarify sampling principles and procedures in ecology?

Very general sampling procedures are often recommended in the ecological

A further problem is that very general statements regarding sampling

Such a general statement invites a number of questions: How can a single

Why is there a need to clarify examining standards and methods in ecology? It

Locale of the Study

A schematic diagram of the place of study was sketched. The hypothetical

Total area = Length x Width

Actual Total Area = Total area x (Equivalent size)

Sample size = Total area .

1 + (Total area x e2)

The findings of the study on the on-sampling procedures in population and

Figure 1. 3D generated map of Villa de Azura Subdivision,

Using the calculator, 5 quadrats/plots in designated number were randomly

Table 1. Quadrat descriptions

Quadrats Latitude Longitude Elevation in meters

Field biologists obtain information in one or two ways: observational

With a total area of 627.5 cm 2, each centimeter is equivalent to 100 m 2. With

In selecting the sample, the random sampling was employed as indicated in

Digby, P. G. N. & Kempton, R. A. 1987. Multivariate analysis of ecological communities.

Chapman & Hall, London.

and quantitative data. J. Wiley & Sons, New York.

Gauch, H. G. 1982. Multivariate analysis of community data. Cambridge Univ. Press,

What Is the Purpose of Sampling in Research? (2020, August 10). Retrieved

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