Thermography

Pocket Guide
Theory – Practice – Tips & Tricks
Copyrights, warranty and liability
The information compiled in this Pocket Guide is protected by copyright. All rights belong
exclusively to Testo SE & Co. KGaA. The contents and pictures may not be commercially
reproduced, modified or used for purposes other than the defined user purpose without
the prior written consent of Testo SE & Co. KGaA.
The information in this Pocket Guide has been produced with the utmost care. Never-
theless, the information provided is not binding, and Testo SE & Co. KGaA reserves the
right to make changes or additions. Testo SE & Co. KGaA therefore offers no guarantee
or warranty for the correctness and completeness of the information provided. Liability,
from whatever legal grounds it may arise, is limited to damages caused by Testo SE &
Co. KGaA or its vicarious agents or contractors through either intent, gross negligence or,
in the case of a breach of material contractual obligations, minor negligence. In cases of
minor negligence, the extent of liability of Testo SE & Co. KGaA is limited to typical and
predictable damages for comparable transactions of this nature. This does not affect com-
pensation rights arising from guarantees or in accordance with the Product Liability Act.

Testo SE & Co. KGaA, in December 2017

2
Foreword
Dear Testo Customer

“A picture says more than a thousand words”.

In times of increasing energy prices and high costs for machine
downtimes, non-contact temperature measurement has estab-
lished itself both for the assessment of building efficiency and for
industrial maintenance. However, not all thermography is the
same, and there are a few basic ground rules to be followed in
non-contact temperature measurement.

The “Thermography Pocket Guide” handbook was created by

summarizing the questions raised by our customers on a day-to-
day basis. This Pocket Guide is full of lots of interesting informa-
tion, as well as tips and tricks from practical measurement appli-
cations, and is designed to offer you useful, practical help and
support you in your daily work.

Have fun reading through it!

Prof. Burkart Knospe, CEO

3
Content
1 Theory of thermography 5
1.1 Emission, reflection, transmission 6
1.2 Measurement spot and measuring distance 13

2 Thermography in practice 16
2.1 Measuring object 16
2.2 Measuring environment 18
2.3 Practical determination of ε and RTC 24
2.4 Sources of error in infrared measurement 28
2.5 The optimum conditions for infrared measurement 33
2.6 The perfect thermal image 34

3 Appendix 37
3.1 Thermography glossary 37
3.2 Emissivity table 51
3.3 Testo recommends 53

4
1 Theory of thermography
Every object with a temperature above absolute zero (0 Kelvin =
-273.15 °C) emits infrared radiation. This infrared radiation is invis-
ible to the human eye.

As the physicists Josef Stefan and Ludwig Boltzmann proved as

far back as 1884, there is a correlation between the temperature
of a body and the intensity of the infrared radiation it emits. A
thermal imager measures the long-wave infrared radiation received
within its field of view. From this it calculates the temperature of
the object being measured. The calculation factors in the emissivi-
ty (ε) of the surface of the measuring object and the reflected tem-
perature compensation (RTC), with both variables being able to be
set manually in the thermal imager. Each pixel of the detector rep-
resents a temperature point that is shown on the display as a false
colour image (cf. “1.2 Measurement spot and measuring distance”,
p. 13).

Thermography (temperature measurement with a thermal imager)

is a passive, non-contact measurement method. It involves the
thermal image showing the temperature distribution on the surface
of an object. This means you cannot look into or even through
objects with a thermal imager.

5
1.1 Emission, reflection, transmission

The radiation recorded by the thermal imager consists of the emit-

ted, reflected and transmitted long-wave infrared radiation emerg-
ing from the objects within the field of view of the thermal imager.

ρ
τ
ε

Figure 1.1: Emission, reflection and transmission

Emissivity (ε)
Emissivity (ε) is a measure of the ability of a material to
emit (give off) infrared radiation.

ε varies according to the surface properties, the material and,

l 

for some materials, also the temperature of the measuring

object, as well as according to the spectral range of the thermal
imager being used.
Maximum emissivity: ε = 1 ( 100%) (cf. “Black body radiator”,
l 

p. 39). ε = 1 never occurs in reality.

6
 Real bodies: ε < 1, because real bodies also reflect and possi-
l 

bly transmit radiation.

Many non-metallic materials (e.g. PVC, concrete, organic sub-
l 

stances) have high emissivity (ε ≈ 0.8 – 0.95) in the long-wave

infrared range that is not dependent on the temperature.
Metals, particularly those with a shiny surface, have low emis-
l 

sivity that fluctuates with the temperature.

ε can be set manually in the thermal imager.
l 

Reflectance (ρ)
Reflectance (ρ) is a measure of the ability of a material to
reflect infrared radiation.

ρ depends on the surface properties, the temperature and the

l 

type of material.
In general, smooth, polished surfaces reflect more strongly than
l 

rough, matt surfaces made of the same material.

The temperature of the reflected radiation can be set manually
l 

in the thermal imager (RTC).

RTC corresponds to the ambient temperature in many measure-
l 

ment applications (mainly with indoor thermography). In most

cases you can measure this using the testo 810 air thermome-
ter, for example.
RTC can be determined using a Lambert radiator (cf. “Measure-
l 

ment of reflected temperature using an (improvised) Lambert

radiator”, p. 27).
The angle of reflection of the reflected infrared radiation is
l 

always the same as the angle of incidence (cf. “Specular reflec-

tion”, p. 31).

7
 Transmittance (τ)
Transmittance (τ) is a measure of the ability of a material
to transmit (allow through) infrared radiation.

l  τ depends on the type and thickness of the material.

l  Most materials are not transmissive, that is permeable, to long-
wave infrared radiation.

Conservation of energy principle for radiation according to

Kirchhoff’s rules
The infrared radiation recorded by the thermal imager consists of:
the radiation emitted by the measuring object,
l 

the reflection of ambient radiation and

l 

the transmission of radiation through the measuring object.

l 

(cf. Fig. 1.1, p. 36)

The sum of these parts is always taken to be 1 ( 100 %):
ε+ρ+τ=1
As transmission rarely plays a role in practice, the transmission τ
is omitted and the formula
ε+ρ+τ=1
is simplified to
ε + ρ = 1.

8
For thermography this means:
the lower the emissivity,
the higher the proportion of reflected infrared radiation is,
l 

the harder it is to take an accurate temperature measurement

l 

and
the more important it is that the reflected temperature compen-
l 

sation (RTC) is set correctly.

Correlation between emission and reflection

1. Measuring objects with high emissivity (ε ≥ 0.8):
have low reflectance (ρ): ρ = 1 - ε
l 

their temperature can be very accurately measured with a

l 

thermal imager

2. Measuring objects with medium emissivity (0.6 < ε < 0.8):

have medium reflectance (ρ): ρ = 1 - ε
l 

their temperature can be accurately measured with a ther-

l 

mal imager

3. Measuring objects with low emissivity (ε ≤ 0.6):

have high reflectance (ρ): ρ = 1 - ε
l 

temperature measurement with the thermal imager is pos-

l 

sible, however you should critically scrutinize the results

correct setting of the reflected temperature compensation
l 

is indispensable, as it makes a major contribution to the

temperature calculation

9
Ensuring the emissivity setting is correct is particularly crucial
where there are large differences in temperature between the
measuring object and the measuring environment.

1. W
 here the temperatures of the measuring object are higher than
the ambient temperature (cf. heater in Fig. 1.2, 11):
excessively high emissivity settings result in excessively
l 

low temperature readings (cf. camera 2)

excessively low emissivity settings result in excessively
l 

high temperature readings (cf. camera 1)

2. W
 here the temperatures of the measuring object are lower than
the ambient temperature (cf. doors in Fig. 1.2, p.11):
excessively high emissivity settings result in excessively
l 

high temperature readings (cf. camera 2)

excessively low emissivity settings result in excessively low
l 

temperature readings (cf. camera 1)

10
 65°

ε = 0.9
15 °C
50°

ε = 0.9 35°
60 °C

20°
1 2

ε = 0.7 ε=1
5°
Figure 1.2: Effects of an incorrect emissivity setting on the temper-
ature measurement

Please note:
The greater the difference between the temperature of the
measuring object and ambient temperature and the lower
emissivities are, the greater the measurement errors are.
These errors increase if the emissivity setting is incorrect.

11
 Please note:
You can only ever measure the temperatures of the surfac-
l 

es with a thermal imager; you cannot look into something

or through something.
l 
Many materials which are transparent for the human eye,
such as glass, are not transmissive (permeable) to long-
wave infrared radiation (cf. “Measurements on glass”, p.
30).
l 
If necessary remove any covering from the measuring
object, otherwise the thermal imager will measure only the
surface temperature of the covering.
Caution: Always observe the operating instructions for the
measuring object!
l 
The small number of transmissive materials include, for
example, thin plastic sheets and Germanium, the material
from which the lens and the protective glass of a Testo
thermal imager are made.
l 
If elements which lie under the surface influence the tem-
perature distribution of the measuring object's surface
through conduction, structures of the interior of the meas-
uring object can often be identified in the thermal image.
Nevertheless, the thermal imager only ever measures the
surface temperature. An exact statement about the temper-
ature values of elements within the measuring object is not
possible.

12
1.2 M
 easurement spot and measuring distance

Three variables must be taken into account to determine the

appropriate measuring distance and the maximum measuring
object that is visible or measurable:
l the field of view (FOV),

l the smallest identifiable object (IFOV geo), and

l the smallest measurable object / measurement spot (IFOV meas).

FOV

32°

1 m

Figure 1.3: The field of view of the thermal imager

13
The field of view (FOV) of the thermal imager describes the area
visible with the thermal imager (cf. Fig. 1.3, p. 13). It is depend-
ent on the lens used (e.g. 32° wide-angle lens or 9° telephoto lens
– this telephoto lens is available as an accessory for the
testo 875i, testo 885 and testo 890).

Please note:
To get a large field of view, you should use a wide-angle lens.

In addition, you should know the specification for the smallest

identifiable object (IFOVgeo) for your thermal imager. This defines
the size of a pixel according to the distance.

3.5 mm 3.5 mrad

IFOVgeo

IFOVmeas

1 m

Figure 1.4: Field of view of a single pixel

14
With a spatial resolution of the lens of 3.5 mrad and a measuring
distance of 1 m, the smallest identifiable object (IFOVgeo) has an
edge length of 3.5 mm and is shown on the display as a pixel (cf.
Fig. 1.4, p. 14). To obtain a precise measurement, the measur-
ing object should be 3 times larger than the smallest identifiable
object (IFOVgeo).
The following rule of thumb therefore applies to the smallest
measurable object (IFOVmeas):
IFOVmeas ≈ 3 x IFOVgeo

Please note:
l 
For a good spatial resolution, you should use a telephoto
lens.
l With the testo Thermography App’s FOV calculator, you can

calculate the values for FOV, IFOVmeas and IFOVgeo for differ-
ent distances.

15
2 Thermography in practice
2.1 Measuring object

1. Material and emissivity

The surface of each material has a specific emissivity
which is used to derive how much of the infrared radiation
emanating from the material is
l reflected and

l emitted (radiated from the object itself).

2. Colour
The colour of a material has no noticeable effect on the
long-wave infrared radiation emanating from the measur-
ing object when measuring the temperature with a thermal
imager. Dark surfaces absorb more short-wave infrared radiation
than light surfaces and therefore heat up more quickly. However,
the emitted infrared radiation depends on the temperature and not
on the colour of the surface of the measuring object. For example,
a heater which is painted black emits exactly the same amount of
long-wave infrared radiation as a heater which is painted white at
the same temperature.

3. Surface of the measuring object

The properties of the surface of the measuring object play
a crucial role in temperature measurement with a thermal
imager. Because the emissivity of the surface varies according to
the structure of the surface, soiling or coating.

16
Structure of the surface
Smooth, shiny, reflective and/or polished surfaces generally have
a slightly lower emissivity than matt, structured, rough, weathered
and/or scratched surfaces of the same material. There are often
specular reflections with extremely smooth surfaces (cf. 31).

Moisture, snow and hoarfrost on the surface

Water, snow and hoarfrost have relatively high emissivities
(approx. 0.85 < ε < 0.96), so measurement of these substances is
generally unproblematic. However, you must bear in mind that the
temperature of the measuring object can be distorted by natural
coatings of this kind. Because moisture cools the surface of the
measuring object when it evaporates and snow has good insulat-
ing properties. Hoarfrost does not usually form a sealed surface,
so the emissivity of the hoarfrost as well as that of the surface
underneath it must be taken into account when measuring.

Soiling and foreign bodies on the surface

Soiling on the surface of the measuring object, such as dust, soot
or lubricating oil, generally increases the emissivity of the surface.
Measuring dirty objects is therefore generally unproblematic. How-
ever, your thermal imager always measures the temperature of the
surface, i.e. of the dirt, and not the exact temperature of the sur-
face of the measuring object underneath.

17
 Please note:
l 
The emissivity of a material is heavily dependent on the
structure of the surface of the material.
l 
Pay attention to the correct emissivity setting according to
the covering on the surface of the measuring object.
l 
Avoid measuring on wet surfaces or surfaces covered with
snow or hoarfrost.
l 
Avoid measuring on loose-lying dirt (falsified temperature
due to air pockets).
l 
Pay attention to possible radiation sources in the surround-
ings (e.g. sun, heaters, etc.), especially when measuring
smooth surfaces.

2.2 Measuring environment

1. Ambient temperature
As well as the emissivity setting (ε), you should also fac-
tor in the reflected temperature (RTC) setting, so that
your thermal imager can calculate the temperature of the surface
of the measuring object correctly. In many measurement applica-
tions, the reflected temperature corresponds to the ambient tem-
perature (cf. “2. Radiation”, p. 19). You can determine this with
an air thermometer, e.g. testo 810. An accurate setting of the
emissivity is particularly important where there is a large tempera-
ture difference between the measuring object and the measuring
environment (cf. Fig. 1.2, p. 11).

18
 2. Radiation
Every object with a temperature above absolute zero (0
Kelvin = -273.15 °C) emits infrared radiation. In par-
ticular, objects with a large temperature difference
from the measuring object can disrupt the infrared measurement
as a result of their own radiation. You should avoid or deactivate
interference of this kind wherever possible. Screening the interfer-
ence (e.g. with canvas or a cardboard box) enables you to reduce
this negative effect on the measurement. If the effect of the inter-
ference cannot be removed, the reflected temperature will not cor-
respond to the ambient temperature.

When measuring reflected radiation, a Lambert radiator is for

example recommended, in conjunction with your thermal imager
(cf. “Determining the temperature of the reflected radiation”, p.
27).

Special features of outdoor thermography

The infrared radiation emanating from the clear sky is colloquially
referred to as “cold sky radiation”. In a clear sky, “cold sky radia-
tion” (~ -50 to -60 °C) and warm solar radiation (~ 5500 °C) are
reflected all day. In terms of area, the sky outstrips the sun, which
means that the reflected temperature in outdoor thermography is
usually below 0 °C, even on a sunny day. Objects heat up in the
sun as a result of absorbing sunlight. This affects the surface tem-
perature considerably, in some cases for hours after exposure to
solar radiation.

19
Figure 2.1: Reflection in measurements outdoors

In Figure 2.1, you can see that the gutter is shown as colder than
the house wall on the thermal image. However, both are nearly the
same temperature. The image must therefore be interpreted.
Let us assume that the surface of the gutter is galvanized and has
extremely low emissivity (ε = 0.1). Only 10% of the long-wave
infrared radiation emanating from the gutter is therefore emitted
inherent radiation and 90% is reflected ambient radiation (RTC). If
the sky is clear, “cold sky radiation” (~ -50 to -60 °C), amongst
other things, is reflected on the gutter. The thermal imager is set
to ε = 0.95 and RTC = -55 °C to ensure correct measurement of
the house wall. Due to the extremely low emissivity and extremely
high reflectance, the gutter is shown as too cold on the thermal
image. To show the temperatures of both materials correctly on
the thermal image, you can change the emissivity of specific areas

20
retrospectively using analysis software (e.g. IRSoft or testo Ther-
mography App). To determine the correct RTC, we recommend a
Lambert radiator (cf. “2.3 Practical determination of ε and RTC”,
p. 25).

Please note:
l 
Never disregard the effect of your own personal infrared
radiation.
l 
Change your position during the measurement in order to
identify any reflections. Reflections move, thermal features
of the measuring object remain in the same place, even if
the angle of view changes.
l 
Avoid measurements close to very hot or very cold objects,
or screen them off.
l 
Avoid direct solar radiation, even several hours before the
measurement. Take measurements in the early morning.
l 
Wherever possible, carry out outdoor measurements under
a thickly clouded sky.

3. Weather
Clouds
A thickly clouded sky offers the ideal conditions for infra-
red measurements outdoors, as it screens the measuring
object from solar radiation and “cold sky radiation” (cf. “2. Radia-
tion”, p. 19).

21
Precipitation
Heavy precipitation (rain, snow) can distort the measurement
result. Water, ice and snow have high emissivity and are impervi-
ous to infrared radiation. In addition, the measurement of wet
objects can lead to measurement errors, as the surface of the
measuring object cools down with evaporation (cf. “3. Surface of
the measuring object”, p. 16).

Sun
(cf. “2. Radiation”, p. 19)

Please note:
l 
Ideally, carry out measurements under a thickly clouded sky.
l Take cloud cover into consideration several hours before
the measurement as well.
l Avoid heavy precipitation during the measurement.

4. Air
Air humidity
The relative air humidity in the measuring environment
should be low enough for there to be no condensation in
the air (mist), on the measuring object, on the protective glass or
on the lens of the thermal imager. If the lens (or protective glass)
has misted over, some of the infrared radiation hitting the thermal
imager will not be received, as the radiation will fail to fully pene-
trate through the water onto the lens.

22
Extremely dense mist can affect the measurement, as the water
droplets in the transmission path let less infrared radiation
through.

Air flows
Wind or a draught in the room can affect temperature measure-
ment with the thermal imager.
As a result of the heat exchange (convection), the air close to the
surface is the same temperature as the measuring object. If it is
windy or there is a draught, this layer of air is “blown away” and
replaced by a new layer of air that has not yet adapted to the tem-
perature of the measuring object. As a result of convection, heat
is taken away from the warm measuring object or absorbed by the
cold measuring object until the temperature of the air and the sur-
face of the measuring object have adjusted to each other. This
heat exchange effect increases with the temperature difference
between the surface of the measuring object and the ambient
temperature.

Air pollution
Some suspended particles, such as dust, soot and smoke, along
with some vapours, have high emissivity and are barely transmis-
sive. This means they can impair the measurement, as they them-
selves emit infrared radiation which is received by the thermal
imager. In addition, only some of the infrared radiation of the
measuring object can penetrate through to the thermal imager, as
it is scattered and absorbed by the suspended matter.

23
 Please note:
l 
Do not carry out measurements in thick mist or above water
vapour.
l Do not measure if there is air humidity condensing on the
thermal imager (cf. “Moisture, snow and hoarfrost on the
surface”, p. 17).
l Avoid wind and other air flows during the measurement
wherever possible.
l Note the speed and direction of air flows during the meas-
urement and factor these data into your analysis of the ther-
mal images.
l Do not measure in heavily contaminated air (e.g. when dust
has been freshly disturbed).
l Always measure with the smallest possible measuring dis-
tance for your measurement application in order to minimize
the effect of any possible suspended particles in the air.

5. Light
Neither light nor illumination play a significant role in
measurement with a thermal imager. You can also take
measurements in the dark, as the thermal imager meas-
ures long-wave infrared radiation.
However, some light sources emit infrared thermal radiation them-
selves and can thus affect the temperature of objects in their
vicinity. You should therefore not measure when there is direct
solar radiation or near a hot light bulb, for example. Cold light
sources, such as LEDs or neon lights, are not critical, as they con-
vert the majority of the energy used into visible light and not infra-
red radiation.

24
2.3 P
 ractical determination of ε and RTC

To determine the emissivity of the surface of the measuring

object, you can for example:
read off the emissivity from a table (cf. “3.2 Emissivity table”, p. 51).
l 

Caution: Values in emissivity tables are only ever guideline val-

ues. The emissivity of the surface of your measuring object may
therefore differ from the specified guideline value.
Determine the emissivity by means of a comparative measure-
l 

ment with a contact thermometer (e.g. with the testo 905-T2 or

testo 925) (cf. “1. Method using a contact thermometer”, p. 25).
Determine the emissivity by means of a comparative measure-
l 

ment with the thermal imager (cf. “2. Method using the thermal
imager”, p. 26).

Determining the emissivity by means of a comparative

measurement

1. Method using a contact thermometer

First measure the temperature of the surface of the measuring
object with a contact thermometer (e.g. testo 905-T2 or testo 925).
Now measure the temperature of the surface of the measuring
object with the thermal imager with a preset emissivity of one. The
difference between the temperature values measured by the con-
tact thermometer and the thermal imager is the result of the emis-
sivity being set too high. By gradually lowering the emissivity set-
ting, you can change the measured temperature until it corre-
sponds to the value obtained in the contact measurement. The
emissivity then set corresponds to the emissivity of the surface of
the measuring object.

25
2. Method using the thermal imager
First stick a piece of emission tape (e.g. heat-resistant emission
tape from Testo) onto your measuring object. After waiting a short
time, you can measure the temperature of the surface of the
measuring object in the taped-off area using your thermal imager
with a set emissivity for the adhesive tape. This temperature is
your reference temperature. Now adjust the emissivity setting until
the thermal imager measures the same temperature in the area
which is not taped as the reference temperature just measured.
The emissivity now set is the emissivity of the surface of the
measuring object.
As an alternative to the emission tape, you can also:
l coat the measuring object with a coating or paint with a known
emissivity.
l coat the measuring object with a thick layer (> 0.13 mm) of
heat-resistant oil (ε ≈ 0.82).
l coat the measuring object with a thick layer of soot (ε ≈ 0.95).
determine the emissivity and the RTC with the ε -Assist function
l 

(testo 868, testo 871, testo 872).

Please note:
l 
Caution: Always follow the operating instructions for the
measuring object!
l 
When coating or bonding the measuring object, take
account of the fact that the coating or adhesive tape first
has to adjust to the temperature of the object before a cor-
rect measurement is possible.

26
Determining the temperature of the reflected radiation

Once you have eradicated all the possible interference that could
affect your measurement, the temperature of the reflected infrared
radiation is the same as the ambient temperature. You can meas-
ure the ambient temperature with an air thermometer, e.g.
testo 810, and enter the RTC in your thermal imager accordingly.
However, if sources of infrared radiation are present in the meas-
uring environment, you should determine the temperature of the
reflected radiation to ensure an accurate measurement result.

Measurement of reflected temperature using an (impro-

vised) Lambert radiator
A Lambert radiator is an object that reflects incident radiation with
the optimum diffusion, i.e. in all directions.
You can measure the temperature of the reflected radiation on a
Lambert radiator using the thermal imager. For this purpose, a
piece of aluminium foil which has been crumpled and then
unfolded again is a suitable substitute for a Lambert radiator. The
foil has high reflectance and, thanks to the crumpled structure,
the diffuse reflection of the radiation is near-perfect (cf. Fig. 2.3,
right-hand side of the aluminium foil, p. 32).
To measure the temperature of the reflected radiation, place the
Lambert radiator near the measuring object or ideally on the sur-
face of the measuring object. Then measure the temperature on
the radiator with the emissivity set to one. The camera will now
calculate the temperature of the incident radiation. You can now
input this value as the RTC in your thermal imager and measure
the temperature on the measuring object with the set emissivity
for the surface of your measuring object.

27
2.4 S
 ources of error in infrared measurement

The following factors can falsify the result of your infrared meas-
urement:
Incorrect emissivity setting
l 

à D etermine and set the correct emissivity (cf. “Determining

the emissivity by means of a comparative measurement”, p.
25).
Incorrect RTC setting
l 

à D etermine and set the reflected temperature (cf. “Determi-

ning the temperature of the reflected radiation”, p. 27).
Unclear thermal image
l 

à F  ocus your thermal image in situ, as the sharpness cannot

be changed once the image has been taken.
Measuring distance is too long or too short
l 

Measurement taken with unsuitable lens

l 

Measurement spot too large

l 

à W hen taking the measurement, pay attention to the mini-

mum focus distance of your thermal imager.
à A s when taking an ordinary photograph, make an appropri-
ate choice between telephoto and wide-angle lenses.
à C hoose a small measuring distance where possible.
Faults in the transmission path (e.g. air pollution, covers, etc.)
l 

Effect of external sources of radiation (e.g. light bulbs, sun,

l 

heaters, etc.)
Misinterpretation of thermal image due to reflection
l 

à A void measuring where there is interference.

à D eactivate or screen interference wherever possible, or fac-
tor its influence into the analysis of the thermal image.

28
 Quick change of ambient temperature
l 

à I f there are changes in ambient temperature from cold to

hot, there is a risk of condensation on the lens.
à W herever possible, use thermal imagers with tempera-
ture-stabilized detectors.
Misinterpretation of the thermal image due to lack of knowledge
l 

of the design of the measuring object

à T  he type and design of the measuring object should be
known.
à A lso use real images (photos) wherever possible to interpret
the thermal images.

29
Measurements on glass
The human eye can look through glass, but glass is impervious to
infrared radiation. The thermal imager therefore only measures the
surface temperature of the glass and not the temperature of the
materials behind it (cf. Fig. 2.2). However, glass is transmissive for
short-wave radiation, such as solar radiation. You should therefore
note that sunlight shining through the window could, for example,
heat your measuring object.
Glass is also a reflective material. Be aware therefore of specular
reflection when measuring on glass (cf. “Specular reflection”, p. 31).

Glass pane
slid in front of
the measuring
object

Figure 2.2: Measurement on glass

30
Measurements on metal
Metals, particularly those with a shiny surface, are strong reflec-
tors of long-wave infrared radiation. They have very low emissivity,
which can become temperature-dependent at higher tempera-
tures. Measuring the temperature of these with a thermal imager is
therefore problematic. Apart from regulating the emissivity, the
correct setting of the reflected temperature (cf. “Determining the
temperature of the reflected radiation”, p. 27) is particularly
important. Also note the advice given about specular reflection
here (cf. “Specular reflection”, p. 31).
If metals are painted measurement is unproblematic, as paint gen-
erally has high emissivity. However, you must again be aware of
reflections of ambient radiation here.

Specular reflection
A clearly visible specular reflection is often an indicator of a highly
reflective surface, i.e. a surface with low emissivity. However,
being highly specular for the human eye in the visible range does
not always mean being highly reflective in the infrared range as
well. For example, specular reflections of the ambient radiation
can be seen on the thermal image of a painted surface (e.g. sil-
houette of person taking the measurement), even though paint
generally has high emissivity (ε ≈ 0.95). Equally, the outlines of
reflected objects in the measuring environment cannot be seen on
the thermal image of a sandstone wall, for example, even though
sandstone has low emissivity (ε ≈ 0.67). Whether the ambient
radiation is reflected specularly in clear outlines does not therefore
depend primarily on the emissivity, but on the structure of the sur-
face.

31
Figure 2.3: Specular and diffuse reflection

All radiation is always reflected at the same angle at which it hits

the surface. This means that the following rule of thumb always
applies: angle of incidence = angle of reflection. This is clearly
recognizable in Figure 2.3 in the enlarged cross-section of the
smooth half of the aluminium foil (left-hand side). Here the infrared
radiation of the person taking the measurement is reflected in the
same form in which it hit the surface (specular reflection).

32
Of course the angle of incidence = angle of reflection rule also
applies to the infrared radiation hitting the crumpled aluminium foil
(right-hand side). Here, however, the infrared rays fall on partial
areas with different gradients rather than on a flat surface. As on a
Lambert radiator, they are therefore reflected in different direc-
tions. This diffuse reflection means that no outlines of the sources
of reflected infrared radiation can be seen. The reflection on the
entire crumpled side of the aluminium foil is a mixture of the infra-
red radiation of the two reflected sources of radiation (person tak-
ing the measurement and background behind the person taking
the measurement).

Please note:
l 
Being highly specular in the visible range does not always
mean being highly reflective in the infrared range as well.
l 
Please always be aware of the effect of your own personal
infrared radiation.
l 
Surfaces on which no specular reflection can be detected
can also have high reflectance.
l 
Measure smooth surfaces from different angles and direc-
tions in order to identify which of the irregularities in the
temperature distribution are attributable to reflection and
which to the measuring object.

33
2.5 The optimum conditions for infrared measurement

Stable environmental conditions are particularly important for

infrared measurement. This means that the ambient conditions,
objects in the measuring environment and any other influencing
factors should not change during the measurement. This is the
only way to assess possible interference and document it for later
analysis.
For measurements outdoors, the weather conditions should be
stable and the sky cloudy in order to screen the measuring object
from both direct solar radiation and “cold sky radiation”. You must
also be aware that measuring objects may still be heated from
previous exposure to solar radiation due to their heat storage
capacity.

The ideal measuring conditions are:

Stable weather conditions
l 

Cloudy sky before and during the measurement (for measure-

l 

ments outdoors)
No direct solar radiation before and during the measurement
l 

No precipitation
l 

Surface of measuring object dry and clear of thermal sources of

l 

interference (e.g. no foliage or chips on the surface)

No wind or draught
l 

No interference in the measuring environment or transmission

l 

path
A measuring object surface with high emissivity that is known
l 

exactly
For building thermography, a difference of at least 10 °C between
the inside and outside temperature is recommended.

34
2.6 The perfect thermal image

When taking a thermal image, you should pay attention to two

things in particular:
l choosing the right image section, and
l focussing the thermal image correctly on the area relevant to
the measurement.
As with a normal digital picture, you cannot change either the
image section or the sharpness of the image once the thermal
image has been saved.

To obtain a perfect thermal image, you can make the following

changes in your thermal imager and in the analysis software (e.g.
testo IRSoft or testo Thermography App):
Change the emissivity and the reflected temperature compensa-
l 

tion (RTC) setting. This can also be done point-by-point or via

ranges with professional analysis software, such as testo IRSoft
or testo Thermography App for example.
Choose an appropriate colour palette (e.g. iron, rainbow, etc.).
l 

Depending on the colour palette, you will get a high-contrast,

easy to interpret thermal image.

35
 Figure 2.4:
Adjusting the tem-
perature scale

l  Adjust the temperature scale manually. This enables you to

improve the temperature grading or colour grading of your ther-
mal image (cf. Fig. 2.4).

Observe the following tips for taking the thermal image:

Factor in, prevent or screen all interference.
l 

The surface of the measuring object should be clear of optical

l 

and thermal sources of interference. Where possible, remove

covers and objects causing interference from the environment.
36
 Change your position when taking the measurement in order to
l 

identify any reflections. Reflections move, thermal features of

the measuring object remain in the same place, even if the
angle of view changes.
Your measurement spot should never be bigger than your meas-
l 

uring object.
Keep the measuring distance as small as possible.
l 

Use a lens appropriate to your measuring task.

l 

The use of a stand is recommended for the exact measurement

l 

of details.
The design of your measuring object should be known in order
l 

to enable the correct identification of thermal features.

Use a thermal imager with a built-in digital camera, so that you
l 

can consult visual images for later analysis.

Note all environmental conditions. Measure and document these
l 

where necessary for the later analysis of the thermal images.

37
3 Appendix
3.1 Thermography glossary

A
Absolute zero
Absolute zero is -273.15 °C (0 Kelvin = -459.69 °F). All bodies
whose temperature is at absolute zero emit no infrared radiation.

Absorption
When electromagnetic infrared radiation hits an object, the object
absorbs some of this energy. The absorption of infrared radiation
means that the object heats up. Warmer objects emit more infra-
red radiation than colder objects. The absorbed infrared radiation
is thus converted into emitted infrared radiation (radiating from the
object). The absorptivity corresponds to the emissivity.
The incident infrared radiation on the object that is not absorbed
is reflected and/or transmitted (let through).

Acclimatization time
The acclimatization time is the time which the thermal imager
needs to adjust to the ambient temperature of the measuring loca-
tion in order to measure within the specification. Take the acclima-
tization time of your thermal imager from the instruction manual.

38
B
Black body radiator
An object that absorbs all of the energy from the incident infrared
radiation, converts it into its own infrared radiation and emits it in
full. The emissivity of black body radiators is exactly one. There is
therefore no reflection or transmission of the radiation. Objects
with properties of this nature do not occur in practice.
Devices for calibrating thermal imagers are known as black body
radiators. However, their emissivity is only just under one.

C
Calibration
Procedure in which the measuring values of an instrument (actual
values) and the measuring values of a reference instrument (nomi-
nal values) are determined and compared. The result allows con-
clusions to be drawn about whether the actual measuring values
of the instrument are still within a permitted limit/tolerance range.
In contrast to an adjustment, the identified deviation from the
actual measuring value is merely documented in a calibration and
not adjusted to the nominal measuring value. The intervals at
which a calibration is to be performed depend on the respective
measuring tasks and requirements.

Celsius (°C)
Temperature unit. Under normal pressure, the zero point of the
Celsius scale (0 °C) is the freezing temperature of water. A further
fixed point for the Celsius scale is the boiling point of water at
100 °C.
°C = (°F - 32) / 1.8 or °C = K - 273.15.

39
Coldspot and hotspot
The coldest spot of an area on the thermal image is referred to as
the “coldspot”, and the hottest spot is referred to as the “hotspot”.
Using the “Auto Hot/Cold Spot Recognition” function, you can
display these two spots directly on your thermal image in the
camera display. This function is also available in many of the anal-
ysis software packages, e.g. with testo IRSoft or testo Thermogra-
phy App. There you can also display these two spots for any
areas of the thermal image you wish to define.

Colour palette
Selection of the colour display for the thermal image in the cam-
era (e.g. “rainbow”, “iron”, “grey scale” colour palette). The con-
trasts of the thermal images can be shown with varying quality
depending on the measuring task and the colour palette set. The
colour palette can also be set individually using analysis software
(e.g. with testo IRSoft or testo Thermography App) after the ther-
mal image has been saved. Also pay attention to the interpretabil-
ity of your thermal image when choosing the colour palette. In
most cases, red and yellow colours are intuitively associated by
the viewer with heat, green and blue colours with cold.

Coloured body radiator

Coloured body radiators are materials whose emissivity depends
on the wavelength. If you look at the same object using a thermal
imager in the long-wave infrared range (LWIR, 8 – 14 µm) and a
thermal imager in the medium-wave infrared range (MWIR, 3 – 5
µm), it may be necessary to set different emissivities in the ther-
mal imager.

40
Condensation
Transition of a substance from gaseous to liquid state. Air humid-
ity can condense on surfaces if the surface temperature, and
therefore the temperature of the air on the surface, is lower than
the dew point temperature.

Conduction
Heat conduction. Transfer of thermal energy between neighbour-
ing particles. Here, energy is always transferred from the warmer
to the colder particle. Unlike convection, there is no mass trans-
port of particles in conduction.

Convection
Heat transfer, which involves thermal energy moving from one
fluid or gas to another as a result of the mass transport of parti-
cles.

D
Detector
The detector receives the infrared radiation and converts it into an
electrical signal. The geometric resolution of the detector is shown
in pixels and the thermal resolution with the NETD.

Dew point/dew point temperature

Temperature at which water condenses. At dew point temperature,
the air is saturated with more than 100% water vapour. Once the
air cannot absorb any more water vapour, condensate forms.

41
E
Emissivity (ε)
A measure of the ability of a material to emit (give off) infrared
radiation. The emissivity varies according to the surface proper-
ties, the material and, for some materials, also according to the
temperature of the object.

F
Fahrenheit (°F)
Temperature unit used mainly in North America.
°F = (°C x 1.8) + 32.
Example 20 °C in °F: (20 °C x 1.8) + 32 = 68 °F.

Field of view
Cf. “FOV (Field Of View)”, p. 42.

FOV (Field Of View)

Field of view of the thermal imager. This is specified as an angle
(e.g. 32°) and defines the area that can be seen with the thermal
imager. The field of view is dependent on the detector in the ther-
mal imager and on the lens used. With the same detector,
wide-angle lenses have a large field of view, whereas telephoto
lenses (e.g. Testo 9° telephoto lens) and super-telephoto lenses
have a small field of view.

42
G
Grey body radiator
As nature has no ideal black body radiator (ε = 1), we make do
with the concept of the grey body radiator (ε < 1). Many building
or organic materials can be approximately described as grey body
radiators in a narrow spectral range. This involves disregarding the
wave length dependency of the emissivity (cf. “Coloured body
radiator”), because the spectral sensitivity of common thermal
imagers only covers a small spectral section of the infrared spec-
trum. This therefore represents a permissible approximation.
In contrast to black body radiators, grey body radiators never
absorb 100% of the radiation which hits them, which means the
intensity of the radiation they emit is also lower.

H
Hotspot
Cf. “Coldspot and hotspot”, p. 40.

I
Ideal radiator
Cf. “Black body radiator”, p. 39.

IFOVgeo (Instantaneous Field Of View)

The IFOVgeo indicates the resolution of the camera system. It indi-
cates which details the camera system can resolve depending on
the detector and the lens. The resolution of the camera system
(IFOVgeo) is given in mrad (= milliradian) and describes the smallest
object that can still be depicted on the thermal image, depending
on the measuring distance. The size of this object corresponds to
one pixel on the thermal image.
43
IFOVmeas (Measurement Instantaneous Field Of View)
Designation of the smallest object whose temperature can be
accurately measured by the thermal imager. It is 2-3 times larger
than the smallest identifiable object (IFOVgeo).
The rule of thumb is: IFOVmeas ≈ 3 x IFOVgeo.
IFOVmeas is also referred to as the smallest measurement spot to
be measured.

Image refresh rate

Specification in hertz of how often per second the displayed
image is refreshed (e.g. 9 Hz / 33 Hz / 60 Hz). An image refresh
rate of 9 Hz means that the thermal imager updates the thermal
image in the display nine times per second.

Infrared radiation
Infrared radiation is electromagnetic radiation. Every object with a
temperature above absolute zero (0 Kelvin = -273.15 °C) emits
infrared radiation. Infrared radiation covers the wavelength range
from 0.78 μm up to 1000 μm (= 1 mm) and therefore borders on
the wavelength range for light (0.38 to 0.78 μm). Thermal imagers
often measure the long-wave infrared radiation in the range from 8
μm to 14 μm (testo 865, testo 872, testo 875i, testo 882, testo 885
and testo 890), as the atmosphere in this wavelength range is
extremely permeable to infrared radiation.

44
Isotherms
Lines of the same temperature. You can display isotherms using
analysis software (e.g. testo IRSoft) or with high-quality thermal
imagers. This involves all measuring points in the thermal image
with temperature values within a pre-defined range being marked
in colour.

K
Kelvin (K)
Temperature unit.
0 K corresponds to the absolute zero point (-273.15 °C). The fol-
lowing applies: 273.15 K = 0 °C = 32 °F.
K = °C + 273.15.
Example 20 °C in K: 20 °C + 273.15 = 293.15 K.

L
Lambert radiator
A Lambert radiator is an object that reflects incident radiation with
the optimum diffusion; in other words the incident radiation is
reflected with equal strength in all directions.
You can measure the temperature of the reflected radiation on a
Lambert radiator using the thermal imager.

Laser marker
With the laser marker, the laser marking is shown parallax-free,
enabling you to see the exact position of the laser spot on the
thermal imager display. This function is included in the testo 872,
testo 885 and testo 890 cameras.

45
Laser pointer
A laser pointer supports homing in on the measuring surface (a
red dot is projected onto the measuring object). The laser marking
and the centre of the image of the measuring surface do not cor-
respond exactly, as they are on different optical axes. It serves as
a guide.
Caution:
Laser class 2: Never direct the laser at people or animals and
never look into the laser! This can damage the eyes!

Lenses
The size of the field of view of the thermal imager, and thus also
the size of the measurement spot, change according to the lens
used. A wide-angle lens (e.g. 32° standard lens for the testo 875i)
is particularly suitable if you want to get an overview of the tem-
perature distribution across a large surface. You can use a tele-
photo lens (e.g. Testo 9° telephoto lens) to measure small details
with precision, even from a greater distance. For the measurement
of the smallest details from a great distance, there is also a super
telephoto lens (for the testo 885 and testo 890 cameras).

M
Measurement spot
Cf. “IFOVmeas (Measurement Instantaneous Field Of View)”, p.
44.

46
N
NETD (Noise Equivalent Temperature Difference)
Key figure for the smallest possible temperature difference that
can be resolved by the camera. The smaller this value, the better
the measurement resolution or thermal sensitivity of the thermal
imager is.

R
Real body
Cf. “Grey body radiator”, p. 43.

Reflectance (ρ)
The ability of a material to reflect infrared radiation. The reflec-
tance depends on the surface properties, temperature and type of
material.

Relative humidity (% RH)

Percentage specification of the water vapour saturation level of
the air. For example, at 33% RH the air contains only approx. 1/3
of the maximum volume of water vapour that the air could absorb
at the same temperature and the same air pressure. At an air
humidity in excess of 100%, condensate starts to form, as the air
is fully saturated and cannot absorb any more moisture. The gase-
ous water vapour in the air therefore liquefies. The warmer the air,
the more water vapour it can absorb without condensation being
formed. For this reason, condensation always occurs first on cold
surfaces.

47
RTC (Reflected Temperature Compensation)
Some of the thermal radiation is reflected with real bodies. This
reflected temperature must be taken into account in the measure-
ment of objects with low emissivity. An offset factor in the camera
enables the reflection to be calculated out and the accuracy of the
temperature measurement is thus improved. This is generally done
by means of a manual input into the camera and/or via the soft-
ware.
In most cases, the reflected temperature is identical to the ambi-
ent temperature (especially with indoor thermography). If the infra-
red radiation from interferences is reflected on the surface of the
measuring object, you should determine the temperature of the
reflected radiation (e.g. using a Lambert radiator). The reflected
temperature has little effect on objects with very high emissivity.

T
Temperature
State variable for the energy contained in a body.

Thermal image
Image that shows the temperature distributions of the surfaces of
objects using different colours for different temperature values.
Thermal images are taken using a thermal imager.

Thermal imager
Camera that measures infrared radiation and converts the signals
into a thermal image. Using a thermal imager, surface temperature
distributions can be shown that are not visible to the human eye.
Typical areas of application are found, for example, in building
thermography and in electrical and industrial thermography.

48
Thermogram
Cf. “Thermal image”, p. 48.

Thermography
Imaging procedure using measuring technology that visualizes
thermal radiation or the temperature distributions of object sur-
faces using a thermal imager.

Transmittance (τ)
Measure of the ability of a material to allow infrared radiation to
pass through it. It depends on the thickness and type of the mate-
rial. Most materials are not permeable to long-wave infrared radia-
tion.

Two-point measurement
Two-point measurement has two crosshairs in the camera display,
which can be used to read off individual temperatures.

49
50
3.2 Emissivity table

The following table serves as a guide for adjusting the emissivity

for infrared measurement. It provides the emissivity ε of some
common materials. As the emissivity changes with the tempera-
ture and surface properties, the values shown here should be
regarded merely as guidelines for the measurement of temperature
conditions or differences. In order to measure the absolute tem-
perature value, the exact emissivity of the material must be deter-
mined.

Material (material temperature) Emissivity

Aluminium, rolled blank (170 °C) 0.04

Aluminium, not oxidized (25 °C) 0.02
Aluminium, not oxidized (100 °C) 0.03
Aluminium, heavily oxidized (93 °C) 0.20
Aluminium, highly polished (100 °C) 0.09

Brass, oxidized (200 °C) 0.61

Brick, mortar, plaster (20 °C) 0.93
Brickwork (40 °C) 0.93

Cast iron, oxidized (200 °C) 0.64

Chrome (40 °C) 0.08
Chrome, polished (150 °C) 0.06
Clay, burnt (70 °C) 0.91
Concrete (25 °C) 0.93
Copper, slightly tarnished (20 °C) 0.04
Copper, oxidized (130 °C) 0.76
Copper, polished (40 °C) 0.03
Copper, rolled (40 °C) 0.64
Cork (20 °C) 0.70
Cotton (20 °C) 0.77

51
 Material (material temperature) Emissivity

Glass (90 °C) 0.94

Granite (20 °C) 0.45
Gypsum (20 °C) 0.90

Human being (36 °C) 0.98

Ice, smooth (0 °C) 0.97

Iron, emery-ground (20 °C) 0.24
Iron with casting skin (100 °C) 0.80
Iron with rolling skin (20 °C) 0.77

Lead (40 °C) 0.43

Lead, oxidized (40 °C) 0.43
Lead, grey oxidized (40 °C) 0.28

Marble, white (40 °C) 0.95

Oil paints (all colours) (90 °C) 0.92-0.96

Paint, blue on aluminium foil (40 °C) 0.78

Paint, black, matt (80 °C) 0.97
Paint, yellow, 2 coats on aluminium foil (40 °C) 0.79
Paint, white (90 °C) 0.95
Paper (20 °C) 0.97
Plastics: PE, PP, PVC (20 °C) 0.94
Porcelain (20 °C) 0.92

Radiator, black, anodized (50 °C) 0.98

Rubber, hard (23 °C) 0.94
Rubber, soft, grey (23 °C) 0.89

Sandstone (40 °C) 0.67

Steel, heat-treated surface (200 °C) 0.52
Steel, oxidized (200 °C) 0.79
Steel, cold-rolled (93 °C) 0.75-0.85

Transformer paint (70 °C) 0.94

Wood (70 °C) 0.94

Zinc, oxidized 0.1

52
3.3 Testo recommends

Calibrating your thermal imager

Testo SE & Co. KGaA recommends that you have your thermal
imager calibrated regularly. The intervals at which this should be
done depend on your measuring tasks and requirements. You can
find more information on calibrating your thermal imager at www.
testo.com.

Thermography training courses

Staying at the cutting edge of knowledge: that is one of the most
important requirements for meeting the demands of complex meas-
uring tasks and rising quality requirements. This is why Testo SE &
Co. KGaA offers training courses in thermography for a wide range
of areas of application.
You can find more information on the training courses we offer at
www.testo.com.

More information at:

www.testo.com/thermography

53
Your personal notes:

54
By the way, did you know:
thanks to their ability to see thermal radiation, pit vipers perceive
quarry as well as enemies at lightning speed, even in the dark.

Pit vipers, a subspecies of vipers, perceive even the tiniest tempera-

ture differences of around 0.0003 degrees
Celsius really quickly. It is the highly sensitive
“pit organ” that enables them to do this.
This sensory organ allows pit vipers to see
images which are very similar to those of
modern thermal imagers …

55
 Nominal charge EUR 5.00
098X 732X/HE/I/01.2018

Testo SE & Co. KGaA

Testo-Strasse 1, D-79853 Lenzkirch, Germany
Phone +49 7653 681-700
Fax +49 7653 681-701
[email protected]

You will find up-to-date contact details for our

subsidiaries and agencies at

www.testo.com