Module 6

Non-Destructive Testing

Non-destructive Testing is one part of the function of Quality Control and is

complementary to other long established methods.
By definition non-destructive testing is the testing of materials, for surface or
internal flaws or metallurgical condition, without interfering in any way with
the integrity of the material or its suitability for service.

The technique can be applied on a sampling basis for individual investigation or may
be used for 100% checking of material in a production quality control system. Whilst
being a high technology concept, evolution of the equipment has made it robust
enough for application in any industrial environment at any stage of manufacture -
from steelmaking to site inspection of components already in service.
A certain degree of skill is required to apply the techniques properly in order to
obtain the maximum amount of information concerning the product, with
consequent feed back to the production facility.
Non-destructive Testing is not just a method for rejecting substandard material; it is
also an assurance that the supposedly good is good.

Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a testing and analysis technique used by industry

to evaluate the properties of a material, component, structure or system for
characteristic differences or welding defects and discontinuities without causing
damage to the original part. NDT also known as non-destructive examination
(NDE), non-destructive inspection (NDI) and non-destructive evaluation
(NDE).

6.1 Magnetic Particles

Introduction to Magnetic Particle Inspection.

This method is suitable for the detection of surface and near surface discontinuities
in magnetic material, mainly ferritic steel and iron.
 An Illustration of the Principle of Magnetic Particle Inspection

The principle is to generate magnetic flux in the article to be examined, with the
flux lines running along the surface at right angles to the suspected defect.
Where the flux lines approach a discontinuity they will stray out in to the air at the
mouth of the crack. The crack edge becomes magnetic attractive poles North and
South. These have the power to attract finely divided particles of magnetic material
such as iron fillings. Usually these particles are of an oxide of iron in the size range
20 to 30 microns, and are suspended in a liquid which provides mobility for the
particles on the surface of the test piece, assisting their migration to the crack edges.
However, in some instances they can be applied in a dry powder form.

The particles can be red or black oxide, or they can be coated with a substance,
which fluoresces brilliantly under ultra-violet illumination (black light). The
object is to present as great a contrast as possible between the crack indication and
the material background.

The technique not only detects those defects which are not normally visible to the
unaided eye, but also renders easily visible those defects which would otherwise
require close scrutiny of the surface.

There are many methods of generating magnetic flux in the test piece, the simplest
one being the application of a permanent magnet to the surface, but this method
cannot be controlled accurately because of indifferent surface contact and
deterioration in magnetic strength.
Modern equipments generate the magnetic field electrically either directly or
indirectly.
In the direct method a high amperage current is passed through the subject and
magnetic flux is generated at right angles to the current flow. Therefore the current
flow should be in the same line as the suspected defect.

If it is not possible to carry out this method because of the orientation of the defect,
then the indirect method must be used. This can be one of two forms:
1. Passing a high current through a coil that encircles the subject.
2. Making the test piece form part of a yoke, which is wound with a current carrying
coil. The effect is to pass magnetic flux along the part to reveal transverse and
circumferential defects.

If a bar with a length much greater than its diameter is considered, then longitudinal
defects would be detected by current flow and transverse and circumferential defects
by the indirect method of an encircling coil or magnetic flux flow.

Subjects in which cracks radiating from a hole are suspected can be tested by means
of the threading bar technique, whereby a current carrying conductor is passed
through the hole and the field induced is cut by any defects. Detection of longitudinal
defects in hollow shafts is a typical application of the threader bar technique.

The electricity used to generate the magnetic flux in any of these methods can be
alternating current, half wave rectified direct current or full wave rectified direct
current. A.C. generated magnetic flux, because of the skin effect, preferentially
follows the contours of the surface and does not penetrate deeply into the material.
H.W.D.C. penetrates more deeply but is inclined not to follow sharp changes in
section. H.W.D.C. is useful for the detection of slightly subsurface defects. The
pulsing effect of A.C. and H.W.D.C. gives additional mobility to the indicating
particles. D.C. penetrates even more deeply but does not have this facility.
Furthermore, demagnetizing of the material after D.C. magnetizing is far more
difficult than after A.C. magnetizing.

Normally, to ensure that a test piece has no cracks, it is necessary to magnetize it in

at least two directions and after each magnetizing - and ink application - visually
examine the piece for crack indications.
Since this double process, which would include adjustment of the magnetizing
equipment controls in between each magnetizing takes time it is obviously
advantageous to have the facility to reduce the time required. The recent
development of the Swinging Field method of multi-directional magnetizing will
indicate all defects, regardless of their orientation on the surface, with one
magnetizing shot and therefore requires only one inspection. (Please refer to our
paper entitled Faster Magnetic Crack Detection using the Multi-directional
Swinging Field Method).

Basically magnetic crack detection equipment takes two forms. Firstly, for test
pieces which are part of a large structure, or pipes, heavy castings, etc. which cannot
be moved easily, the equipment takes the form of just a power pack to generate a
high current. This current is applied to the subject either by contact prods on flexible
cables or by an encircling coil of cable. These power packs can have variable
amperages up to a maximum of 2000 Amps for portable units, and up to 10,000
Amps for mobile equipments. Both A.C. and H.W.D.C. magnetizing current is
available. The indicating material is applied by means of a spray and generally the
surplus runs to waste.

For factory applications on smaller more manageable test pieces the bench type of
equipment, as represented by our EUROMAG range, is normally preferred. This
consists of a power pack similar to those described above, an indicating ink system
which recirculates the fluid, and facilities to grip the work piece and apply the
current flow or magnetic flux flow in a more methodical, controlled manner. The
work pieces are brought to the equipment and can be individually tested. Subjects
up to approximately 100" long can be accommodated is such equipments and can be
loaded by crane if necessary. This type of universal equipment is ideally suited to
either investigative work or routine quality control testing.

These bench type equipments often incorporate a canopy to prevent direct light
falling on the subject so that ultra-violet fluorescent material can be used to the best
effect. The indicating particles may be suspended in very thin oil (kerosene) or
water. In some circumstances the indicating medium can be applied dry.
These equipments are suited to production work and in certain circumstances can be
automated to the extent of loading, magnetizing, inking and unloading. The work
pieces still have to be viewed by eye for defect indications.

Specialized equipments are also frequently manufactured to test a particular size and
type of test piece.

An Illustration of Magnetic Particle Inspection

Advantages of Magnetic Particle Crack Detection

• Simplicity of operation and application.
• Quantitative.
• Can be automated, apart from viewing. (Though modern developments in
automatic defect recognition can be used in parts of simple geometry e.g.
billets and bars. In this case a special camera captures the defect indication
image and processes it for further display and action.)

Disadvantages of Magnetic Particle Crack Detection

• Restricted to ferromagnetic materials.
• Restricted to surface or near surface flaws.
• Not fail safe in that lack of indication could mean no defects or process not
carried out properly.
6.2 Ultrasonic Testing

Introduction to Ultrasonic Flaw Detection.

This technique is used for the detection of internal and surface (particularly
distant surface) defects in sound conducting materials.

The principle is in some respects similar to echo sounding. A short pulse of

ultrasound is generated by means of an electric charge applied to a piezo
electric crystal, which vibrates for a very short period at a frequency related to
the thickness of the crystal. In flaw detection this frequency is usually in the range
of one million to six million times per second (1 MHz to 6 MHz). Vibrations or
sound waves at this frequency have the ability to travel a considerable distance in
homogeneous elastic material, such as many metals with little attenuation. The
velocity at which these waves propagate is related to the Young’s Modulus for the
material and is characteristic of that material. For example the velocity in steel is
5900 meters per second, and in water 1400 meters per second.

Ultrasonic energy is considerably attenuated in air, and a beam propagated through

a solid will, on reaching an interface (e.g. a defect, or intended hole, or the back
wall) between that material and air reflect a considerable amount of energy in the
direction equal to the angle of incidence.

For contact testing the oscillating crystal is incorporated in a hand held probe, which
is applied to the surface of the material to be tested. To facilitate the transfer of
energy across the small air gap between the crystal and the test piece, a layer of
liquid (referred to as ‘couplant’), usually oil, water or grease, is applied to the
surface.

As mentioned previously, the crystal does not oscillate continuously but in short
pulses, between each of which it is quiescent. Piezo electric materials not only
convert electrical pulses to mechanical oscillations, but will also transduce
mechanical oscillations into electrical pulses; thus we have not only a generator of
sound waves but also a detector of returned pulses. The crystal is in a state to detect
returned pulses when it is quiescent. The pulse takes a finite time to travel through
the material to the interface and to be reflected back to the probe.
The standard method of presenting information in ultrasonic testing is by means of
a cathode ray tube, in which horizontal movement of the spot from left to right
represents time elapsed. The principle is not greatly different in digitized instruments
that have a LCD flat screen. The rate at which the spot moves is such that it gives
the appearance of a horizontal line on the screen. The system is synchronized
electronically so that at the instant the probe receives its electrical pulse the spot
begins to traverse the screen. An upward deflection (peak) of the line on the left hand
side of the screen is an indication of this occurrence. This peak is usually termed the
initial pulse.

Whilst the base line is perfectly level the crystal is quiescent. Any peaks to the right
of the initial pulse indicate that the crystal has received an incoming pulse reflected
from one or more interfaces in the material. Since the spot moves at a very even
speed across the tube face, and the pulse of ultrasonic waves move at a very even
velocity through the material, it is possible to calibrate the horizontal line on the
screen in terms of absolute measurement. The use of a calibration block, which
produces a reflection from the back wall a known distance away from the crystal
together with variable controls on the flaw detector, allows the screen to be
calibrated in units of distance, and therefore determination of origins of returned
pulses obtained from a test piece.

It is therefore possible not only to discover a defect between the surface and the back
wall, but also to measure its distance below the surface. It is important that the
equipment is properly calibrated and, since it is in itself not able to discriminate
between intended boundaries of the object under test and unintended discontinuities,
the operator must be able to identify the origin of each peak. Further as the pulses
form a beam it is also possible to determine the plan position of a flaw.

The height of the peak (echo) is roughly proportional to the area of the reflector,
though there is on all instruments a control, which can reduce or increase the size of
an indication – variable sensitivity in fact. Not only the part of the beam reflected at
a material/air interface but also at any junction where there is a velocity change, for
example steel/slag interface in a weld.

Probing all faces of a test piece not only discovers the three-dimensional defect and
measures its depth, but can also determine its size. Two-dimensional (planar) defects
can also be found but, unlike radiography, it is best that the incident beam impinges
on the defect as near to right angles to the plane as possible. To achieve this some
probes introduce the beam at an angle to the surface. In this manner longitudinal
defects in tubes (inner or outer surface) are detected.

Interpretation of the indications on the screen requires a certain amount of skill,

particularly when testing with hand held probes. The technique is, however,
admirably suited to automatic testing of regular shapes by means of a monitor - an
electronic device that fits into the main equipment to provide an electrical signal
when an echo occurs in a particular position on the trace. The trigger level of this
signal is variable and it can be made to operate a variety of mechanical gates and
flaw warnings. Furthermore, improvements in computer technology allow test data
and results to be displayed and out-putted in a wide variety of formats.

Modern ultrasonic flaw detectors are fully solid state and can be battery
powered, and are robustly built to withstand site conditions.

Since the velocity of sound in any material is characteristic of that material, it follows
that some materials can be identified by the determination of the velocity. This can
be applied, for example in S.G. cast irons to determine the percentage of graphite
nodularity.

This process can also be automated and is now in use in many foundries. Typical
equipment is the Qualiron.

When the velocity is constant, as it is in a wide range of steels, the time taken for the
pulse to travel through the material is proportional to its thickness. Therefore, with
a properly calibrated instrument, it is possible to measure thickness from one side
with an accuracy in thousandths of an inch. This technique is now in very common
use. A development of the standard flaw detector is the digital wall thickness gauge.
This operates on similar principles but gives an indication, in LED or LCD numerics,
of thickness in absolute terms of millimeters. These equipments are easy to use but
require prudence in their application.

An Illustration of Ultrasonic Flaw Detection

Advantages of Ultrasonic Flaw Detection
• Thickness and lengths up to 30ft can be tested.
• Position, size and type of defect can be determined.
• Instant test results.
• Portable.
• Extremely sensitive if required.
• Capable of being fully automated.
• Access to only one side necessary.
• No consumables.

Disadvantages of Ultrasonic Flaw Detection

• No permanent record available unless one of the more sophisticated test
results and data collection systems is used.
• The operator can decide whether the test piece is defective or not whilst the
test is in progress.
• Indications require interpretation (except for digital wall thickness gauges).
• Considerable degree of skill necessary to obtain the fullest information from
the test.
• Very thin sections can prove difficult.
6.3 Penetrant Testing

Introduction to Dye Penetrant Testing

This method is frequently used for detection of surface breaking flaws in non-
ferromagnetic materials.

The subject to be examined is first of all chemically cleaned, usually by vapor phase,
to remove all traces of foreign material, grease, dirt, etc. from the surface generally,
and also from within the cracks.

Next the penetrant (which is a very fine thin oil usually dyed bright red or ultra-
violet fluorescent) is applied and allowed to remain in contact with the surface for
approximately fifteen minutes. Capillary action draws the penetrant into the crack
during this period.

The surplus penetrant on the surface is then removed completely and thin coating of
powdered chalk is applied.

After a further period (development time) the chalk draws the dye out of the crack,
rather like blotting paper, to form a visual, magnified in width, indication in good
contrast to the background.

The process is purely a mechanical/chemical one and the various substances used
may be applied in a large variety of ways, from aerosol spray cans at the most simple
end to dipping in large tanks on an automatic basis at the other end. The latter system
requires sophisticated tanks, spraying and drying equipment but the principle
remains the same.
An Illustration of Dye Penetrant Testing

Advantages of Dye Penetrant Testing

• Simplicity of operation.
• Best method for surface breaking cracks in non-ferrous metals.
• Suitable for automatic testing, with reservation concerning viewing.
• Quantitative.

Disadvantages of Dye Penetrant Testing

• Restricted to surface breaking defects only.
• Decreased sensitivity.
• Uses a considerable amount of consumables.

6.4 Radiographic Testing

Introduction to Radiography
This technique is suitable for the detection of internal defects in ferrous and non-
ferrous metals and other materials.
X-rays, generated electrically, and Gamma rays emitted from radio-active isotopes,
are penetrating radiation which is differentially absorbed by the material through
which it passes; the greater the thickness, the greater the absorption. Furthermore,
the denser the material the greater the absorption.

X and Gamma rays also have the property, like light, of partially converting silver
halide crystals in a photographic film to metallic silver, in proportion to the intensity
of the radiation reaching the film, and therefore forming a latent image. This can be
developed and fixed in a similar way to normal photographic film.

Material with internal voids is tested by placing the subject between the source of
radiation and the film. The voids show as darkened areas, where more radiation has
reached the film, on a clear background. The principles are the same for both X and
Gamma radiography.

In X-radiography the penetrating power is determined by the number of volts applied

to the X-Ray tube - in steel approximately 1000 volts per inch thickness is necessary.
In Gamma radiography the isotope governs the penetrating power and is unalterable
in each isotope. Thus Iridium 192 is used for 1 /2" to 1" steel and Caesium 134 is
used for 3 /4" to 21 /2" steel.

In X-radiography the intensity, and therefore the exposure time, is governed by the
amperage of the cathode in the tube. Exposure time is usually expressed in terms of
milli ampere minutes. With Gamma rays the intensity of the radiation is set at the
time of supply of the isotope. The intensity of radiation from isotopes is measured
in Becquerel’s and reduces over a period of time. The time taken to decay to half the
amount of curies is the half-life and is characteristic of each isotope. For example,
the half-life of Iridium 192 is 74 days, and Cesium 134 is 2.1 years. The exposure
factor is a product of the number of curies and time, usually expressed in curie hours.
The time of exposure must be increased as the isotope decays - when the exposure
period becomes uneconomical the isotope must be renewed.

As the isotope is continuously emitting radiation it must be housed in a container of

deleted uranium or similar dense shielding material, whilst not exposed to protect
the environment and personnel.
To produce an X or Gamma radiograph, the film package (comprising film and
intensifying screens - the latter being required to reduce the exposure time - enclosed
in a light tight cassette) is placed close to the surface of the subject.

The source of radiation is positioned on the other side of the subject some distance
away, so that the radiation passes through the subject and on to the film. After the
exposure period the film is removed, processed, dried, and then viewed by
transmitted light on a special viewer.

Various radiographic and photographic accessories are necessary, including such

items as radiation monitors, film markers, image quality indicators, darkroom
equipment, etc. Where the last is concerned there are many degrees of sophistication,
including fully automatic processing units. These accessories are the same for both
X and Gamma radiography systems.

Also required are such consumable items as radiographic film and processing
chemicals.

An Illustration of Radiography.
Recent developments in radiography permit ‘real time’ diagnosis. Such techniques
as computerized tomography yield much important information, though these
methods maybe suitable for only investigative purposes and not generally employed
in production quality control.

Advantages of Radiography
• Information is presented pictorially.
• A permanent record is provided which may be viewed at a time and place
distant from the test.
• Useful for thin sections.
• Sensitivity declared on each film.
• Suitable for any material.

Disadvantages of Radiography
• Generally an inability to cope with thick sections.
• Possible health hazard.
• Need to direct the beam accurately for two-dimensional defects.
• Film processing and viewing facilities are necessary, as is an exposure
compound.
• Not suitable for automation, unless the system incorporates fluoroscopy with
an image intensifier or other electronic aids.
• Not suitable for surface defects.
• No indication of depth of a defect below the surface.

Sources:
What is Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)? Methods and Definition - TWI (twi-global.com)
A Brief Description of NDT Techniques (insight-ndt.com)