GUIDELINES

FOR URBAN REGENERATION

IN THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION

Priority Actions Programme

Regional Activity Centre
Split, January 2004
Table of Contents

Preface .............................................................................................................. iii

1. Introduction: Why is Urban Regeneration needed? ........................................... 1

1.1. Rationale for Urban Intervention ........................................................ 1
1.2. Causes of Urban Degradation in the Mediterranean .............................. 3
1.3. Importance of Informal Sector ........................................................... 5
1.4. Coastal Context and Waterfront ......................................................... 6

2. Characteristics of Urban Regeneration............................................................... 7

2.1. Definition of Urban Regeneration........................................................ 7
2.1. Strategic Dimensions of Urban Regeneration ....................................... 7
2.2. Multiple Dimensions of Urban Regeneration ......................................... 8

3. How to Start the Urban Regeneration Process ................................................... 9

3.1. Triggers for Urban Regeneration ........................................................ 9
3.2. Launching the Process .....................................................................12
3.2.1. Organising the Framework ......................................................12
3.2.2. Expertise Needed...................................................................12
3.2.3. Institutional Arrangements .....................................................13
3.2.4. Legislative Basis ....................................................................13

4. Process of Urban Regeneration ........................................................................ 14

4.1. Major Steps in Urban Regeneration Process ........................................15
4.1.1. Analysis of Current Situation ...................................................15
4.1.2. Goals and Objectives..............................................................16
4.1.3. Developing a Strategy ............................................................19
4.1.4. Planning for Urban Regeneration .............................................20
4.2. Institutional Arrangements ...............................................................22
4.3. Results and Evaluation.....................................................................24

5. Managing the Intervention............................................................................... 28

5.1. Public Participation and Partnerships..................................................28
5.2. Funding .........................................................................................29
5.3. Monitoring and Evaluation ................................................................30
5.4. City Marketing ................................................................................30
5.5. Governance and Participation ...........................................................30
5.6. Project Sustainability .......................................................................31

ANNEX I: Case Studies.............................................................................................. 33

Recommended Literature ......................................................................................... 45

i
ii
Preface

The importance of urban problems for the development of the Mediterranean

coastal regions was recognised early on by the Mediterranean Commission for
Sustainable Development (MCSD) which operates within the Mediterranean Action
Plan (MAP) as an advisory body to the Contracting Parties to the Barcelona
Convention. In the period 1999-2001, a special working group, led by the MAP
centres for Priority Actions Programme (PAP/RAC) and for the Blue Plan (BP/RAC),
analysed the state of urban agglomerations in the Mediterranean and prepared
draft proposals that were adopted by the MCSD and the Contracting Parties in
November 2001.

A certain number of the recommendations referred to the built up parts of the

towns. The existing urban structure in the Mediterranean region is characterised by
two prominent features: existence of old historic parts; and proximity of the sea
and orientation of the urban life towards the sea and harbours. In order to maintain
this typical, high-quality character of the Mediterranean towns it is necessary to
launch the process of urban regeneration, especially where reversible processes
occurred with numerous negative economic, social, cultural, ecological and physical
consequences. There is a general consensus that for launching the process of urban
regeneration a strong political will of decision-makers is necessary, as well as
considerable funds that often exceed the possibilities of the public sector. The latter
points at the need to find innovative institutional solutions.

The process of urban regeneration in the Mediterranean, and especially in its

southern parts, is at the very beginning, and in that respect the Mediterranean in
general is lagging considerably behind the northern European countries. However,
its importance in the Mediterranean is by no means lesser, and an initiative for its
more systematic implementation is considered necessary.

In 2002, implementing the recommendations of the MCSD and the Contracting

Parties to the Barcelona Convention, PAP/RAC launched the project “Urban
Regeneration in the Mediterranean Region”. The project enjoys financial support of
the European Commission. Within the project seven case studies have been
prepared (Aleppo, Alexandria, Athens, Barcelona, Istanbul, Split, Tunis). The
studies cover a variety of urban situations in the coastal regions of the
Mediterranean. They were presented at a regional workshop held in Split in July
2003. The workshop participants gave basic directions for the preparation of the
Guidelines for Urban Regeneration as the final document of the said project.

The purpose of the document is not to give step-by-step instructions for the
implementation of the urban regeneration process, or to present a universal recipe
and generally accepted tools for the preparation and implementation of urban
regeneration plans. Although in one part the document enters the technical sphere,
it mostly remains at a general level which makes it interesting for a wider range of
users. There are several reasons for that. First of all, Mediterranean urban and
development contexts are so different from each other that it is impossible to
propose a detailed and technically elaborated universal approach to, and method of
urban regeneration. Secondly, a more detailed approach would require the
preparation of a very large document which is beyond the scope of this project. And
finally, at the early phase of implementation of the urban regeneration process in

iii
the Mediterranean it is far more important to secure a wide base of supporters of
the process than a relatively narrow group of the professionals. That could be the
subject of another, similar project in the future.

The document is intended for decision-makers at the local and national levels. After
reading the document, or at least its most important parts, they should accept the
concept and act towards its becoming a dominant approach, both at the national
(policy) and local (implementation) levels. However, the document should not
remain uninteresting for the technicians, i.e. professionals within the town
administrations and in the planning practice.

The document reflects the “state-of-the-art” in the field of urban regeneration in

the Mediterranean, and is based on the experience of its authors. The basic inputs
were provided by the authors of the case studies (Mr. Jellal Abdelkafi, Mr. Gojko
Berlengi, Mr. Harry Coccossis, Mr. Manuel de Forn Foxa, Mr. Ahmed Hossam Hassan
Aly, Mr. Ruşen Keleş, Mr. Adli Qudsi), and Mr. Zdravko Svigir who led the project.
However, the greatest merit goes to the authors of the present document, Prof.
Claude Chaline (Université de Paris XII) and Prof. Harry Coccossis (University of
Thessaly, Greece).

A special expression of appreciation is due to Mr. Ivica Trumbic, Director, PAP/RAC,

for his help in reviewing of the draft document, Mr. Neven Stipica and Ms. Zeljka
Skaricic, Project Officers, PAP/RAC, for their editorial assistance, translators (Ms.
Helen Kandji, Ms. Nicole Perrier), and Mr. Slobodan Pavasovic who prepared the
document for publishing.

iv
CHAPTER ONE

1. Introduction: Why is Urban Regeneration needed?

1.1. Rationale for Urban Intervention

The Mediterranean is characterised by strong urbanisation, particularly along its

coasts. From 94 million inhabitants located in Mediterranean urban centres in the
middle of the 20th century, the respective population reached 274 million in 2000.
Urban population in the Mediterranean is expected to reach 378 million in 2025,
with the southern shore of the Mediterranean showing a high growth potential.
Urbanisation trends, strong since the 1960s, are expected to continue despite the
recent decrease in demographic growth. According to the Mediterranean Commission
for Sustainable Development, by the year 2025, more than 7 inhabitants out of 10
will probably be living in an urban centre in the Mediterranean region, and many of
these urban centres are located in coastal areas. In coastal areas, urban population
will remain stable for the northern Mediterranean coast in the next 25 years, while
on the southern and eastern shores there could be an additional 30 million city
dwellers. Whether stable or growing, urban centres are still expanding outwards.

Societies in the Mediterranean basin are now essentially urban. Mediterranean cities
have evolved through the centuries from single and independent urban nuclei to
complex modern metropolises, their role extending over increasingly wider regions.
Many of the service or production industries which contribute to GDP growth (Gross
Domestic Product) are located in the cities. However, at the same time, these cities
and particularly the largest ones, accumulate dysfunctions in their intra-urban and
peri-urban fabrics, in the fragmentation of social space, and many malfunctions in
their economic foundations. At present they are facing complex problems but also
new challenges:
• Attracting residents and economic activities faster than smaller towns and
rural areas, Mediterranean cities are experiencing tremendous growth rates,
increasing concentration in already dense urban cores but also fast sprawl
outward over their hinterlands.
• Increasing global economic competition and geopolitical restructuring affect
regional competitiveness and the locational preferences of economic activities
ultimately affecting the role and attractiveness of cities.

These trends take on specific characteristics throughout the Mediterranean urban

system although there are differences between the cities of the North and South. In
spite of their diversities, Mediterranean cities are characterised by a combination of
certain key elements which probably distinguish them from cities in other world
regions, but which also structure the relevant planning issues and policies.

The cities of the Mediterranean region have been marginally affected by the industrial
era and do not present the same industrial urban derelict lands, as the cities of the
North. But as they opened to the world in the 19th and 20th centuries, they evidence
a dualism, torn between the so-called European modern city and the old city, rich

1
with the heritage of monuments and national architecture (Aleppo, Cairo, Istanbul,
Tunis) but where large populations inhabit dilapidated and unhealthy dwellings.

Over the past several decades all of these cities have sprawled over surrounding
areas, where construction has been either organised and planned or totally
spontaneous, unregulated, under-equipped, which is in fact the case for over half
the new housing built annually (Cairo, Istanbul, Damascus). Unplanned squatter
populations account for 33% of the urban population of Alexandria, while the city of
Athens has grown with little planning or control. The pressure on land in the South
results from the on-going rural exodus, from the trend toward de-concentration of
city centres, and from the natural flows of over-population, in areas where
demographic transition has only just begun. In the North, although populations are
stabilised and ageing, the pressures on land continue nonetheless, due to the fact
that generations live separately and invest in “stone”.

The generalised urban spread is the source of many negative consequences:

• destruction, degradation of natural environments, often fragile, steep sloped
and mountainous (e.g. Genoa, Algiers);
• irreversible consumption of land and reduction of agricultural potential (e.g.
Cairo, Algiers);
• separation between dwelling and workplace, generating daily flows of vehicles,
traffic jams, waste of time and air pollution;
• transformation of the urban form blurring clear city limits, and fragmenting
city space by road networks;
• social and economic exclusion unevenly represented over the urban space and
generating persisting pockets of deprivation.

Surveys generally stress the existence of deficient infrastructures in most cities of

the South. These deficiencies are particularly apparent in:
• Water supply networks: old, not adapted to growth, lacking maintenance, they
waste up to 30% of available water resources, already diminished by harsh
climate conditions (the effects of draught on underground water tables and
dams).
• Untreated industrial and domestic waste waters: these are often disposed of in
natural spaces polluting them (e.g. Ghouta near Damascus), or into the sea
and on the beaches thus rendering them inappropriate for tourism activities
(e.g. Algiers, Gabes in Tunisia).
• Collection, storage and treatment of waste: these are fundamental concerns
for the cities in the South since their increasing quantities (e.g. 1.7 million
tons in the metropolitan area of Athens) are more often than not disposed of
at illegal waste disposal sites. Recycling remains an exception.
• Over and above the deficient or lacking infrastructure, sanitary risks affect the
poorest populations in under-privileged districts, such as in Alexandria.
• Inter-urban and intra-urban means of mass transportation are unevenly
available. They can be excellent in some cases such as in the cities in South
Cyprus (e.g. Paphos), while elsewhere private automobiles are a symbol of
personal affluence and cause congestion, as in Cairo, despite the construction
of two subway lines.

2
1.2. Causes of Urban Degradation in the Mediterranean

Most Mediterranean cities have high rates of population growth, immigration towards
major centres and coastal cities, and increased urbanisation rate, especially in the
metropolitan and coastal areas. However, there is also increasing evidence of lack of
social cohesion; lack of respect for traditions; increased violence; growing social
polarisation; inequalities in consumption patterns and income; etc. Environmental
conditions are worsening with increasing demands on resources (particularly water,
soil and energy) leading to degradation, increasing air pollution, degradation of
ecosystems and landscapes, and loss of open spaces. Within cities, there is a high
demand and high costs for housing, poor quality housing accommodation and
inadequate financing. High densities and high land values, but also limited public
financial resources, render the provision of basic infrastructure problematic.
Mediterranean cities are characterised by unplanned and illegal urban expansion,
unstable and heterogeneous spatial patterns of land use, lack of infrastructure and
services. As a consequence there is a wide urban degradation in the Region.

Urban degradation in Mediterranean cities is evident in terms of:

• formation of distressed urban areas and pockets of deprivation due to social
and economic exclusion;
• underutilisation of urban infrastructure in the centre and overburdened
infrastructures in the periphery;
• transformation of the shape of the urban fabric blurring city limits and
fragmenting the city space with infrastructure networks;
• housing and public services poorly adapted to special needs;
• creation of mono–functional districts, separation between dwelling and
workplace generating traffic congestion and pollution;
• unsustainable consumption of land resources and agricultural space;
• environmental degradation taking the form of deteriorating air quality, rising
noise levels, loss of open space, and increased vulnerability of natural and
man-made amenities.

Cities are crossroads for exchange, social mix, human endeavours, as well as the
strategic environment for integration to the new global economy. The above
problems undermine the possibilities of many Mediterranean cities to assume a
wider role in a global, national or regional framework of functional interdependence
and exchange, ensure a path of economic and social development and a quality of
life which would contribute to the welfare and happiness of their people. Yet, urban
areas and cities in the Mediterranean are considered as strategic sites for the
sustainable development of the Mediterranean region, as they:
• concentrate the majority of the countries’ economic growth while offering
considerable production factors;
• consume the largest part of resources while producing most of waste and
pollution;
• host critical and serious social problems such as conflicts and violence,
segregation and sanitary risks.

Despite often quite prestigious histories, visible in the inherited architecture of

many urban sites, the traditional mechanisms used in the past to adapt urban fabric

3
and populations to changing environments are no longer operational. Over the past
fifty years, they have become powerless to face the accelerating social needs, and
technological progress, and economic systems are at risk from global competition.

Such problems which create physical, environmental, economic and social hazards
are becoming more difficult to resolve, demanding innovative solutions in a process
of urban management and regeneration. Although such a course seems evident, in
the Mediterranean context there are several structural and contingency related
constraints which often inhibit Mediterranean cities from pursuing innovative
solutions and strategies:
• Institutional arrangements are often quite rigid and responsibilities are shared
among many partners. Most of these are mainly central-level agencies in often
highly centralised administrative systems organised along traditional sectoral
compartments. Although there could be benefits in such arrangements from
the point of view of effectiveness of co-ordination, there are also significant
limitations in mobilising non-public sector partners, often essential
contributors to complex undertakings.
• Partners are weak or not well organised to assume essential tasks,
aggravating further an overburdened central administration. In many cases,
Local Authorities are weak in policy making and technical capacities. The
private sector is dominated by small to medium-size enterprises, often family
based, lacking the capacity and the means to cope with competition.
Therefore, governance, or a modern system of consultation to resolve
emerging issues, is seriously handicapped.
• Financial resources are quite limited as many Mediterranean economies are in
a process of transition, restructuring and modernisation, while the social,
economic and environmental protection needs are immense, far beyond the
capabilities of the local or national public finance systems. Often international
donors who might contribute to the development of the cities in the Region
have cumbersome procedures, through central administrative systems, while
their focus is on infrastructure projects with heavy requirements in terms of
programming which surpass the local capacities.

Urban degradation in the Mediterranean has shown that established institutional

structures and urban policies during 1960s–1980s were proven insufficient given
the scale and the complexity of modern Mediterranean cities. Furthermore, state
planning strategies at the national level did not have the expected results while
spatial planning tools, and more specifically Master Plans, could not regulate urban
dynamics. A cursory assessment of their implementation for the eastern and
southern coast of the Mediterranean Sea shows that:
• they are out of step with respect to societal problems and evolutions;
• their implementation was hindered by insufficient public financing and often by
the lack of government control over land use and resources;
• they were elaborated in a centralised way while their application has run into
inertia;
• their too great attention for the future of the urban macro-from has led to
undertaking too extensive road equipment, new urbanisation without taking
into account the deterioration process which followed in already urbanised areas.

4
Poor control of urban sprawl – an end result of a strong suburbanisation process –
has been the case for Mediterranean countries of the North as well. The formal
hierarchy of spatial and city plans, in parallel with ineffective responsible
institutions, has provided little results, while these spatial planning tools are not
adapted enough for inducing participation of “civil society” partners in the decision
making process.

In most Mediterranean countries, urban planning is still strongly influenced by

practices which bear no relevance to modern conceptualisations of planning:
• Emphasis is on building controls and land-use planning is disassociated from
other instruments (economic and otherwise) allowing flexibility and
responsiveness to change,
• Maintenance of a traditional system of planning tools – with the exception of
the problematic efforts of utilising the transfer of development rights,
• Overriding role of programming (and partial-selective implementation) of
major transportation system interventions instead of strategic planning.

In most countries, these situations have led public authorities to undertake urban
intervention programs, either in the form of authoritative, sector-related
operations, or through wide-scale development plans, both difficult to implement.
These endeavours have rarely been able to combat the signs and symptoms of the
urban crisis, apparent in the saturated city centres, uncontrolled urban land
development, deterioration of the labour market, deprivation and dilapidation of the
living conditions, at the local level.

Opportunities for urban regeneration interventions are abundant however,

particularly in cities with:
• degraded and over populated city centres needing complex urban renewal and
redevelopment,
• under–utilized urban land on potentially most valuable locations (waterfront
and harbour areas) necessitating increased land-use efficiency through the
initiation of land recycling, in–fill development and re–development of under-
utilised waterfront area,
• declined or abandoned industrial or military areas as a result of economic
restructuring and global de–industrialization making necessary the promotion
of local economic development based on restructuring and privatisation, the
attraction of foreign investments and transfer of technology,
• peripheral, illegally built residential areas of poor standard demanding efficient
infrastructure and open spaces.

1.3. Importance of Informal Sector

In nearly all Mediterranean cities, high unemployment rates are the result of
imbalance between job opportunities and the availability of the local labour force,
which remains untapped. To counter the weakness or lack of assistance to the
unemployed, a wide-ranging sector of so-called informal or unregulated, sometimes
illegal, activities has emerged. According to World Bank data, such activities involve
at least 40% of the urban working population in Morocco and Egypt, at least 30% in
Tunisia, Algeria and Greece, and at least 20% in Italy.

5
 Spread of informal employment in Tunisian cities

industry and craftsmanship 53,9%

home workers 24,4%
construction workers 10,9%
others 18,6%
trade 24,2%
itinerant 2,9%
shops 21,3%
services 21,9%
repairs and restoration 13,6%
transport 8,3%

The informal sector is usually composed of small family businesses, intensive in

manual labour and low on capitalisation, but must not be confused with the pockets
of poverty. It can serve as a flexible means of mediation, linking changing urban
societies and economies that are too slow to adapt to these changes.

Beyond the data on the informal sector, industrial activities in most Mediterranean
cities are either stabilised or declining, and the prevalence of service-related
activities is the rule, in public administration, healthcare and education.

1.4. Coastal Context and Waterfront

Majority of the Mediterranean cities were the result of sea-borne trade, and
represented sources of opportunity for local populations, in terms of employment,
exchange, innovation and influence, as in Dubrovnik, Genoa or Venice. The split
between the city and its harbour began during the past decades. Harbour structures
are not adapted to the technical requirements of container ships, and are obnoxious
for residents (circulation of heavy trucks, noise, pollution and potential
technological risks). However, there are differences in these situations:
• modernisation of equipment on site, as in Cadix;
• full relocation and the opportunity to recover urban territories, such as in
Barcelona, Alicante, Genoa, Valetta, Beirut and Tunis;
• disappearance of heavy sea-borne traffic and enhancement of existing
passenger circulation and cruise stopovers, as in Marseilles, Athens and Split;
• maintained sea-borne activities, as in Algiers.

In all these harbour-cities, there exists an abundant heritage of infrastructure and

equipment, testifying to the evolution in harbour technology and now a part of
industrial archaeology. This includes former official buildings (harbour masters,
customs…) and gigantic warehouses, built to last for centuries (Naples, Genoa);
beautifully built military installations, such as in Valetta, Alicante and Bonifacio in
Corsica. Urban regeneration also takes into account these monuments of the
bustling past of sea-related activities, as they are essential to urban tourism
strategies. But harbour cities, such as Barcelona, Athens and Algiers, are experiencing
strong urbanisation dynamics, and when soil topography does not allow the
development of the hinterland, the waterfront artificialisation occurs, as in Algiers,
Genoa and Alexandria. These different forms of coastal land use can go from better
to worse and require the implementation of protective measures and regulations.

6
CHAPTER TWO

2. Characteristics of Urban Regeneration

Urban regeneration has been tested and implemented in the most advanced
countries and may be the answer to the issues of the future for many
Mediterranean cities. Many cities have already launched such operations
(Barcelona, Marseilles, Genoa). The analysis and assessment of these endeavours
highlight the ways and means favourable to the generalised implementation of
urban regeneration in the Mediterranean system, while respecting historical and
institutional features, as well as the uniqueness of each case and locality.

2.1. Definition of Urban Regeneration

The concept of urban regeneration may be interpreted in a number of ways,

depending on the level of development of the country. In the most developed
economies, the goal is to promote a “return to the city”, revitalise the city centre,
restore activity in a fiercely competitive international context, and implement
initiatives to improve the quality of the environment operating in a wide sense
towards a smart growth.

In emerging economies, qualitative initiatives have to be kept in mind, but must

imperatively be aligned with quantitative requirements as well.

Urban regeneration was first formalised in the U.S.A. in the 1960s, when relocation
of marine activities triggered the total abandonment of large territories, which have
become harbour derelict lands. Municipalities have often reassigned these empty
urban lands to central business type of activities as in Boston, Baltimore and New
Orleans. In the 1980’s, a second phase was launched, on the London Docklands,
and then in Barcelona. Urban regeneration led to the complete transformation of
empty lands, through reconstruction of multi-activity “bits of the city”. Later, in the
1990’s, urban regeneration was launched in many urban areas, often densely
populated, functionally heterogeneous, but facing many urban malfunctions.

Generally speaking, there may be three reasons why urban regeneration is taking
place:
• Imposed regeneration after a long period of abandonment of derelict land
(e.g. London Docklands), or severe dilapidation of living conditions in a
district.
• Opportunistic regeneration where public and private investors are on the
lookout for available land for a big project (e.g. Barcelona, Athens).
• Preventive or prospective urban regeneration in areas where the social
and economic fabrics have deteriorated (e. g. Istanbul, Aleppo, Alexandria).

2.1. Strategic Dimensions of Urban Regeneration

Over time, urban regeneration has evolved from a simple form of renovation or
rehabilitation of obsolete infrastructure and built-up land, to targeting the
restructuring of the urban fabric, the renewal of the urban economy, or the city

7
image, while seeking more social interaction and equity, the participation of local
populations and their social and professional integration into a multi-functional
context.

Designated by different structures, according to the countries involved, urban

regeneration is today an integral part of national urban policies. It has become a
new activity in the city, while urban territories are the testing and implementation
grounds of the strategies that are now required. This is why it is gradually
implementing the principles of sustainable development, which theoretically implies
the slow-down of urban sprawl, combat against pollution, hazardous to public
health, as well as natural and technological risk prevention.

2.2. Multiple Dimensions of Urban Regeneration

The aim of urban regeneration is to take into consideration the complexity of urban
dynamics. To this end, it is applied through horizontal approaches which comprise
several fundamental principles:

It is location-specific, as it deals with the difficulties specific to all urban

components. But it aims at reducing disparities, within the global vision of a more
homogeneous social environment.

It covers different timeframes, as it answers to the social needs at present, and

then those of long-term sustainability, aimed at predicting the future change. It
also includes the lessons of the past, since in most Mediterranean cities today,
consensus is largely in favour of the conservation of urban heritage following a
period of destruction to cater to modernisation, in the 1960s-1970s.

It is multidimensional, as it is applied by many different public and private

stakeholders. Urban regeneration must serve to overcome contradictions, through
negotiation, and prioritisation of the objectives. Priorities depend on the alignment
between national policies and local strategies. Urban regeneration strategies are
implemented in one sector and induce positive effects elsewhere.

Priority objectives of urban regeneration may be:

• economic: to attract investors, create employment, renew the urban economy
(as in the case of former industrial cities in the Anglo-Saxon world, e.g.
Manchester),
• social: to enlarge the supply of urban housing and develop local infrastructure
(“politique de la ville” in France),
• environmental: to improve living conditions, combat pollution (Agenda 21),
while taking into account the values and preferences of society and each social
group,
• cultural:, to enhance architectural heritage (historic core) and urban tourism,
or to attract research and academic institutions (e.g. Alexandria, Split).

8
CHAPTER THREE

3. How to Start the Urban Regeneration Process

The primary aim of urban regeneration is to address the complex dynamics of

modern urban areas and their problems by revitalising their economic, social,
environmental and cultural functions. So the process starts from an analysis of
urban problems.

The particular complexity of urban problems in each city drives to a large extent
the need for urban regeneration, its focus and scale:
• The need prescribes the goals and objectives, that is, the desirable ends
towards which an urban regeneration process is to lead.
• The focus provides structure (and priorities) to the various multiple-dimension
actions in the form of key interventions/projects.
• The scale refers to the spatial and financial extent of the intervention.

The particularities of each case drive up to a certain extent the initiation of the
process in the sense that starting the process can be generated under various
stimuli: economic, social, environmental or institutional.
• Economic stimuli can be positive or negative, in a sense of opportunities or
threats like a drive to capture new dynamic sectors (i.e. research and
development, tourism, etc.) and markets (trade flows) or dampen the effect of
declining sectors (i.e. shipbuilding and heavy industries, etc.) or shrinking
markets.
• Social stimuli can be also positive or negative in the sense of providing for
changing needs and lifestyles (i.e. cultural events, etc.) or facing social
problems (i.e. poverty areas, natural disaster areas, ghetto districts, etc.).
• Environmental causes might also provide an impetus to urban regeneration,
mostly on the negative side, in the sense of addressing the problems of urban
districts with acute environmental degradation or environmental risks, etc.
• Institutional/political causes can be at the basis of launching a process of
urban regeneration in the sense that new opportunities can be captured or
new threats can be the challenges as, for example, when broader geopolitical
changes (like the EU or the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership, etc.) or a new
legal regime (i.e. a new planning instrument) or a special event (i.e. world
expo, Olympic games, etc.) or a new leadership (i.e. change in Mayor or
Government) can offer new economic, social and cultural opportunities for
change.

3.1. Triggers for Urban Regeneration

Initiatives in favour of urban regeneration may be strictly local, in particular in

countries where structures are federal or decentralised, as in the U.S.A. This is
rarely the case in the Mediterranean, with the exception of Spain. Furthermore, in

9
emerging countries, only the State has the indispensable resources, such as in the
Southern Mediterranean countries, from Syria to Morocco.

Most often, such initiatives are the result of national, regional, urban or land
development policies. This is the case of Athens, Greece, where a law of 1998
divides the national territory into three development districts. Each district is
covered by a Regional Operational Program supported by funds from the European
Union which allows municipalities to apply their policies. Croatia has a National
Urban Strategy, with spatial and technical requirements. In Tunisia, since 1985,
National Land Development Master Plans have attempted to control the migratory
flows of populations leaving the rural areas for the cities, but have not been
successful in preventing the inflow of population to Tunis. In such cases, the
Ministry of Economic Development, which manages financial resources, can only
implement projects to meet the needs of the city itself.

As opposed to the direct involvement of the State in major urban extension works
or in the creation of new towns, urban regeneration is a slowly maturing process, a
synthesis of local demands, endogenous deficiencies, local authority projects and
support from the central government. Changes in national political regimes can
endow municipal authorities with greater autonomy, as in Barcelona where, since
1979, the municipality has played a prominent role in urban regeneration
initiatives.

These initiatives can be combined with a major international media event to

motivate local and national authorities as well as their support structures, as
demonstrated in Seville, Genoa, Barcelona, and now Athens, for the Olympic
Games of 2004.

The involvement of private investors remains limited and is essentially focused on

urban interventions on new land. However, such interventions can have an impact
on the potential regeneration of derelict urban zones. This is the case in Tunis,
where the lack of investors led to the abandonment of the warehouse area in the
old harbour, close to the city centre, while the capital flowing in from the Gulf
emirates was invested in the urbanisation of the borders of the Lake.

In the older districts, private initiatives can be organised by professionals,

architects for example, who can relocate to these areas and trigger renovation
projects, as in some of the old districts of Istanbul.

The abundant information on urban regeneration may give the impression that these
policies are only applied in large cities, through the strong support of the State.
However, urban regeneration projects are also implemented in small or medium-
sized towns. In some countries, local elected officials and economic stakeholders
(Chambers of Commerce) may be involved, as well as external investors.

Often it is a combination of factors which stimulates societies to take up the

opportunity for urban regeneration. Furthermore, an urban regeneration process
can start in a planned manner, that is under conditions of anticipating changes and
acting early (planning context), or as a response to an anticipated event (like in the
case of the Olympic Games), or the creation of new major infrastructure or centre
of activity (new airport or port or a University or a Business complex), or in political
visioning, or even a response to a natural (or other) disaster, etc. So, in theory, but
also in practice, an urban regeneration process can start under any conditions.

10
Regardless of the stimulus for starting the process there have to be some key
elements or preconditions present to trigger the process, that is, a combination of
factors which will eventually create favourable conditions for translating intentions
into an operational and eventually successful program of intervention. Among these
factors, the most important are:
• A long-term perspective. There is no doubt that urban change takes a long
time, and in that sense a strategic view is important to guide the urban
regeneration process. This would provide assistance in maintaining the
interest and commitment of the key actors towards a common cause.
• Political will and commitment. It is evident that political support is necessary
to muster the key actors and the community towards a complex intervention
such as urban regeneration. Any long-term intervention is bound to meet
economic/financial, political or other kinds of fluctuations due to changes in
the external or internal policy context. In this respect societal commitment is
important to keep up the process.
• Multi-actor/stakeholder participation. The scale and complexity of urban
regeneration often exceeds the capacities of local, regional or national
authorities to generate change, although in some occasions this cannot be
excluded as an option. In most cases mobilising a multiplicity of actors is
important. It is evident that each actor is expected to pursue a limited number
of actions, suitable to its role and capacity, but within a broad common
framework.
• Organisational framework. This is an important element in structuring
participation and can be conceived in terms of rules and procedures regarding
decisions and priority setting.
• Institutional/legal framework. This requires the existence of an enabling
framework to proceed with the intervention, and is often the most difficult
factor as the rule is that there is a multiplicity of fragmented and overlapping
responsibilities which hinder large-scale, complex interventions.
• Financing. An obvious necessity given the scale and complexity of the
intervention. It is often the single factor which is responsible for stalling such
complex interventions.
• Maintaining the process. This is a central element in urban regeneration since
it provides the basic axis for an urban regeneration activity. In this sense it
provides a structuring axis for all of the above factors. The key element in
maintaining the process is a system of monitoring and evaluation.

Furthermore, it is necessary to launch the process. This should get started through
an in-depth reconnaissance of the existing situation, an exploration of trends, and
mapping of the existing problems and opportunities. This would be the basis for
identifying, in the sense of outlining, the basic project goals, objectives and
characteristics. As a cyclical process, urban regeneration requires a gradual
development along the following steps without implying strict linearity, from one to
the next. For example, since participation is important, it is necessary to identify
early the key actors to be mobilised. This is an outcome of an analysis of the
existing institutional context, but also of identifying opportunities for action. So
there is a continuous process of gradual formulation of the intervention.

11
3.2. Launching the Process

Once the basic elements (components) of the intervention (strategy) are put in
place, the necessary actions (measures) should be specified. These are expressed
as a combination of regulatory, economic (incentives, taxation, etc.) and physical
(infrastructure projects, renovation actions, etc.), as well as organisational
measures.

3.2.1. Organising the Framework

The existing institutional framework provides a good basis for starting to build up a
framework for urban regeneration. This is only the first basis though, and is used to
identify the needs for institutional action, but also to identify the key actors (an
early action as already mentioned above). The decision on the appropriate
organisational form (i.e. Commission, Special Agency, etc.) depends on the
possibilities of the institutional context, the actors and their individual strategies
and resources, and the desirable outcome in terms of focus and characteristics
(goals and objectives-strategy). It is obviously a mix of official (public and semi-
public) sector, private entrepreneurs, NGOs (those appropriate) and the resident
community (represented appropriately). Depending on the financing and the
institutional context, international agents (UN, EU, the World Bank, etc.) might also
be appropriate to be included.

Key decisions involve the structuring of decision making in terms of strategic

decisions (executive function and guidance), management and intelligence support
(programming, information gathering, monitoring and evaluation) and operational
decisions (implementation where many of the actors are involved).

3.2.2. Expertise Needed

A complex undertaking such as urban regeneration requires a multiplicity of experts

beyond the obvious, that is urban planners, infrastructure planners, transport
planners, environmental planners, social planners, etc., who are expected to put
the basics on the ground. There are at least three areas of expertise needed where
most Mediterranean cities are often lacking previous experience: financing and
financial management, marketing and promotion, communication and participation.

The need for financing expertise has been already raised above, but it is an area
where the public sector is deficient, and in that respect it has to rely on other pools
of expertise. The difficulty in that is that, to a large extent, the public sector is
involved as well, so a good knowledge of public sector financing (regulations,
procedures, etc.) is essential. Thus, a team is often necessary.

Marketing and promotion are obvious skills necessary to draw non-public partners
(organisations, associations, institutions and individuals) to participate and
undertake activities towards urban regeneration. As at the base of urban
regeneration is to induce change through economic development opportunities it is
obvious that capturing and mobilising the interest of potential partners is crucial.
Selling the idea rests to some extent on marketing which is, to a large extent,
linked also to financing as both provide the basis for building partnerships. This is
also an area in which there is little experience in the Mediterranean cities.

12
A major characteristic of the urban regeneration process is the full consensus from
the local communities obtained through a well-planned strategy during the initiation
and execution of the projects. This consensus permits to maintain the regeneration
impulse of the city, as well as incorporates the various sensibilities and knowledge
from the citizens. So the needs for expertise include also in most cases participation
and communication skills to maintain the process by forging consensus and ironing
out conflicts in addition to maintaining a dialogue among the partners. Except adept
politicians there is very little experience in that area in terms of professional skills
in the Mediterranean cities.

3.2.3. Institutional Arrangements

Institutional arrangements and structure are a difficult policy area which needs
special attention in urban regeneration. It is evident that all Mediterranean cities
and countries dispose of a wide range of actors with quite diverse responsibilities
which are likely to be present in an urban regeneration project. The temptation
would be to create multi-agency structures to ensure co-ordination, often an
impossible task in a context which requires flexibility and efficiency in decision-
making to cope with fast changing conditions at the market. To a large extent the
options for institutional arrangements are based on the existing legislation and set
practices. However, urban regeneration requires innovation as it is all based on two
key components: PPP (public-private partnerships) and a process. These two should
be the driving forces for structuring the institutional basis of urban regeneration,
and there is no magic formula towards that.

Experience and theory have demonstrated that the key elements are: the public
sector (national and local in most cases, port authorities, transport, tourism, etc.),
occasionally international actors, the private sector (often from finance,
construction, commerce, tourism, telecommunications, etc.) and the civic society
(professional associations, NGOs, social and environmental groups, etc.).

3.2.4. Legislative Basis

A good legislative basis is often necessary to overcome rigidities in set patterns of

relationships and decision making. Enabling special legislation is often necessary in
two aspects: setting the public-private partnership interface (development
regulation, development rights, economic instruments, etc.), and supporting the
process and related decision making. Neither is an easy endeavour, and experience
shows that it takes a lot of time to provide the legal framework for urban
regeneration.

13
CHAPTER FOUR

4. Process of Urban Regeneration

All countries involved are striving to organise urban regeneration within the new
urban policies at national and local levels. The Beautiful City slogan has been
replaced by the Efficient City, and success stories are communicated through urban
marketing channels. However, from an operational standpoint, urban regeneration
can not ignore the need for legal texts and rules adapted to the wealth and
complexity of each geographical and environmental context. This requires the
establishment of new forms of balance between the local and global. In some
cases, the response will be think globally and act locally, or think locally in the legal
city and implement globally in the real urbanised area. In all Mediterranean
countries, over and above the fundamental factors stemming from a wide variety of
natural features and cultural heritage, the implementation of urban regeneration
must still take into account:
• the national political and administrative structures, and the means and
degrees of authority at each scale;
• the decision-making circuits and the extent of democratisation;
• the ability to find trade-offs between the general interest, covered by public
authorities, and the private interest, emerging under the trend towards
globalisation and market economy.

Urban regeneration, as any other applied form of urban policy, can be sub-divided
into several stages over time, which are regularly assessed to implement change
whenever required, in view of the short and long-term uncertainties in the evolution
of urban societies.

There are various problems which can trigger an interest to the need for urban
regeneration:
• Economic: limited private investments, unemployment, declining urban
economies, economic mono-culture, declining entrepreneurship, etc.;
• Social: declining and ageing population, poverty, deteriorating services and
infrastructure, etc.;
• Spatial: pockets of deprivation, high-density residential areas, illegal
residential development, etc.;
• Environmental: loss of open spaces, air pollution, increased noise levels,
degradation of urban landscape, destruction of cultural sites and monuments,
etc.;
• Institutional: complex and outdated urban management framework, poor
implementation, overlapping responsibilities.

14
4.1. Major Steps in Urban Regeneration Process

4.1.1. Analysis of Current Situation

The Analysis of the Current Situation is the first step of any regeneration project.
However, while diagnosis is necessary, it is not always enough to motivate
decisions, and, adversely, regeneration operations may be undertaken where there
is no urgent need for them, to satisfy other motivations, such as prestige or
speculation.

Urban regeneration projects are based on many objective criteria:

• They can be general, covering the entire metropolitan area, as in Split, where
the population has been fast decreasing since 1991, essentially due to the
rising unemployment. This has been the case in most industrialised cities of
Europe over several decades, with the decline in local GDP, the deficits in
municipal budgets and the disinvolvement of external investors, shying away
from economically unattractive cities.
• They can be specific to some parts of the metropolitan area. Population
census does not readily yield reliable data on the real status of the current
situation, the social unease, or the deterioration of living conditions. More
reliable data on the present and future trends can be collected through
surveys and questionnaires.

The following are examples of the most preoccupying issues in the Mediterranean:
• Squatter areas, where populations and children in particular are threatened
by health hazards and rising mortality, due to the lack of sanitation networks
and accumulated waste. Three squatter areas west of Alexandria (El Toubgia,
Maawa El Sayadeen and Tanneries) are a perfect example of such extreme
situations.
• Old town districts, where dilapidated dwellings are over-populated, roads
saturated, hazardous activities undertaken, and where surveys are the only
means of collecting reliable data.
• Historical centres, where architectural heritage is concentrated, requiring in-
depth evaluation of the state of the buildings, land use, access and the various
networks.
• Existence and formation of urban derelict land are frequently observed in
the most industrialised cities of the North, leaving empty space (deserted
harbours or railways), or abandoned buildings (warehouses, factories,
barracks). The impact is still not as strong in the South, but should, in a
medium term, affect harbour sites, wedged too deeply in the urban fabric (e.g.
Algiers), as well as under-used land, often available for reuse.
• Social unease and unrest of large housing developments, particularly in the
Northern cities, such as Marseilles, are also visible in other cities, such as
Algiers.
• Economic decline of city centres and their degree of congestion, are
demonstrated by the decline in the number of inhabitants, building vacancies,
and reduced revenues of commercial establishments.

15
• Visual disarray and disorganised spaces around the entrance to the
city, smothered by the proliferation of stores, hypermarkets and advertising.
This is mainly the case of cities in the North, bringing about the decline of the
central city.

In all cases, diagnosis is helpful to identify the constraints and assets of each site,
and the related potential for regeneration. All diagnoses must include an in-depth
analysis of the state of the land, its structures, divisions and the applicable private
or public legal regime. Much of this information can be organised in a Geographical
Information System (GIS).

Environmental assessment is at the centre of urban regeneration not only in terms

of the impacts of the intervention on resources and environmental components but
also in providing a good quality environment as a prerequisite for improving the
attractiveness of a city. The environment is often mentioned as one of the highest-
ranking factors in locational preferences of modern sector activities. Furthermore,
improving the environment is a basic component of a strategy for sustainable
development of cities. Therefore, environmental assessment acquires a key role
since it identifies key problems and options as central parts of a strategy for urban
regeneration. Degraded areas from the environmental quality point of view, are
often target areas for urban regeneration as they combine other characteristics like
abandonment, decaying structures, etc.

An analysis of trends and opportunities for the future is an integral part at this
stage. Trends are perceived in urban regeneration not in terms of extending past
tendencies, but rather as identifying desirable future(s) in the sense of exploring
the policy options to face problems and capture opportunities. This obviously
relates to the triggering factors, that is the main problems identified as a basis for
urban regeneration, and on this basis it involves:
• exploring the broader economic and social development issues;
• foreseeing the anticipated development of the city in terms of the existing
policies and planned projects/programs; and
• identifying the opportunities for action.

4.1.2. Goals and Objectives

One of the main difficulties in urban regeneration is the choice and determination of
objectives, and the future of the inhabitants, the local activities and the built-up
surfaces must be taken into account. The industrial derelict land may also need to
be de-polluted and decontaminated. These specific requirements increase the cost
of urban regeneration operations, as compared to urban development of new land
beyond the city. This is the issue of the “brownfield” versus “greenfield” urban
development, which depends on the national choices in terms of urban policies, as
in the UK and in France, where the emphasis is on projects to promote a return to
the city and the development of compact cities.

The main goals of an urban regeneration project could be to:

• promote rehabilitation of complex urban structures;
• improve the environment, as well as the quality of life of inhabitants and city
dwellers;

16
• preserve the valuable and unique fabric of the selected areas;
• control-reverse the deterioration of specific urban zones (i.e. residential,
commercial, etc.);
• restructure economic activities located in the urban fabric.

Some objectives are general and apply to the entire metropolitan area, in
morphological, economic and social fields, such as:
• The slowdown of urban spread, to prevent the well-known negative effects.
The method selected was the creation of green belts, such as around English
cities, and redirecting the growth towards new towns. In Cairo, an
unsuccessful attempt was made to stem urban sprawl by building a ring road,
one of the rare times such an approach was used in the Mediterranean.
• The reorganisation of the urban macro-shape, so as to restore balance in
the otherwise uneven development of geographical areas, and to smooth over
the disparities among their activities and social groups. This has been the
long-standing strategy applied in the reorganisation of Greater London and the
city of Paris. This option involves building communication thoroughfares and
developing mass transportation, to interconnect the different metropolitan
areas.
• The renewal of the economy and abandoned urban functions were, and
still are in some cases, the priority objectives for all regeneration strategies,
particularly in the most developed countries. In all Mediterranean countries,
although to varying degree, the contribution of the production industry is
declining in favour of service industries.

The following options could be chosen for regeneration strategies:

• Implantation of high-tech industries is the choice made by some cities to
develop their regeneration policies, and this option also includes the creation
of science parks and small-enterprise incubators, as well as the existence or
location of higher education institutions or universities. These choices require
the city to be well endowed with the new technologies of information and
communication (ICT) and in high-speed IT networks, as in Marseilles, where
beams connect Europe to Africa.
• Growth of service activities is a strong contributor to the regeneration of
urban economy, and also requires ICT facilities to attract business
headquarters, particularly in such dynamic fields as finance, insurance,
consulting and management. Along with activities requiring highly qualified
staff, there also exist those with a large job offering for less qualified
personnel, in call centres, for example.
• Development of urban tourism has become essential to any urban
regeneration project, due to the intensification of exchanges. It goes beyond
the seasonal tourists of seaside cities. Visitor flows are triggered by
conferences, exhibitions, cultural or sports events. The resulting financial
revenues often represent the largest share of the local GDP, as in Athens or
Rome. This field of business may be vulnerable to the risks of political events
and tensions, but prospective studies have shown that it is sustainable, and
therefore requires the improvement of circulation infrastructures (e.g. high-
speed train in Barcelona, new airport in Athens and the planned one in
Algiers). The same applies to the need for greater capacity for entertainment

17
 and accommodation availability, particularly in the city centre, where up-
market hotel investments are considered as more profitable than office
buildings.
• Establishment of higher-education institutions is another interesting
component of urban regeneration. Research and development are areas of
growing interest, and training centres need to be readily accessible. They are
now reappearing in more central locations, after the trend towards remote
campuses. Buildings are transformed, such as old religious buildings (in Italy),
warehouses, barracks (in Constantine), factory buildings in Paris, within the
framework of the extensive Seine Rive Gauche urban operation where, next to
the New Library, 120,000 m2 of floor space have been reserved for higher
education institutions. The return of universities to the cities is favoured by
many municipalities, which are convinced that this will restore the dynamics of
city centres or their immediate surroundings, and allow for more social
movements. This cultural option entails the creation of museums, media
libraries, sources of information for the populations. Higher education
establishments enrich the quality of human resources in a city hungry for
regeneration and make it more potentially attractive to external investors.

These options are sometimes applied in combination, and target the transformation
of the urban fabric, the landscape, the functions, the image of the city and its
attractiveness, as in Manchester, Glasgow, Bordeaux, Marseilles and Barcelona.

Refurbishing a railway station or a bus station, reorganising large thoroughfares,

building tramway lines, all efficiently contribute to the centrality of the city, or,
more often, serve to establish polycentric urban structures with new and attractive
housing, as in Barcelona and Marseilles.

Social objectives can be the main focus, within the framework of a national policy
directed towards the consolidation of urban social fabric and greater social mix, as
in French legislation, dated 1999, establishing that in each city, at least 20% of the
rentals in town housings must be available, within the scope of the local “renewal
policy”. Between 2004 and 2008, the State is also planning urban renovation for
200,000 dilapidated units, as well as the demolition and reconstruction of 200,000
others, usually located in the older districts.

Free trade zones are often created in the name of the positive action principle
where tax advantages are granted to attract businesses, create jobs, and reduce
unemployment rates. In many Mediterranean cities, the focus shall be on urban
renovation operations in squatter areas, emerging as the consequence of the
shortage or improper use of public housing.

While the objectives of sustainable development, of improved living conditions, of

available structural equipment, of risk prevention and protection are never ignored,
they are rarely the main focus. They are applied more in support of, or as a
complement to the aforementioned choices, within the framework of
multidimensional projects, specifically adapted to regeneration in the different
areas. However, water supply and sanitation networks must be considered as
integral parts of any project.

Objectives could also include the need to:

• restore buildings, rehabilitate private residences and upgrade infrastructure;

18
• identify, analyse and define business needs for selected areas (urban core, city
outskirts, etc.);
• develop new business and professional opportunities;
• establish indirect measures (infrastructure) and direct tools to encourage
economic growth;
• organise capacity building for institutions and agencies responsible for urban
management and physical planning;
• enhance the provision of community–based integrated basic services for the
vulnerable population groups;
• empower communities by increasing their problem-solving, management and
negotiation skills;
• promote public participation on the national level for urban regeneration policy
and support.

4.1.3. Developing a Strategy

The goals and objectives should be accompanied by a description of the basic

characteristics of the intervention. Such characteristics refer to the key planning
interventions, the financial scheme and organisational structures. These are the
outcome of translating the goals and objectives into a strategy, meaning a coherent
and co-ordinated system of actions in spatial and temporal sequences, organised to
achieve the desired ends (goals and objectives).

This part requires the assignment of the task to a key agency or special
organisation with a strong technical capacity in planning for urban development
also assuming (or assisted by a parallel and interrelated structure) the role to
mobilise and organise a funding support. There are various organisational schemes
with a wide diversity of role/task assignments reflecting the division of
responsibilities, manpower and expertise in human resources, but also the
experience and technical/financial capacities of various actors.

To a large extent, the strategy will influence decisions on

organisational/institutional arrangements as, at the same time, such structures
might influence the development of the strategy itself. This part of the process
could be also a central thrust for establishing the basic framework of procedures
(the spine of governance as a process) providing for consultation, consensus
building/conflict resolution.

Urban regeneration strategies are location specific. While the trend is to enhance
homogeneity between different urban areas and to combat segregation, urban
regeneration must not target complete uniformity, which is probably only possible
in new towns.

Each of the city’s territories must resolve its own difficulties, respect its own social
fabric, memory, heritage, and enhance its traditional or new potentials.
Regeneration strategies must be applied to every urban sub-system by the
combination of several objectives:
• In squatter or unregulated areas, the focus must be on water supply and
sanitation networks, as well as on waste disposal, improvement of the road

19
 network, and the creation of schools, health facilities, city hall office annexes,
etc.
• In the old dilapidated districts, the focus must be on the rejuvenation of
buildings, in close co-operation with the owners, the inhabitants, and public
aid organisations as in Barcelonetta (Barcelona), or in the Panier district
(Marseilles). In the absence of public funding, the move to rehabilitation could
stem from the arrival of middle-class inhabitants, as in Galatà, in Istanbul, but
with the risk of partial gentrification. These projects require upgrading of all
networks.
• In the central historical parts of the city, as in the old town of Aleppo, or
in Barcelona, the goal is the conservation, preservation and enhancement of
the still inhabited traditional built-up surfaces (110,000 people in Aleppo), to
attract urban tourism territories, while avoiding museumification. To further
upgrade the built-up surfaces, cultural buildings must be constructed,
networks restored, pedestrian areas created. Traditional businesses must be
maintained and service activities introduced to renew the local economy. This,
of course, depends on the changes in image and attractiveness of the city
areas and their integration in the global economy of the metropolitan real
estate market. In these historical districts, as in Aleppo or Genoa,
municipalities are careful to avoid any “trade-related” drift and to retain the
residents, while encouraging rehabilitation of the architectural heritage, today
threatened by ruin. These are ambitious challenges and require imagination
and know-how.
• In the large derelict urban zones and deserted industrial, harbour or
railway lands, complete reorganisation and new urban composition are
necessary. Only the existing buildings of quality will be preserved, renovated
and transformed, thus ensuring the survival of the memory of the site. These
zones are large enough to be used for different functions (housing, offices,
public areas), but other activities are also emphasised, such as entertainment,
trade, leisure, culture, and are the prevalent choice in all regenerated
waterfronts, as in the old port of Barcelona, with the Mare Magnum commercial
mall, the aquarium, the World Trade Centre and the IMAX movie complex.

4.1.4. Planning for Urban Regeneration

Urban regeneration does not require special procedures and can be undertaken, in
most cases, with the existing policy tools and instruments which, however, must be
carefully selected. The scope of the operations determines which tools and
instruments are to be used: the plot, the block or the district. They also depend on
the stringency of the regulations enforced. If these are weak, as in the South, more
control will be needed; if they are strong, as in the North, more flexibility is
necessary.

The control of land is absolutely the first mandatory aspect to cover, since
territories are already urbanised and belong to different owners whose legitimate
rights must be observed. When regeneration entails restructuring the entire plot of
land and new land assembly, the following methods are used:
• agreed and negotiated purchase;
• pre-emption, if this rule applies in the country involved;
• eviction, if absolutely necessary, but this procedure is often traumatic.

20
Where the built-up surfaces are old, negotiations are organised with the owners, so
that they accept to contribute to regeneration work expenses. If no agreement can
be reached, the local authorities buy back or evict, as in the Old Town of Barcelona
or Ciutat Vella. The transfer of development rights procedure can be helpful to
create an open area for example, to air out the urban fabric. The owner, deprived
of his development rights, receives compensation in the form of rights to another
part of the city. This negotiation spares the municipal authorities from having to
pay out high indemnities.

The traditional tools of spatial planning, at various scales, zoning, density,

land-use patterns, are not ideal to meet the needs of urban regeneration, which
requires:
• adapting to local demands and shorter time span than that of developers,
• responding with flexibility to the national and international economic context
and its cycles, which determine the availability and decisions of public and,
mostly, private investors,
• local authorities and developers to implement and ensure compliance with
local urban development plans.

General change depends on the usefulness and efficiency of Master Plans, applied
to an entire metropolitan area, as well as on the relation between these Plans and
the local projects.

Project-based strategic planning seems the best option. It offers a wide range
of interpretations and choices for zoning (combined land and building use),
organisation of open space and built-up areas, and of their density. When
permissions to build are granted, each aspect is discussed and defined between the
developers and the technical urban development services, to stay aligned with local
plans.

Programming is very useful in the pre-operational phase, and essentially involves

the expected volumes, expressed in square meters of floor surface for each of the
major components. Plans in the major Seine Rive Gauche regeneration operation in
Paris over a surface of 136 ha, include, in agreement with residents’ associations,
430,000 m2 residential space for 5,000 different types of housing, to host 20,000
inhabitants, 730,000 m2 of office space for 60,000 jobs, 210,000 m2 for higher
education, to accommodate 30,000 students, 400,000 m2 for shops and services,
and 98,000 m2 of open space.

In regeneration operations on almost entirely deserted land, the projects often

include one or several flagship developments which can be a tower, as on the
Canary Wharf in the London docklands, or a museum, as the Guggenheim in Bilbao,
or the New Tate Gallery on the London South Bank.

Specific plans, implying restrictions, building constraints and obligations as to the

nature of the buildings are still required in some instances in:
• historical districts, falling under country-specific legal mechanisms for heritage
protection: the Secteurs Sauvegardés in France, as in Montpellier, the PERI
(Plan de réforme intérieure) as in Barcelona;

21
• areas vulnerable to natural risks, which impose construction regulations to
protect against earthquakes, and in areas prone to floods where construction
is prohibited;
• housing located near dangerous industrial establishments, or near sources of
severe pollution.

Implementation stages depend on the scope and nature of the regenerated

sites:
• On very large sites, each block, district, or piece of equipment, is sold to a
developer who is granted permission to build and to carry out the project as
scheduled and described in the specifications. Then he may sell or rent the
finished product. Large operations such as these can take up to 15 or 20
years, e.g. Euroméditerranée in Marseilles.
• The reallocation of a single urban derelict land is determined in agreement
with the zoning specifications of the Local City Development Plan. On surfaces
under 5 ha, the number of potential new uses will be limited. The operation
usually only involves a single public or private developer, and can be
completed in under 5 years.
• The regeneration of an old district can require ten years, since it covers many
sites and the related owners. Residents in very dilapidated buildings are
expropriated, and the buildings demolished and rebuilt, in general by a public
firm. Other buildings are rejuvenated, after agreement between the owners
and an official co-investor organisation. The municipality improves living
conditions (through landscaping or the creation of public spaces). France has
applied this procedure with the OPAH (Opérations programmées d'amélioration
de l'habitat – Programs to improve housing). In the North, all cities have
applied the same approach.
• Traditional urban development tools can not be used in regeneration projects
for squatter areas, and are replaced by works of collective interest undertaken
by the public authorities and by initiatives organised by the local populations.

As economic development is the thrust for achieving multiple objectives under

urban regeneration, it is evident that economic instruments have a key role. In
addition to conventional means (taxation, etc.) innovative solutions are required to
support the undertaking, particularly in stimulating non-public sector partners. To
some extent traditional planning tools (transfer of development rights, etc.) can
also be useful, but new instruments are necessary as a basis for public-private
partnerships.

4.2. Institutional Arrangements

In most countries, the State alone makes decisions concerning major urban
regeneration operations, and selects the main contractors since only the State has
the necessary financial resources, as in Tunisia, Algeria, Egypt and Turkey. In other
cases, such as Spain, the decision-maker can be a regional or territorial collectivity,
or a municipality, as in France. As the main public contractor, the State can create
a specific organisation, and grant it mandate to undertake the work: this was the
case in the UK, for the Urban Development Corporations in charge of the
regeneration of large derelict harbour lands such as the London Docklands, and
Cardiff Bay. In France, this is covered by the Etablissements Publics

22
d'Aménagement, as in Marseilles for the current Euroméditerranée operation.
However, in most cities, as in Lyon, Bordeaux and Paris, the municipalities prefer to
create a Société d'Economie Mixte (a type of a group of economic interests) to
carry out the project.

In the old town of Aleppo, an Old City Committee was created by the municipal
authorities to manage the regeneration operations.

The large urban land-owners can develop their own regeneration projects, as in the
case of the RENFE (Spanish railway) in Madrid, the Pasillo Verde Ferroviaro project,
or autonomous ports can play a role, as the one in Barcelona which strongly
contributed to the transformation of the Port Vell. The trend, however, as in Paris,
seems more favourable to an association between the national railways (SNCF) and
the municipal authorities, to initiate the building project, and later sell the building
rights to developers.

The current trend is the establishment of partnerships between institutions,

reduced involvement of the State, and building further empowerment of municipal
authorities which are sensitive to local issues. This involves contractual financial
arrangements between partners, as for Euroméditerranée where funding is spread
among the State (50%), the city of Marseilles (25%) and other nearby communities
(25%).

If the landowners are private investors, they can be the main contractors for
medium-scale regeneration operations.

In the North, with the liberalisation of the economy, and the financial
disinvolvement or difficulties of public authorities, the State is turning to new
mechanisms and financial arrangements, such as:
• through planning obligations, the technical services of the city may grant a
private developer a planning permission, but request that he constructs and
funds a building of a general interest;
• through leverage, the State initiates the work to prepare and te the area to
be regenerated, then counts on the private sector to pursue the operations, as
on the London Docklands where the private sector contributed £7 for each £1
of the State;
• through public/private partnerships (PPP), a public organisation, such as
a Ministry in the UK, signs a long-term contract with a private group to cover
all the stages of the construction, maintenance and operations of large
projects. The private partner then becomes both the main and sub-contractor
and is paid annually by the client.

In most countries, the participation of the inhabitants is officially requested and

encouraged. People can be involved as early as during the development of the
projects, can contribute to information mechanisms or public surveys. In the South,
this aspect is considered as essential and one to be intensified and better
institutionalised, which presupposes the gradual establishment of new relations
between the local officials, whether elected or appointed, and their technical
services on the one hand, and on the other, among different segments of
populations, or target groups, as in Aleppo, prepared to take part in the monitoring
and maintenance of the regenerated areas.

23
4.3. Results and Evaluation

Urban regeneration was only included in urban policies a few decades ago and its
processes and operations comprise many of the traditional urban development
action plans and procedures. Regeneration attempts to include them in the
dynamics of multipurpose projects, challenges which stem from the deep-rooted
social and economic forces inherent to the city. Some Mediterranean cities have
already implemented regeneration strategies worthy of assessment, which will be
helpful for the cities where considerable malfunctions persist. Several case studies
in the North and the South, have yielded a series of observations which can make
urban authorities aware of the resources offered by urban regeneration, in response
to the current intense societal transformations they have to face.

In the cities where urban marketing is a tool, the awareness of urban regeneration
is high. Medium or small-size cities can launch their own urban regeneration
programs, but they must take into account the threshold effects, which modify the
signs of malfunctions. They must not simply apply the larger metropolitan
solutions, and need to make the appropriate choices in the Urban Regeneration
toolkit, according to the scope and priorities of their projects.

The costs of urban regeneration does not initially seem larger than that of urban
spread, and can, over time, be justified in national accounting terms by reduced
land consumption, fewer circulation flows, smaller infrastructure networks to create
and maintain. However, the questions remain whether the Urban Regeneration
choices truly respond to social demands, and if the costs of more compact cities will
be accepted.

On the other hand, the availability of cultural and sanitary facilities and other
services in regenerated cities may triumph over the dream of the neo-rural
individual home. It is one of the challenges of sustainable development for future
generations.

The evaluations of some of the large Urban Regeneration operations in the

Mediterranean show highly improved built-up surfaces and living conditions in the
city centre, including the districts developed until the World War Two. In these
large areas, Urban Regeneration can motivate maintenance operations, and the
return to clean Mediterranean environments and societies. But the extension of
suburbs, the spatial spread, the creation of sub-centres around the city, hedge
cities, play a role in the metropolitanisation process, which generates anonymous
and universal cities. This challenge should be analysed further.

In all urban areas where Urban Regeneration is efficient, it is important to know

that there may be winners and losers, and attempts must be made to control the
degree of these uneven outcomes. It is furthermore important to determine which
groups will benefit from Urban Regeneration: permanent residents, employees,
occasional visitors, or urban tourists.

The implementation of Urban Regeneration is sometimes complicated by the

following:
• the inertia of the existing technical structures which are slow in understanding
and assimilating the changes in social demand and in the economy;

24
• the attitude of developers to limit their proposals to a single urban project,
without paying attention to ever-more complex interplay between the actors,
decision-makers, users and builders;
• the disinvolvement of the State or the financial weakness of local collectivities
can lead to partial gentrification, which in turn can result in reducing social
exchanges and movements.
• the anticipated impacts, whether positive or negative, that any Urban
Regeneration operation may generate on neighbouring territories.

Urban Regeneration assessment matrices must be developed, and should include:

• the relevant qualitative and quantitative criteria,
• the tools and cost/benefit indicators over the short, medium and long term,
concerning such major options as the creation of play or leisure areas,
• the positive or negative external effects of urban regeneration projects,
• the alignment of urban composition options with the practices and life style of
the inhabitants, such as in the creation of public space, which may impact
traditional habits and customs,
• the reconciliation between sustainable development objectives and the need of
populations for tradition, while avoiding the museumification of old city
districts and maintaining the quest for new economic activities.

The role of local inhabitants remains one of the weak links of Urban Regeneration
and requires research for new means of intervention at all stages of Urban
Regeneration operations.

In many countries of the South, it is necessary to create or strengthen the initial or

continuous training facilities, to train technical staff in the basics, as well as in
behaviour, perspective outlook, tools and multidisciplinary knowledge.

25
Three Models of Urban Regeneration

The London Docklands (1981-1998)

The 2,200 ha of this territory are wedged in the Eastern London urban fabric,
composed of 710 ha of derelict lands and 180 ha of water. The docks were highly
polluted and needed to be decontaminated. Approximately 40,000 workers lived on
site, in old housing, devoid of comfort. All sea-related or industrial activities either
ceased or were relocated, leaving the surface available for the creation of “a new city
in the city”.
The State selected the legally and financially strong London Docklands Development
Corporation (LDDC) as the main contractor, to work on the new land assembly, to
develop the project and carry it out, and sell building rights to private developers.
The approach was largely empirical, without a plan, without rigorous zoning
specifications. The LDDC negotiated with developers whose suggestions were most
often accepted. The emphasis was placed on multiple functions and landscaping to
preserve as many existing buildings as possible, such as renovated warehouses and
the full heritage of the sea-related past. The project also entailed the planting of
150,000 trees.
Global assessment:

the population grew to 80,000 inhabitants, and was largely renewed with the arrival
of middle-class. 19,000 new dwellings were constructed to be sold and 7,700 town
housing flats were renovated;

the local economy was entirely transformed: 2,3 million m2 of surface were built up
for light industries (printing) and service activities; and on Canary Wharf, 1 million
m2 of office space were created.

a university was built.

many high quality hotels were built in the area.
In all, 100,000 jobs were created, versus 27,000 before the project.
The weak point was the insufficient commuter service of the Light Railway, but this
issue was also solved by the State-aided construction of the Jubilee Line.

Barcelona (1979-2003)

In Barcelona, regeneration involves highly heterogeneous territories, all more or less

included in full renovation operations or in specific rehabilitation programs.
The first area covered was the old port, where all activity had long ceased,
representing 56 ha of platforms, docks and piers. The U.R. project focused on
commercial and leisure developments, and the creation of public space. At a later
stage, in view of the Olympic Games, industrial derelict lands were used to erect 150
ha of sports buildings and athletes' housing, today fully-owned properties, a marina,
and 40 ha of public space.
U.R. was also applied to the old workers district of Barcelonetta, where the owners
were encouraged by the public authorities and financial contributions to renovate
rental housing, to maintain the same population.

26
A larger U.R. operation is now underway in the old town, where a Plan, or PERI, has
been drawn up to rehabilitate 17,000 lodgings. 4,200 obsolete buildings have been
torn down and others turned into cultural centres.
U.R. is now being implemented in the North-Eastern districts of the city, with the
creation of a new Library and University.

Marseilles – Euroméditerranée

This operation was launched in 1995, for a 15-year period, to rejuvenate a clearly
determined perimeter of 310 ha in the city centre: old housing, harbour surfaces,
warehouses, railways and a train station for high-speed trains (TGV).
The State appointed as the main contractor a public organisation, benefiting from the
financial support of the State and local authorities. The expertise and projects of this
organisation must be aligned with those of the still active autonomous port and of the
Municipality.
The initial assessment, although temporary, clearly shows:

new activities, focused on cultural (Palais de la Méditerranée) and artistic fields
(transformation of a tobacco factory);

rejuvenated warehouses to host offices and high-tech centres, as well as business
headquarters;

large surfaces dedicated to the creation of open public space, in agreement with the
Port authorities;

restoration of dilapidated districts, turned into ghettos, and probable gentrification;

emergence of stronger centrality, with the modernised TGV station.
The site should soon be able to renew and host twice its initial population (30,000
people) and offer 30,000 jobs.
Operations will be conducted over 8 strategic sites, as a result of the strong degree of
heterogeneity of the Euro-Mediterranean territory.

27
CHAPTER FIVE

5. Managing the Intervention

After the inception and planning of an urban regeneration process the most
important part is its onalisation. It includes preparing for its implementation,
mobilising a multiplicity of relevant actors as partners, securing and allocating
financial and other resources required, establishing a mechanism of monitoring and
evaluation to steer the intervention, utilising the appropriate technical expertise,
putting in place the necessary organisational arrangements, securing the
institutional support which might be required, employing the entire range of
available instruments (legal/regulatory, economic, etc.) and a range of other types
of considerations which are crucial for such complex undertakings. Often, the
management of the intervention is underestimated and becomes a major source of
political, social, economic and environmental frustrations.

5.1. Public Participation and Partnerships

Public participation and partnerships are key elements in contemporary urban

planning and management. Therefore, a process of urban regeneration should be
based on mobilising local communities and their key actors to share and contribute
to a collective effort of improving urban areas. In many of the Mediterranean
countries this would start evidently from the co-operation of different actors and
stakeholders, such as public sector agencies, local authorities, regional and national
agencies responsible for physical planning and urban management, as well as the
residents and local community. It is widely recognised, however, that a broader
range of actors is essential in such complex undertakings, such as entrepreneurs,
professional and business associations, Non Governmental Organisations, etc.

Such partnerships, in the context of an urban regeneration process, could:

• provide a clear picture of a city’s characteristics, problems, prospects and
needs;
• form a shared vision for the city;
• identify common needs and priorities for urban regeneration;
• promote commitment to the implementation of the project;
• generate necessary funding for project implementation and follow up.

For partnerships to be effective, clear and widely accepted rules should be first
developed in respect to distribution of roles, framework of co-operation, etc.,
including the legitimisation of decisions, meaning the provision of the legal basis to
support the decision-making process.

The importance of establishing partnerships is widely recognised, especially public-

private ones, as a means of securing realistic sources of urban regeneration
funding, but also providing new ideas, more efficiency and entrepreneurial spirit.
This kind of partnership does not include the private sector alone, but also the

28
individuals, professionals and civil society organisations. Partnership with the
private sector is sought especially since, in most cases, the public sector does not
dispose of the necessary financial resources. Partnership with the private sector is
also important to the extent that the private sector might be more efficient in
certain types of activities (such as new construction techniques, new technologies,
etc.), or where it might have significant comparative advantages (as for example
where entrepreneurial risks are involved, or in the case of the management of
complex programs etc.).

This process has not been always successful, like in the case of Split, where
partnership has been traditionally developed only in a public-public form and
professionals are not used to act in a free-market environment. In other cases, like
in Aleppo, partnership has been established successfully with various groups, like
residents, professionals and various public institutions.

Partnerships may be established and strengthened among NGOs, the concerned

government agencies and community-based groups. NGOs are seen to be the most
appropriate vehicle for implementing the models on the ground and for being
advocates and catalysts for more democratic polices at the national level, as in the
case of Alexandria.

5.2. Funding

This is, generally, a weak point of urban regeneration and a critical issue.
Traditional approaches (i.e. urban renewal, etc.) have often failed because of the
difficulties to invest, in a long-term perspective, huge funds which are often lacking
or for which other needs are competing. Key to the entire urban regeneration is to
use public funds as catalysts to be complemented by non-public sources.
Concessions, auto-financing, and a wide range of economic instruments are
available, but in the end the very basis of urban regeneration is to rely on the
development of economic opportunities. Therefore, a good understanding of the
market and its mechanisms is indispensable.

In addition, it is necessary to develop early on a strategy within which it would be

necessary to develop opportunities for innovative ways for Public Private
Partnerships. The funding strategy is probably the most critical component of the
entire process, particularly as it requires a flexible approach which is not always
amenable through public administrative systems operating with rigid rules.

The Limited experience shows that the main sources of funding are private and
local authority funds, while there are also forms of co-financing between local
authorities and central government, as well as between the local authorities and
private partners. For financially weak regions, the basic support comes from the
inhabitants of the communities involved in urban regeneration projects.
International organisations and funds such as METAP, European Investment Bank,
EuroMed Heritage II, UNESCO, and Council of Europe can also be utilised.

The EU Structural Funds provide significant funding for European cities, like Athens
and Barcelona. In Greece, for example, economic and regional development is
basically realised through the Community Support Frameworks (1st, 2nd and 3rd)
that are the EU funds channelled to the country. In other cases international
organisations, like the German Agency for Technical Co-operation (GTZ) and the
Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development (for Aleppo), play a relevant role.

29
In other cases, like in Tunis and Split, funding is mainly based on the availability of
public local and national sources.

Although Istanbul is the biggest city of Turkey, it is still financially weak and needs
to be supported by higher-level authorities in executing regeneration and other
similar activities. However the financial support by the state authorities for that
kind of activities is virtually zero, so the basic support is mainly left to private
initiative, especially from residents and professionals involved in those projects.

5.3. Monitoring and Evaluation

As urban regeneration interventions are complex and long-term, it is necessary to

provide for flexibility to cope with uncertainties and problems which might emerge.
As a consequence, an essential component of any urban regeneration project is a
monitoring and evaluation system. The two components are closely interrelated and
integrated providing information for decision-making, serving two complementary
functions: an account of what exists and an assessment of its achievements
(successes and failures). These should include the following:
• Monitoring – This is a description of the basic conditions in the urban area
where the urban regeneration is taking place. Such a description refers to the
economic, social and environmental characteristics and functions, its
problems, etc.
• Evaluation – This is an assessment of the change in terms of achieving the set
goals and objectives. The evaluation function has two important aspects: one
is to assess whether the strategy is still valid (whether the goals and
objectives are still acceptable as desirable ends), and the other whether there
has been progress in terms of these objectives (achievement part).

In practice, this means the establishment of a multiple system dealing with the
progress in programming, reaching the goals and objectives set, assessing the
impacts on society, economy, environment and the city function in general, etc.

5.4. City Marketing

Marketing and promotion has already been identified as a key component of urban
regeneration. It is evident though that a longer-term view would require
capitalising on the benefits of urban regeneration towards strategic goals of
attracting economic activities as the basis for social and economic development of
the city. This often falls under the term of city marketing, or the search for new
roles for a city by promoting business, cultural, educational and other modern
sector activities, including tourism.

Urban regeneration projects contribute to the improvement of the image of the city,
and make it more attractive not only for the residents but also for tourists and
visitors, like in Barcelona, Aleppo and Athens. Furthermore, it creates a more
attractive environment for investors, revitalising further the local economy

5.5. Governance and Participation

In most countries, the public participation procedure is recognised as essential to a

successful implementation of projects on urban regeneration, and is secured by law

30
in the preparation of plans through obligatory public hearing activities. Local
communities can be involved in the early stages, as well as during the development
of the projects, contributing to the information mechanisms or public surveys.
However, the public participation procedure is not always applied and the citizens
are mostly passive receivers of information, giving them a wrong perception of the
spatial planning system as a restrictive mechanism setting only limits.

A successful example of involvement of local communities has been applied in

Aleppo where the participation procedure has been addressed to specific target
groups (women and men who live or work in the city, and institutions and
organisations, such as the Women's Union, the Chamber of Commerce, and the
neighbourhood committees), and diversified accordingly. This procedure, new for
the country, has resulted successful in gaining support and consensus from local
communities. In other cases, like in Istanbul, the same residents promoted the
public participation activities.

5.6. Project Sustainability

To assure sustainability of the projects of urban regeneration it is of a basic

importance to have properly trained staff and availability of professionals. In
addition, it will be necessary to encourage the local and national authorities to
allocate more funding, since the process of rehabilitation reflects high economic
benefits and returns for the city and the country above and beyond its important
cultural value, as well as to encourage the involvement and participation of
international donors. It will also be necessary to secure a much higher participation
and involvement by the local private sector, to intensify and institutionalise the
residents' participation, and to have an effective co-ordination among agencies and
stakeholders.

Some of these actions have been undertaken in the cities under study. For example
in Aleppo, to assure sustainability of the project, the administration and staff of
the directorate slowly merged with those of the Project while gaining benefits from
its experience and capacities. Training of the Old City staff started at the beginning
of the Project, covering technical, administrative and foreign language capacities
subjects, as well as other activities, like communications with the citizens and
preparation of the participation process. In Alexandria, for example, a follow-up
committee is foreseen to be established. Its main tasks are to encourage a people-
centred approach to upgrading urban slums, and to co-ordinate among agencies,
NGOs and donors. The follow-up committee will be trained in participatory
management and gender responsiveness and, at the Governorate level, on
participatory and integrated planning.

31
32
ANNEX I: Case Studies

Urban Regeneration: Aleppo

Project Project of Rehabilitation of Old Aleppo (1992)

Problems Alteration of the urban fabric of the Old City of Aleppo: around 20% of the old
fabric have been destroyed by the execution of the Master Plan through the
destruction of traditional courtyard houses.
Goals Preserve the valuable and unique fabric of the Old City and slow down the
deterioration of its residential zones.
Repair and rehabilitation of one or more of the run-down districts to test and
support general rehabilitation planning.
Actions • Immediate actions for emergency home repair for the lower income families
and restoration of dilapidated public infrastructure;
• Preparation of a rehabilitation study based on physical, social and economic
survey to create a land-use plan and a development scheme;
• Suggest an institutional set-up to upgrade the rules and regulations of the
administration, and train staff towards sustainability;
• Seek the involvement of all the relevant local and international institutions
and expand the source of funding;
• Start the implementation during the planning phase, and evaluate the results
to adapt the ongoing planning process accordingly.
Actors Municipality, German Agency for Technical Co-operation (GTZ), Arab Fund for
and Economic and Social Development, Aga Khan Trust of Culture, Syrian
partners Government
Results • Pilot project. A working plan was prepared in co-operation with the
inhabitants, and a general survey of physical and socio-economic conditions
of the Old City of Aleppo was conducted, followed by the preparation of a
general land-use plan. Several actions were carried out in a pilot area:
replacement of the old sewer and water systems, rehabilitation of street
facades, rehabilitation of a historical religious school building and its
transformation in a community center and medical point, restoration of a
small structure to be used as a kindergarten, rehabilitation of 3 mosques,
implementation of a new traffic plan.
• Loan Fund. An Emergency Loan Fund was established for owners and renters
of homes to cover basic repairs, providing as well assistance and supervising
of the execution.
• Economic development. Study on the private business character of the Old
City and preparation of a Subject Plan Urban Economy.
• Participation. Implementation of a participation scheme (new for the
administration) from the very beginning of the project addressed to defined
target groups (women and men who live and work in the Old City, women's
associations, chamber of commerce, neighbourhood committees) in several
forms.
• Institutional Set-up. On the institutional side, the City created a special
administration for the project directly related with the Mayor and the
Executive Committee. This dramatically decreased the bureaucracy for the
related public and private dealing with the Old City affairs. The Old City staff
was also trained since the beginning of the project on technical,
administrative and foreign language capacity subjects.

33
 • Protection of historical and architectural heritage. The project upgraded,
updated and supplied with guidelines for rehabilitation methodology, building
codes that regulate the restoration and rehabilitation of traditional houses.
• Land use. A general land-use plan dedicated to the confirmation of the
residential use of the Old City of Aleppo was adopted, and detailed land-use
plans of the action areas were also geared towards this goal.
• Traffic. General traffic plans for the City were developed to reduce traffic in
the Old City.
• Environment. Plans were developed concerning air, water and noise
pollution, solid waste collection and disposal, proper energy use and for a
greening program.
Lessons Several difficulties were faced during the implementation of the pilot project,
learnt but they served as lessons for the implementation of new interventions, which
had smoother communication with the residents and users, better co-ordination
and execution, faster, more efficient and more professional completion of the
work. However, major aspects need attention and improvement, like:
• A better and more independent organisational set-up must be adopted.
• Participation should be intensified and institutionalised.
• Awareness campaigns at the city and country levels should be widened, and
increased at the levels of schools, universities, public institutions and the
media.
• Funding by local and private economic actors, international donors and
institutions, local and national authorities should be encouraged.

34
Urban Regeneration: Alexandria

Projects/ Project proposal for Urban Regeneration in the Slum Areas of Alexandria
programs
Problems • Rapid urbanisation and overcrowding leading to congestion of
communication, transport, mobility, energy, water and waste discharge and
incapacity to accommodate the continuos expansion of the socio-economic
activities;
• Deterioration of buildings and insufficient infrastructure;
• Increase of school drops-out.
Goals • Improve the quality of life of the inhabitants of the selected slums through
community-based participatory models in collaboration with NGOs and
relevant government agencies;
• Enhance the provision of community-based integrated basic services for the
vulnerable urban poor in selected urban districts;
• Empower communities by increasing their problem solving, management and
negotiation skills;
• Promote the formulation of people participation at the national basis for
urban regeneration policy and support;
• Improve the quality of inhabitants' life, and protect the environment by
positive steps forward to achieve a delicate balance between social,
economic and environment issues.
Actions Review and preparation of a draft report on the existing status, the
foreseen enumeration district census, and the environmental conditions using index
indicators.
Actors
and
partners
Results
Lessons
learnt

35
Urban Regeneration: Athens

Projects/ • Community Support Frameworks (1st, 2nd and 3rd);

programs • The Master Plan for Athens (SPA);
• The organisation of the Olympic Games (OG) in Athens in 2004;
• Urban initiative of the European Commission;
• Operational Program for the Attica Region (2000-2006);
• “Attica SOS” program.
Problems • Planning and control have limited contribution to the growth of the city, thus
“illegal” settlements being widespread; limited open spaces and green areas,
high densities in the central as well as the old residential areas, extended
peripheral areas with relatively low densities;
• Critical traffic congestion and pollution problem;
• Environmental problems: inefficiencies of the collection system, limited
number of landfill sites and existence of illegal waste disposal sites, air and
noise pollution.
Goals The 2nd Regional Operational Program for Attica (1994-1999): rehabilitation of
the ecological balance, improvement of the quality of life, support and
restructuring (spatial organisation) of the productive sector, reinforcement of
economic and social cohesion and reinforcement of autonomous economic and
social cohesion;
The 3rd Community Support Framework (2000-2006) sets as main fields with
priority for action: transportation networks, energy sector, environmental
protection, telecommunications and education;
Organisation of the Olympic Games: construction of the Olympic Village and
some athletic infrastructures and adaptation of other athletic infrastructures to
the needs of the Olympic Games;
Operational Program for the Attica Region (2000-2006): Confrontation of
climate change; decrease of emissions of air pollutants; decrease and rational
management of solid waste; integrated water resource management;
confrontation of desertification; Protection of biodiversity and natural habitats;
and sustainable management of forest resources.
Actions The 2nd Regional Operational Program consisted of six sub-programs:
Environment and quality of life (water and sewage systems, waste
management, projects aiming at flood prevention, regeneration of coastal
areas, health services); Development interventions and improvement of traffic
flows (transportation, rehabilitation of productive built-environment, specific
interventions for the deteriorated areas, tourism and culture, research, support
of productive activities, primary sector/infrastructure, secondary
sector/relocation, tertiary sector); Human resources (training, infrastructure,
unemployment and social exclusion); Strengthening of the organisation of Local
Authorities (basic infrastructure, quality of life); Finalisation of incomplete
projects scheduled during the 1st CSF; and Technical support.
Olympic Games: Construction of the Olympic village and athletic facilities in the
coastal zone of Faliro and renovation of other athletic infrastructure. A
significant number of other projects, mainly in respect to the transportation
sector, have also been scheduled and are currently implemented: the
construction of various road axes of metropolitan significance and the new
extensions of the underground.
Operational Program for the Attica Region (2000-2006). Specifically:
• Water resources management. Initiatives include: Delimitation of streams,
completion of flooding prevention infrastructure, establishment of waste

36
 water treatment plants, water supply interventions.
• Solid waste management. Initiatives and projects in relation to infrastructure
and equipment for recycling, collection and transportation, establishment of
landfill sites.
• Protection of biodiversity and natural habitats. Restoration of urban and
coastal areas, support of green and recreation areas, protection and
promotion of habitats and areas with high ecological value.
• Forest management. Actions include: widening of forest road network,
precautionary and forest protection projects (i.e. creation of special zones),
works against soil erosion, elaboration of management plans, etc.
Actors • General Secretariat of the Region of Attica;
and • Ministry of the Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works;
partners • Athens 2004.
Results The OG are expected to have several positive impacts, although not yet clearly
appreciated. They are expected to contribute to the increase of visitors,
international investments, international conferences and cultural events, etc.
OG could also serve as a catalyst to accelerate programming and the realisation
of several projects, which are parts of several programs. In the area of Athens
several projects are currently under implementation as part of the 3rd
Community Support Framework. These kinds of interventions can be organised
in the following sub groups: projects that aim at the rehabilitation, renovation,
improvement of houses, open spaces, public spaces, gyms, major networks like
roads, etc., that had suffered serious damages during the earthquake in
September 1999; projects that aim at the rehabilitation of the archaeological
sites and monuments of the city of Athens; and projects which aim at the
amelioration of the image and functioning of Athens-Attica, in relation to the
Olympic Games. Several projects have been implemented or are currently
under implementation aiming at the improvement of the accessibility and
transport not only within the city, but also between the city and the rest of the
country.
Lessons Athens possesses one of the lowest values in attractiveness and competitiveness
learnt indicators as compared to other European metropolitan areas. The constraints
are not only related to spatial or environmental factors but include issues related to
stability, economic conjuncture, labour market, investments, bureaucracy and the
lack of effectiveness of the public sector. Future actions need to concentrate on
integrated programs for anticipating the critical problems of Athens and on
localized interventions, which will accentuate its advantages and will also provide
the credit, the prestige and the status of an international metropolitan area.
The organisation of the Olympic Games in Athens in 2004 has proved to be a
unique challenge. There was a major effort to regulate development at a lower
level through Master Plans of a local character. As a result regulation of
development and land-uses was stronger at a local level, and Athens developed
in many respects outside the provisions of its Master Plan. In parallel, urban
planning is strongly influenced by principles which bear no relevance to modern
conceptualisations of planning such as: emphasis on building controls and
avoidance of land use planning, maintenance of the traditional system of
planning tools–with the exception of the problematic efforts of utilising the
transfer of development rights and overriding role of programming (and partial
implementation) of major transportation system interventions.
A major failure of the planning system is the control of urban expansion which
is the end-result of a strong suburbanisation. Another failure is the lack of
control on the linear concentration of commercial and office uses along major
transport axes. Also, urban design interventions which, although implemented
through the 3rd Regional Operational Program, do not follow the respective
institutional framework.

37
Urban Regeneration: Barcelona

Projects/ • General Metropolitan Plan of Barcelona 1976;

programs • Special Plans of Internal Reforms (PERI);
• Definition of the New Central Zones (ZCN);
• Integral Procedure Plan (PAI);
• Municipal Action Plan (PAM) 2000-2003;
• Strategic Plan of Barcelona 2000.
Problems Degradation and depopulation of the historical core, over-population inflow in
other districts, uncontrolled urban expansion in the industrial area.
Goals Promote, direct and co-ordinate the respect of urban plans in the metropolitan
area and permit the approval of General Metropolitan Plan of 1976.
Actions • 1979-1983: micro-surgical interventions and construction of the city inside
the urban spaces of the progressive period;
• 1983-1986: management of the new central spaces and recuperation of the
declined spaces of the historical core;
• 1986-1992: use change of obsolete spaces (Villa Olimpica, Port Vell),
amelioration of the infrastructures (peripheral route) and recuperation of the
declined spaces of the historical core;
• 1992-…: retraining operation of the public spaces, in the traditional quarters,
use change of obsolete spaces (Sagrega, Diagonal Mar, Besos), rehabilitation
of Eixample (central quarter) and recuperation of the declined spaces of the
historical core;
• 1999: new urban development: emphases is given to knowledge, culture and
sustainability.
Actors Metropolitan Corporation of Barcelona
and
partners
Results • 1979-1983. Approval of the Special Plans of Internal Reforms which foresaw
several interventions, like territorial organisation of public spaces, i.e. green
areas, mainly aimed to correct the errors of the past urban planning. These
actions served to show to all the citizens that democracy lead to a change of
the head of the city and that the local government can take the role of a
leader in these transformations.
• 1983-1986. Preparation of a big urban transformation project to prepare the
city for the candidature for the Olympic Games: recuperation and
organisation of the metropolitan littoral and of the metropolitan park of the
Sierra de Collserola.
• 1986-1992. Big urban transformation interventions for the Olympic Games
also with relevant socio-economic impacts, like the remodel of the sea front
and the decision to locate there the Olympic village. There were three types
of projects: amelioration and amplification projects of the general and basic
systems of the city (railway system reform, sanitation plan,
telecommunication plan, mobility procedure), projects which needed for their
execution an above-municipal level (conventions, agreements between
different administrations), and projects which reorient the development
towards new zones. The most significant project was the reform of the Moll
de la Fusta (1987) which concerns the organisation of the façade of the
Ciutat Vella and its relationship with the sea, establishing a unitary special
structure beginning with recuperation of the public use of the hangar of the
port.
• 1992-…. Among the big urban operations of the last years there are:

38
 development of big logistic and distribution infrastructures, further
development of the sea front including the development of the whole zone of
Port Vell, development of the Diagonal in a big boulevard which led to the
construction of the one of the best residential zones of the city, and solution
of the degradation problems of the Zone of Poble Nou, consolidation of the
new business zones, continuation of the renovation of the Ciutat Vella and
Eixample, and transformation of the northern zone of the city through
several amelioration projects of communication and transport.
• 1999. Conversion of the industrial zone of Poblenou in a residential and
tertiary-industrial combined zone in relation to the knowledge economy with
a modification of the 1976 General Metropolitan Plan. The modification to
this plan stimulated the investments in infrastructure for knowledge in this
zone. Preparation of an Equipment Plan and a Special Infrastructure Plan.
Organisation of the Universal Forum of Culture 2004 as a tool to create high-
level infrastructures in a zone of Barcelona.
Lessons The transformation of the city has been mainly for the organisation of the
learnt Olympic Games of 1992. However, it has been possible thanks to the
combination of several factors.
The renovation process in Barcelona is the result of a democratic process. All
the renovation operations have been realised with a strong public economic
contribution and leadership which incorporated all the existing administrations
in the territory (at national, regional and local levels). The participation of the
private sector was very important as well, especially in the use change and
historic core recuperation operations.
The renovation process of the 1990s obtained the consensus of the citizens on
the strategy and the execution of the projects. This consensus permitted to
maintain the revitalising impulse of the city, to incorporate the different
sensibilities of the citizens on the final results. In conclusion, social consensus
and the institutional settings are important, as well as strategy and leadership.

39
Urban Regeneration: Istanbul

Projects/ A number of regeneration efforts have been made in Istanbul in the form of
programs gentrification during the past two decades as a consequence of economic
reconstructing in several neighbourhoods: Kuzguncuk, Cihangir, Galata, Balat,
Beyoglu.
Problems • Neglect of historical and cultural heritage of the city: physical and functional
deterioration;
• Uncontrolled city expansion due to high population growth;
• Lack of co-ordination among the central government, local authorities, and
the NGOs;
• Destruction of old buildings with no serious sanctions, existence of buildings
abandoned for demolition, unauthorised intervention by the owners.
Goals Kuzguncuk: Economic and physical rehabilitation through gentrification process;
Cihangir: Rehabilitation and reconstruction of the neighbourhood, stop to the
demolition of historic buildings and construction of an apartment house;
Beyoglu: Regeneration of the neighbourhood as a whole.
Actions Kuzguncuk: Old houses rehabilitation through private initiatives; restoration of
historical buildings, upgrading of communal areas and creation of new facilities
for local residents, improvement of social and cultural interaction among
residents and improvement of the environmental quality of the neighbourhood;
Cihangir: Renovation of historical buildings by private owners with the help of
several foundations and municipality departments;
Galata: Gentrification of a small part of the district, organisation of festivals and
other cultural activities to attract people in the area;
Balat: Rehabilitation of several buildings;
Beyoglu: The municipality began to implement a beautification project in the
main street of the Beyoglu district and ordered 220 shops to clean their
facades, and to renew or remove advertisement panels on the walls.
Actors Kuzguncuk: Professionals and local residents;
and Cihangir: Residents, Cihangir Beautification Foundation (architects,
partners professionals and residents);
Galata: Residents, architects and journalists;
Balat: UNESCO;
Beyoglu: Metropolitan Municipality of Istanbul, Municipality of Beyoglu and
Mimar Sinan University.
Results Kuzguncuk: Community mobilisation increased cultural events (plays,
workshops and summer schools for children, etc). It represents a model of
successful conservation of a valuable social and physical environment through
modern democratic process like participation, integration of local initiative,
transparency, mediation and co-operation.
Cihangir: Renovation of historic buildings; change in resident social structure
with the afflux of middle and upper-middle class families, professionals,
academics and artists, construction of few modern apartment houses.
Galata: Old buildings maintenance and repair, change in the physical
appearance of the neighbourhood, increase of real estate prices, increase of
commercial transaction of small businesses.
Balat: It is expected that the existing investment trends coupled with the
opening of universities, hotels, art galleries and a miniature park, and a

40
 planned International Centre of Congress and Cultural Activities will greatly
contribute to the regeneration and revitalisation of the neighbourhood.
Beyoglu: Progress has been achieved in ensuring the unity and coherence in
terms of the contents and size of advertisements panels, whilst renovation and
cleaning attempts have generally failed.
Lessons Due to the lack of state support in most of the presented cases (Kuzguncuk,
learnt Cihangir and Galata) renovation is the reflection of social and cultural
specification of the area: most residents are intellectuals and artists that look
for a particular lifestyle. Most renovation activities were undertaken by
residents, promoting community participation in efforts to improve living
environment. The social change prompted a change in the dwelling stock in
response of increasing demand.
Balat is an example of institutional gentrification. The expectations of an
internationally supported project which promised investments in the
neighbourhood induced the prospective gentrifiers to stay in the quarter.

41
Urban Regeneration: Split

Projects/ The city has not yet completed any project that could entirely match the
programs definition of urban regeneration but there were a number of attempts to solve
complex urban problems and to bring improvements in different parts of the
city. Three main projects are:
1. Preparation of an Integrated Plan of the Historic Core of Split (early 1980s);
2. Preparation of Spatial Plan for the port area (end of 1980s);
3. AFCO project (end of 1990s);
4. Rehabilitation of the peripheral, mostly illegally built suburbs (currently
under consideration).
Problems • Physical, social and economic decadence of the city core;
• The port area underwent a number of mostly unplanned transformations
during the past two centuries;
• Lack of adequate infrastructure, public space and service (sewerage system
and appropriate road network) in the illegally built suburbs.
Goals 1. Rehabilitation of the complex urban structure of the historic city core
physically and socio-economically, and provision of legal and institutional
basis for rehabilitation;
2. Development of the entire area of the city port;
3. Transformation of the entire port area in a complex tourist zone;
4. Rehabilitation of the peripheral, mostly illegally built suburbs (currently
under consideration).
Actions 1. Analysis and evaluation of the building stock, economic and financial
conditions and social conditions in the city core;
2. Detailed analysis of the physical, socio-economic and environmental
aspects; preparation of several studies (e.g. on the conditions of the sea
and the maritime aspects of the port);
3. Radical change in the function of the city port from were all port and railway
functions were to be removed, transformation of the social and urban
function of the historic core to a exclusively reception and attraction place
for tourists.
Actors 1. Professional institutions – Institute for protection of monuments, Town
and Planning Institute and Institute for Management of Business Premises - and
partners the Municipality;
2. Town Planning Institute, City Development Agency;
3. Airports Facility Company;
4. Municipality and the Community of Sirobuja.
Results City centre The plan, which had the characteristics of an urban regeneration
approach, ended in a traditional detailed plan because of the lack of
implementation of legal and institutional framework. The project was based on
a detailed analysis and simultaneous adaptation of all conclusions,
comprehensive strategy for problem solution, use of resources, typical of the
regeneration process. However, there was not a clear quantification of the
objectives, while an implementation program, wide participation-based
consensus and monitoring evaluation were missing, as well as legal and
financial sources for implementation.
Port area In spite of the number of attempts the regeneration of the city port
remains a problem to be solved since both projects presented were missing
some important characteristics since no project was implemented. However the

42
 first project, which had a number of characteristics in common with urban
regeneration principles, lacked some important characteristics, like ownership
problems and funding, so it could be considered more a spatial plan than a
regeneration project. In the AFCO project, a full-scale participation process was
missing, the problems and needs of the people and of city resources were
completely ignored and it was based mainly on economic aspects.
Illegally Built Areas: the project is still under consideration. A similar previous
project had already been prepared in the past but it was not implemented
mainly because of controversies over the detailed plan between the Municipality
and the local community.
Lessons • Lack of a national urban strategy, and inadequate public funding and support
learnt for urban generation projects;
• Inadequate sectoral co-ordination – broken links between the urban planning
system, land taxation policy, social assessments, urban land improvement
and infrastructure development;
• Public participation and partnership are quite undeveloped in Croatia.
Therefore it is very important to develop participation methods and
partnerships when preparing the city projects;
• Lack of local political will to implement legal and strategic provisions, city
administration “sit and wait” attitude, risk-free mentality.

43
Urban Regeneration: Tunis

Projects/ The regeneration process as part of the spatial and economic planning
programs procedure, which in Tunis based on the following:
• Economic and Social Development Plan;
• Directive Management Schemes (SDA);
• Communal Management Plan (PAC).
Problems • High population growth rate (the population tripled in the past 50 years);
• Spontaneous and uncontrolled urban development especially in the low
classes inhabited areas;
• Social and economic disbalances between the various districts of the city.
Goals • Conversion of the colonial structure of the cities and territories;
• Relative control of the rapid urbanisation and of the demographic pressure.
Actions • Rehabilitation a posteriori of the low classes inhabited areas allowing
spontaneous and uncontrolled urbanisation;
• Technical and economic support in the planning process in the middle classes
inhabited areas.
Actors Spatial Planning is responsibility of a wide number of administrative bodies,
and like: Unique Agency of Urban Rehabilitation and Renovation (ARRU), Ministry of
partners Services and Housing (Ministere de l’Equipement et de l’Habitat), Ministry of
Internal Affairs, Ministry of the Environment with the Agency for the Protection
of the Littoral (APAL) and National Agency for Environmental Protection (ANPE),
Ministry of Spatial Planning, Ministry of Transport
Results • Sanitation of unhealthy housing conditions;
• Satisfaction of basic housing needs;
• Generalisation of the education and sanitary services;
• Protection and safeguard of the cultural and natural heritage.
Lessons This mixed, controlled and uncontrolled, planning allowed the satisfaction of
learnt basic needs of the population regarding housing, health and education services,
but it also led to the increase of socio-economic disparities, the use of urban
peripheries and countryside for spontaneous and uncontrolled urbanisation,
pollution phenomena from industrial areas and ecological catastrophe. The
limits of this planning system can be identified in the following:
• Formal planning without a spatial and temporal strategy;
• Spatial planning conferred to all the administrative bodies without urban
management;
• Planning without scientific research, knowledge production and know-how
transfer.
Spatial Planning has to be adapted to the needs of modern times through
strategic planning, a participative process involving all the stakeholders,
sustainability.

44
Recommended Literature

• Adair. A. et. al. 2000. “The Financing of urban regeneration”. Land Use Policy. Vol. 17.
pp. 147-56.
• Caiaffa, E. 2003. “La géomatique appliquée à la planification et à la prévision”. IPTS.
No. 76. Sevilla.
• Chaline, C. 1996. Les villes du monde arabe. Paris: A. Colin.
• Chaline, C.1999. La regeneration urbain. Paris: PUF.
• Couch, C. and A. Dennemann. 2000. “Urban regeneration and sustainable
development in Britain”. Cities. Vol. l7. No. 2. pp.137-147.
• Deben, L. et al. 1992. “Culture and urban regeneration: some European examples”.
Built Environment. Vol. l8. No.2.
• Gordon, D.L.A. 1999. “Implementing urban waterfront redevelopment in an historic
context: a case study of the Boston Naval Shipyard”. Ocean & Coastal Management.
Vol. 42. pp. 909-931.
• Hall, P.1998. Cities of Tomorrow. An intellectual history of urban planning and design
in the twentieth century. Oxford: Blackwell.
• Healey, P. 1995. “The institutional challenge for sustainable urban regeneration”.
Cities. Vol. 12. No. 4. pp. 221-230.
• Imrie, R. and H. Thomas. 1997. “Law, legal struggles and urban regeneration”. Urban
Studies. Vol. 34. No.9.
• IPTS (Institut de Prospective Technologique). 2003. La société de l'information et
l'élargissement de l'U.E., Rapport. Sevilla: Commission européenne.
• Lawless, P. and T. Gore. 1999. “Urban regeneration and transport investment”. Urban
Studies. Vol. 36. No. 3.
• McCarthy, J. 1998. “Reconstruction, regeneration and re-imaging: The case of
Rotterdam”. Cities. Vol. 15. No. 5. pp. 337–344.
• McCarthy, J. 1998. “The regeneration of urban waterfronts”. European Spatial
Research and Policy. Vol. 5. No. 2.
• Monclus, F.J. 2003. “The Barcelona model: an original formula? From reconstruction to
strategic urban projects (1979-2004)”. Planning Perspectives. Vol. l8. No. 4.
• OECD. 2002. “Urban Renaissance. Glasgow: Lessons for Innovation and
Implementation”. Paris: OECD.
• Paulet, S. 2003. “Perspectives on urban greenspace in Europe”. Built Environment.
Vol. 29. No. 2.
• Raco, M. 2003. “Assessing the discourses and practices of urban regeneration in a
growing region”. Geoforum. Vol. 34. pp. 37-55.
• Roberts, P. (Editor) and H. Sykes (Editor). 2000. “Urban Regeneration: A Handbook”.
London: SAGE Publications.
• Rodriguès Malta, R. 2003. “De la conception du port urbain à la gestion de la ville-
port-territoire. Expériences sud-européennes comparées”. Territoires 2020. No. 8.
Paris: DATAR.
• Seo, J-K. 2002. “Re-urbanisation in Regenerated Areas of Manchester and Glasgow:
New Residents and the Problems of Sustainability”. Cities. Vol. 19. No. 2. pp. 113–
121.

45