The Nature of Philosophy 

A. The Definition of Philosophy 

The term “philosophy” is derived from the two Greek words: philos (love) and sophia
(wisdom). So by its root words philosophy mean “love of wisdom,” As love of wisdom,
philosophy is a desire or interest for an intellectual inquiry. It is a discipline not to be
defined but to be inquired into. “Philosophy can’t be defined for it knows no limits just as
the human mind knows no boundaries in its search for the rational explanation of reality
and of man himself.

B.   Philosophy: A Discipline of Questioning

The core in every philosophical inquiry is the discipline of questioning. Anyone who ask
questions is then philosophizing. A question is a conscious search for knowledge. It is
authentic it if involves the three fundamental conditions, as follows:

1.  It is for the knowledge of something;

2.  It is an awareness of ignorance, and;

3.  It is an awareness that there is more to be know

Philosophy as a discipline of questioning can be explained in two points. It is dynamic

and persona. Dynamic in the sense that it is unending series of questions and answers.
“Philosophy is a discipline where the questions are more important that answers and
every answer becomes a new question,” It is personal in the sense that “one man’s
answer to a question may be valid for him but not for the next man. Philosophical
concepts, therefore, are not immutable doctrines. It can’t be formulated in articles of
faith.

C.  The Philosophical Method

Questions and answers are correlative. In arriving at the correct and consistent answer
to a question, the philosophical method of rational analysis and arguments is needed.
Logic, as an art of correct thinking, must always be considered as a tool in facilitating
this method. Honer points out that philosophical inquiry will always demand intellectual
skill and intensive knowledge of the various logical procedures.

Studying Philosophy then should improve our reasoning skills. Philosophical reasoning
is improved when its is critical, rigorous, systematic, and objective or unbiased.

1.  Critical means following the established scientific rules for correct thinking

2.  Rigorous means avoiding inconsistencies and incoherence

3.  Systematic means observing certain order or procedure.

4.  Objective or unbiased means considering things from a disinterested point of view,
honestly considering difficulties and problems, objections, and alternative points of view.

We become more effective not because we discuss and answer all about contentious
issues and problems but because the time we spend in thinking about such issues is
likely to produce in us a rational and independent-minded person who can bring
creativity and productivity to our respective profession and organization. Thinking hard,
therefore, is a valuable experience. The more we do this, the better we get at it.

D. The Major Divisions of Philosophy

Many philosophers summarize the ultimate questions into three: What is real? What can
we know? What is good? With these three basic questions, we have the three major
divisions of philosophy, namely:

1.  Metaphysics - the study of reality or what is real;

2.  Epistemology - the study of knowledge and what we can know;

3.  Ethics - the study of the good.

The Human Person

Division Subject Matter Questions

1.  Metaphysics Study of Reality (1)  What is ultimate reality?
(2) Is it one thing or its
many different things? (3)
Can reality be grasped by
the senses or is it
transcendent? (4) What is
the mind and what is its
relation to the body?
2. Epistemology Study of Knowledge (1)  What is knowledge? (2)
Is knowledge acquired
exclusively through the
senses or by some other
means? (3) How do we
know that what we perceive
through our senses is
correct?
3.  Ethics Study of Human Action (1)  What is right? (2) Are
there any objective standards
of right and wrong? (3) Are
moral values absolute or
relative?
E.  Philosophy and Life

Philosophy is a human need as real as the need for food. It is a need of the mind,
without which man cannot obtain his food or anything else his life requires. The
immortal Socratic statement, “an unexamined life is not worth living,” proves the
practical value of philosophical studies. It was through the different fundamental
questions raised by the philosophers of the past that we achieved better understanding
of ourselves and the world. So long as we continue to ask questions and examine our
lives, philosophy as a discipline, will continue be of interest to any body and will always
have regular status in the academic world.

We live in an age in which philosophy could and should make a difference. Amidst the
many problems and challenges of the times that call for better understanding and
thoughtful evaluation, philosophical reflection is a need which involved yielding results
and improving life. Our broader concerns must, accordingly, focus on the application of
philosophical knowledge and skills to the pressing problems of personal and social life.
As Quito said; philosophy is meant to be lived and not to be speculated upon.

Philosophy is not only a pleasurable activity in its own right; it has practical benefits as
well. It has enormous influences not only on our personal lives but also on the lives of
institutions. Organizations, societies and even our educational systems. Stimulated to
think about ultimate questions, we should study the philosophers of the past to discover
why they thought as they did and what value their thoughts may have in our own life.
Reforms may take place in whatever institutions, be it in governments, churches,
families, marriages, industries, and business because the people involved hold certain
beliefs about what is important, true, real, and significant and about how life should be
ordered. Systems of education follow a society’s philosophic ideas about what children
should be taught and for what purposes. Democratic societies stress that people learn
to think and make choices for themselves. Non-democratic societies discourage such
activities and want their citizens to surrender their own interests to those of the state.
The values and skills taught by the educational system of a society thus reflect the
society’s philosophic ideas of what is important. 

The Three Subject Matters in Philosophy

The three subject matters of philosophy include man, cosmos, and God. These themes
never change. “It is only the method of approach, as well as the treatment of the
subject, have gone considerable change. This is due in part the the flexibility and
ingenuity of the human mind.

“Philosophy is merely an oscillation of the pendulum form one extreme to the other
extreme.” It swings from one point of history to another point. In a specific era of
philosophical history there is a corresponding philosophical approach, as follows:

1. Cosmocentric - This was the approach of the ancient times when the world
was the center of philosophical studies. Man during those times was seen as
a microcosm.
2. Theocentric - The medieval times used this kind of approach. God was the
center of their philosophical studies and man was studied always in relation
to the existence of a supernatural being.
3. Anthropocentric - This is the approach being used in the modern times.
Men becomes the center of philosophical studies. Man is seen as
macrocosm. 

The Evolution of the Subject Title

 Philosophical Anthropology - “Anthropos” is the Greek word “man.” In
Philosophical Anthropology, man is studied only from the physical point of
view leaving behind some other considerations on his human nature. The
basic issues here dwells on the physical composition of man.
 Philosophy of Man - This subject considers man in his totality as being with
realities (physical and spiritiual) and mysteries (e.g. relationships)
surrounding his existence. However, with the advent of feminism, the use of
the word “man” turns out to be gender-biased and inappropriate for the time.
 Philosophy of the Human Person - “Man” and “person” are words that can be
used interchangeably. In fact, there is no man who is not a person. However
there is a little difference we should point out.

“Man,” first and foremost, refers to the living thing we recognize when we take a look at
the world. It is this living thing whom Aristotle called as a “rational animal.” As animal,
man is still just one of the many objects of the world with prestige added to it, that is,
rationality.

“Person,” is originally coined from the Greek word “prosopon,” which means “the mask
worn by an actor.” By historical development, “person” later refers to “the character
himself” or “the character in the stage of life.” In the drama of life, the person is not a
mere object but as “somebody” who directs himself and who claims his rights. Persons,
therefore, have special dignity in contrast to things.

There are person who are not men, like divine persons of God, and angels. Thus, it is
appropriate to couple the word “person” with “human” to make it “human person.”

The Human Person: Individual and Social

The human person is an individual and social being. He or she is an individual in the
sense that he or she has one’s materiality or physicality that differentiates him or her
from others. However, an individual physical human being is also a person. To be a
human person includes both objectivity and subjectivity, both physicality and spirituality.
He has a rational substance that develops his personhood through the choices that he
or she makes. 

“The human person is not an island unto himself. For his survival and belonging needs,
he is not simply a mere member of a socio-cultural group a - mere individual - but he
cooperates with the members of that group. In short, he is also a social being. He is
also a cultural being. “Culture” is rather a broad term as it includes anythings in a given
society. A broad definition of it is that culture is the sum-total of what mankind did in the
past, is currently doing, and will be doing in the future. Culture includes religion,
philosophy, science, technology, art, education, policies, etc. The person develops
socio-cultural relations within society

The Conceptual Framework

The content of this course starts from the consideration of “human existence” This is
what Martin Heidegger called as a “dasein,” which means that man is “thrown into the
world,” or “situated in the world,” It is but a fact that when we exist, our two feet lie flat
on the ground rather than our two arms, that serve as wings, flying above the skies.

As situated, the human persons takes the temporality of human existence. He is in a

journey; a life-time adventure towards an unknown destiny. He has a beginning point
(terminus a quo) and an end point (terminus ad quem). He jas a past, a present, and a
future. In the context of the past, we have to rediscover his old constitutive elements
from the viewpoint of the Pre-Socratic philosophers.

Being temporal, the human person, as perceived by the early Greek philosophers, is
endowed with twofold dimensions, namely, the physical or material dimensions and the
spiritual or immaterial dimension.

The material dimension of the human person is revealed in his objective existence as a
bodily being. He has elements and characteristics similar to the many existing objects in
the world. The immaterial dimension of man includes, among other, the function of
reasoning and the function of willing and choosing. The former is a critical ability of the
mind. Throughout the early Greek philosophical civilization, “human reason” has always
been the center of discussion. In the modern-contemporary ear, the issue of “human
freedom” gains more attention.

The human existence, physical, intellectual, free and moral is immersed into the world
with various experiences, and relations. Existentialist philosophers do not inquire into a
generalized or universal human existence. Instead they focus more in individual
experiences such as love, sex, work, and even the inevitable invitation of death.
Moreover, the questions about the individual’s relations with others emerge in tandem
with these individual experiences. How do we get outside ourselves to be with others?
Will others always be alien to me, alternately perceived by me to a mystery or threat?
Am I capable of really knowing, loving, and understanding others?
As a creative activity, the human freedom is more related to an action which involves a
choice and a decision. This choice must be responsible and should be tempered with
the principles of ethics and morality. When one has to make choices, he is confronted
with the issue of right and wrong. It is in this view that the study of morality is relevant
and potential to human existence as humans create themselves in their choices and in
their actions.

Human existence is dynamic. It is confronted with the nature of change rather than
permanence. Change encourages us to be aware and responsive to the “signs of the
times.” The different issues and problems, most especially the current ones,
surrounding human existence must not be neglected but deserve utmost attention and
careful review as they can be avenues in a more deepened understanding of the human
existence.

The Lesson Structure

Each lesson follows a structure which consists of the following: 1.) review philosophical
insights, 2.) contextualizing or Filipinizing, 3.) the valuing process, and 4.) the reflection
process.

A. Review of Philosophical Insights

We are already inside the house built by the past. Our task then is to review the past.
The highlights of some philosophers in every topic are taken from different philosophies
of the ancient, medieval, modern, and contemporary periods. Ancient and medieval
philosophies can be categorized under the essentialist views while the modern and
contemporary periods can be categorized under the existentialist views. Thus, it is
proper to discuss hereunder the different approaches of the two different views.

1. Essentialist View

Essence - that which makes a thing what it is. It is the meaning of the thing that is
something permanent. A piece of wood is a piece of wood and it cannot become a chair
or a table unless there is one that would change as such. The essence of man is his
being “rational.” Rationality cannot be removed from man. For this reason, Aristotle calls
man as a “rational animal,” and is therefore, superior from the rest of the animals.

The essentialist views include that of the Eastern or Oriental philosophies, the Greek
philosophies, and the Christian philosophie.

2.  Existentialist View
This view palces emphasis on “existence” Existence is changing as it is confronted with
many problems and diversities. It involves personal freedom and choice. 

Most of the existentialist philosophers belong to the modern times. An the topics they
discussed are directly related to the fundamental issues ans realities of life and human
existence, such as freedom, love, sex, work, and ultimately death.

Distinction between Essentialism and Existentialism

1.  Essentialism adapts the principles, “Essence precedes existence,” while

Existentialism adapts the principle, “Existence precedes essence.”

Essence precedes existence. Reason was born ahead of us. Man is already
predetermined as a rational being even before he is born (existence).

Existence precedes essence. We make our essence only after we exist. Our essence is
our free choice, and not as predetermined.

2. Essentialism emphasized on man’s rationality while Existentialism emphasizes on

mans subjectivity. Rationality is only a part of mans existence, while subjectivity talks on
the entire “Self” of man.

3. Essentialism emphasizes the “universal man,” while Existentialism emphasizes the

“individual man.”

Phenomenology and Experience

“It is not necessary that one must be a phenomenologist in order to comprehend

phenomenology. What is basic in phenomenology is the understanding of ourselves first
as the starting point of understanding the world and God.

Phenomenology is derived from the two Greek words: phainomenon (appearance) and
logos (study or reasoned inquiry). Appearance mens objects, real or imaginary, which
are perceived by the conscious knower. Edmund Husserl, the father of phenomenology,
pointed out two poles: noema and noesis. Noesis is the act of perceiving, while noema
is that which is perceived. We may say, then, that the basic data in phenomenology is
the lived experience and the point of view is always the experiencing human person as
subject.

The following are some important consideration in the method of phenomenology:

1. Scientific Attitude vs. Natural Attitude.

Scientific Attitude observe things, express their workings in singular judgements, the in
universal judgements, and by the process of induction and deduction arrives at concrete
results. Natural attitude looks at reality as things. It consists of ones prejudices, biases,
clear fixed precise, unquestioned, explicit knowledge of the object.

2. Epoche or bracketing. 

It is suspending or setting aside our biases, everyday understandings, theories, beliefs

habitual modes of thought, and judgements. The purpose of suspending is to enable the
subject as open as possible to what he or she wants to share. What is my natural
attitude of a husband? He is the one who works and earns for the family so that as a
wife I should stay at home for after all the needs of the family is already shouldered by
the income of my husband. This prejudicial attitude needs to be suspended and your
“lived experience” of a husband must be the source of your description of the truest
person and meaning of a husband.

Description is a key part of phenomenological orientation. The people in question tell

their own story, in their own terms. So fidelity to the phenomenon as it is lived means
apprehending and understanding it in lived context of the person living through the
situation.

3. Eidetic Reduction.

Eidos is a greek word for “essence.” “Under this step, I reduce the experience to its
essence. Let us say I am describing the phenomenon of love. In the epoche, I bracket
my biases and judgments on love, like love hurts or that ‘love is many splendored thing.’
Now, I reduce the object of love to the phenomenon of love, to the lived experience of
love. In eidetic reduction, I reduce the phenomenon of love to its essence, removing the
contingent factors. I begin with an example, a relationship between two people.”

Subjectivity and Objectivity

The terns “objectivity” and “subjectivity” in their modern usage, generally relates to a
perceiving subject or a person and a perceived or unperceived object. The object is
something that presumably exists independent of the subject’s perception of it. In other
words, the object would “be there,” as it is, even if no subject perceived it. Hence,
objectivity is typically associated with ideas such as reality, truth, and reliability.

The human person is both a subject and and an object. “The person as object is the
subject matter of science while the person as subject is the subject matter of
philosophy. When science objectifies the person, makes it definable and classifiable,
then it ceases to be a real person. “The person as subject is free and self-creating. He
also transcends his finitude. He is forward- moving and not a finished project. It is also
argued that the person tries to full the nothingness between what he is at present and
what he wants himself to be in the future. The person may even create values to make
his life meaningful.
Objectivity and subjectivity will be correlated with the different topics on existential
themes. Freedom, love, sex, work, and death shall be discussed in the light of
objectivity and subjectivity to get an enriching lived experience of such phenomena.

B. Contextualizing and Filipinizing

Aside from the different philosophic of either the West or the East, an addition to are the
insights from the realm of Christianity and Islam which are the two leading religious
groups in Mindanao, and Buddhism which is an Eastern religion embraced by a big
number of Chinese-Filipinos. An inquiry into their perspective positions on the different
topics is aimed not at looking into their disparity but on building a web of common
philosophies towards understanding more each person, beliefs, and culture, and
eventually to promote dialogue for peace in Mindanao through the study of “Philosophy
of the Human Person.” It is in this manner that we are putting into context or
“Filipinizing” the philosophies of the West or the East.

C. The Valuing Process

Values refers to criteria for determining levels of goodness, worth or beauty. They are
affectively-laden thoughts about objects, ideas, behaviors, etc. That guide behavior, but
do not necessarily require it. The act of valuing is considered an act of making value
judgements, and expression of feeling, or the acquisition of and adherence to a set of
principles. We are covering values as part of the affective system. However, once they
are developed they provide an important filter for selecting input and connecting
thoughts and feelings to action.

To make the study of this subject more exciting, practical, and significan, a portion on
“valuing” is givern importance in each lesson. It is an this manner that a theme
emphasized in a particular lesson may turn out useful to the learner.

D. The Reflection Process

The reflection process involved four moments: experience, significance, insights, and
response. Experience refers to our encounter with people, events, or ides. This
experience is the evaluated according to its significance to us. When we engage in the
reflection process we discover new insights in our life. These insights in turn invite us to
make a personal response to the experience.

In reflection a moment in the past is recollected because of a new significance

conferred upon it by an experience in the present. This leads us to draw some new
lessons for our life, which go beyond the initial encounter with people, events, or ideas
and the reminiscene of past experiences. And then it is completed by way of a personal
response. The insight it transformed into a resolve to change for the better.

If there is no insight then the experience is not real, if there is no response then the
significance is not true.
1. Crystallize the experience - Identify a particular idea that appeals in a special way to
you. What idea do you find striking?

2. Highlight its significance - recall a parallel personal incident. Why do you find the idea
striking? What does it remind you of? How are you able to relate to this idea?

3. Draw and insight - learn a lesson, let the idea happen and matter to you, let it
become your own. What do you gain in terms of outlook from the experience? What
new learning have you attained? What new perspective have you formed by which to
look anew at your personal event?

4. Make a response - resolve to do something good, allow the insight to make a

difference. What course of action does the insight suggest?

1. Existence 
The phrase, “existence comes before essence,” which originated from Jean-Paul
Sartre, becomes now the heart of Existentialist philosophy. The following are the
implications of this phrase:

       1. That there is no pre-given essence to which man must conform in order to         
qualify as a human being;
        2. That man exist first just like what John Locke called a “tabula rasa,” or               
“nothing-ness.” He is just like one of the things dumped into this world without             
asking for it, without knowing why, and without knowing who he is;

        3. That in the course of his life, he makes his own essence. His essence then is   
his own personal project, a product of his existence. Sartre says, “Man is                   
nothing else but what he makes of himself.” What he is, and what he will be                   
depends entirely upon his self. His destiny in his to shape. And as long as he is             
alive, his essence is not complete;

        4.That there is no God bestowing on us an essence. There is no supreme reason 

dictating man on what kind of person he will become. Anita Brookner says,                   
“Existentialism is about being a saint without God; being your own hero, without             
all the sanction and support of religion or society.”

2. Subjectivity
      The importance of subjectivity over objectivity has always been the consideration of
Existentialist philosophers in emphasizing human existence. Subjectivity to Sartre is
known as a being-for-itself(pour-soi) as opposed to objectivity, being-in-itself (en-soi).
It is also called “authentic existence”. Inauthentic existence is the being of
things while authentic existence is the being of  the  humans. Subjectivity or authentic
existence stresses some important points as follows:

         1. That the human person is an individual being. It respects the uniqueness of   

every individual person. He may be with others but he can be different from                   
others.
         2. That the human person is a passionate individual. He makes his personal       
decisions not based on objective standards and objective values but on his                   
passion and will. Important questions about life can be answered not only by a             
package of objective ideas but also by “intense subjective experience”                           
according to Karl Jaspers. The emphasis therefore is “not on ideas but on the               
thinker who has ideas.”

3. Freedom 
      Freedom is a concept of the individual ; it is an activity of the subject himself.
Existentialist philosophers Jean-Paul Sartre and Soren Kierkegaard hve their respective
views on freedom:

          1.  Soren Kierkegaard’s concept of “Leap of Faith,” illustrates to us the                 

importance of choice and commitment. The shift from one stage of life to                   
certain individual choice. Man then, has the freedom to make choices in every               
moment of his life. Choices are unique to humans and they are inescapable.

              “There is no choice without a decision, no decision without a desire or desire   

without a need, no need without existence.” It is even said that “even the                     
refusal to choose is a choice”.

               However, these choices must be subjective; it is anchored on our personal     

experiences, beliefs and values. There are no universal criteria in making                     
choices. It is when we conform ourselves to external standards that we lose                 
our freedom and our autonomy of choosing.

                We are not given a “user’s manual” as our guidelines in operating the           

choices of our lives. For Soren Kierkegaard, it is “only faith that is a criterion-                 
less choice.

          2. Jean-Paul Sartre endorses the popular phrase,” Man is condemned to be       

free.” This implies that every freedom of choice entails a concurrent                             
responsibility. It means taking ownership of one’s own thoughts, feelings and               
actions and refraining from casting blame or judgment  on self or others. In                     
Existentialism, responsibility is the "dark“side of freedom” to which every                   
man is doomed to do. Kierkegaard calls it a “commitment”. It means to be                     
focused in our direction and determination to achieve the objectives of our                     
action. The absence of our commitment means an escape from one’s                             
responsibility which in turn makes life full of anxiety.

4.  Absurdity
        Absurdity, in Albert Camus’  “Myth of Sisyphus”, means “meaningless of life.”

         In the myth, Sisyphus was punished for all eternity to a rock up a mountain only to
have it roll back down to the bottom when he reaches the top. It is a situation that
seems hopeless and even suicidal to him.

         The human person  is facing a life of absurdity for he exists in the world that is
completely nothing to him. The wide array of choices offered by this world present no
real choice, and there is no opportunity for him to be. There is indeed a separation
between his self and the world where he lives.  

         This makes life meaningless, absurd. And man is “torn” between two options:
either a leap of faith or suicide.

         But Sisyphus, as claimed by Camus, was an ultimate absurd hero. He was

sentenced for the crime of loving life too much. He continually accepts the struggle
even without any hope of success. He endures the punishment by repeating the task,
and this is a victory for him. “The struggle itself towards the heights is enough to fill a
man’s heart. We have to imagine Sisyphus happy”.

         The message here is that no matter how meaningless life is, we should not
surrender and resign, instead we must perpetually struggle. It is not the fact of reaching
the top that matters but it is the act of struggling that makes life meaningful.

         Camus identifies three characteristics of the absurd life: revolt ( we must not

accept many answer or reconciliation in our struggle), freedom (we are absolutely free
to think and behave as we choose), and passion ( we must pursue a life of rich and
diverse experiences).

5.  Anxiety
      Anxiety is a universal condition of human existence. It is synonymous with dread or
fear. What is the thing that man fears most? It is the uncertainty of the future. It views
human existence as a life of suffering and sin, guilt, and despair. Different Existentialist
philosophers used different terms for the anxiety:
     “Angst” is the German term used by Martin Heidegger. It refers to one’s anxiety in
confronting with the impossibility of searching for the meaning of life amidst a
meaningless world.

      “Nausea” is the term used by Jean-Paul Sartre. It refers to man’s realization that
the world is not neatly ordered and rational but is something that is highly contingent
and unpredictable.

      “Despair” is the term used by Soren Kierkegaard. It refers to the subjective anxiety
and not an objective one. In his “Sickness unto Death,” he illustrates the opposition of
sin and faith. Despair is a sin and it is the sickness unto death, and this cycle of
sinfulness and despair can be broken only by faith.

6.  Death
        Since we begin from nothing-ness, we will end also with nothing-ness. Death is
nothing-ness. Death is always there, there is no escape from it. To think of death as
everybody does sooner or later causes anxiety. The only sure way to end anxiety once
and for all is death.

         Death is the ultimate of non-being. Death as a limit, calls for authenticity in human
existence. The human being for the most part “falls” from the authentic way of living.
The human being is continually falling till he meets his death.

B.   Buddhism
     Buddhism is a philosophy of life founded by Siddharta Gautama Buddha (from
Sankrit “budh” meaning “ the enlightened or awakened one”), who lived and taught
in northern India in the 6th century B.C. Buddha is “not a God who intercedes for others;
he showed them a path (a Way),” and Buddhism does not entail any theistic world-
view. The teachings of Buddha are aimed solely to liberate sentinent beings
from suffering.

The basic teaching of Buddhism will help us understand more about the Buddhist
concept of the human person. These teachings include 1.) the three characteristics of
existence, 2.) the four noble truths , 3.) the noble eightfold path, and 4.) the concepts of
karma, samsara and nirvana.

A.   The Three Characteristics of Existence 

Villaba enumerates the three characteristics of existence in Buddhism.

These are follows:

    1. Anicca-all things of this world are impermanent.

    2. Anatta-all things of this world are non-substantial.

    3. Dukkha-all things of this world are unsatisfactory, with much suffering.

     A.1. Anicca (Impermanence)

            Anicca implies that all things are subject to constant change and movement.       
Nothing permanent in this word.

      A.2. Anatta (Non-substantial)

            Anatta implies that all things have “no self”. Since there is always a process of   
becoming or change, then there is “no fixed essence”.of  all things.This is a                   
negotiation to the Hindu’s concept of  “atman”, which refers to the “ego”, self, or             
essence.  “All things of this world could be broken down into its component                     
parts, and that nothing else other than these components existed.”

       A.3. Dukkha (Suffering)

           Dukkha, in its ordinary usage, implies that all things have to endure “suffering”.   
But beyond its common meaning, dukkha may also mean an utter imperfection             
and impermanence that is pervasive and thoroughly permeating in all things. It             
is this which makes our suffering inescapable.

           Soccio summarizes these three characteristics of impermanence, egolessness   

and suffering into a single statement: “Although nothing lasts, suffering is               
everywhere, and the “me”  that suffers is not even real.”

B.   The Four Noble Truths 

     The four noble truth results from the application of the three basic characteristics of   
existence to the human condition. The Buddha frequently asserted that he was           
interested in the problem of the alleviation of human suffering: “Only one thing do I       
teach, suffering, and how to end it”. His approach to the problem of suffering was         
similar to that of the physician to his patient. He first diagnoses the malady, then           
seeks the cause of the malady, and next finds out whether a cure is possible. Finally     
he prescribes the medicine. The four truths correspond to the four steps of this             
diagnostic-curative procedure. The four noble truths in Buddhism are the following:

   

         1.      The truth of suffering (Dukkha).

         2.      The truth of the cause of suffering (Samudaya).

        3.      The truth of the cessation of suffering (Nirodha).

        4.      The truth of the path to enlightenment (Marga).

            B.1 The Truth of Suffering

                Life is a suffering. Nai Teja enumerates the three commonly known types of   
suffering in Buddhism, namely:

                     1. Dukkha-Dukkha

                          This refers to all ordinary sufferings in life like birth, old age,               

sickness, death, association with unpleasant persons and conditions,                             
separation from loved ones and conditions, not getting what one                                   
desires, grief, lamentation, distress and all forms of physical and                                   
mental suffering.

                      2. Viparinama-Dukkha 

                          This refers to the suffering produced by change. Pleasant and happy   

feelings or conditions in life are not permanent. Sooner or later they                               
change. When they change they may produce pain, suffering,                                         
unhappiness or disappointment.

                       3. Sankhara-Dukkha 
                           This refers to the suffering as a result of one’s attachment to the five   
aggregates or conditioned states of an individual. These five                                       
aggregates will be discussed later.

            B.2 The Truth of the Cause of Suffering

               If suffering is an effect, then there must be a cause. This is cause-effect           

relationship and is known in Buddhism as “dependent origination.” Villaba                 
explains dependent origination by outlining the series of questions and                         
answers which at the same time points to the causes of suffering. The                           
proximate cause of suffering is craving while the root or ultimate cause of                     
suffering is ignorance. “Out of ignorance, we project a sense of permanence               
unto impermanent conditions.”

            B.3 The truth of the Cessation of Suffering

             This truth speaks of the good news in Buddhism. It affirms that there is always   
an end to every suffering; that there is always a turning point from suffering to               
non-suffering. Buddhism is viewed with pessimism in the first truth but in the                   
third truth, it is viewed with optimism. But the question still remains, “How are                 
we to put an end to this suffering?”
           B.4 The Truth of the Path to Enlightenment

              This fourth truth is the answer to the question in the third truth. This refers to     
the means in putting an end to this suffering and eventually in attaining the                   
state of enlightenment. The means we refer to is the pathway to                                     
enlightenment or also known as the “Noble Eightfold Path to                                       
Righteousness.”

C.  The Noble Eightfold Path

      The Buddha’s way to the end of suffering and the fulfillment of Nirvana is the noble
eightfold path. These eight precepts must be practiced in the life of a Buddhist. These
are divided into three categories:
        Wisdom (Prajna)

            1. Right view is the true understanding of the four noble truths.

            2. Right aspiration is the true desire to free oneself from attachment,                 

ignorance, and hatefulness.

        Morality (Sila)

            3. Right speech involves abstaining from lying, gossiping, or hurtful talks.

            4. Right action involves abstaining from hurtful behaviors, such as killing,           

stealing, and careless sex.

             5 . Right livelihood means making your living in such a way as to avoid             

dishonesty and hurting others, including animals.

        Meditation (Samadhi)

             6. Right effort is a matter of exerting oneself in regard to the content of one’s   

mind: Bad qualities should be abandoned and prevented from arising again;                 
good qualities should be enacted and nurtured.

             7. Right mindfulness is the focusing of one’s attention on one’s body,             

feelings,  thoughts, and consciousness in such a way as to overcome                           
craving, hatred, and ignorance.

            8. Right concentration in meditating in such a way as to progressively realize   

a true understanding of imperfection, impermanence, and non-separateness.

                     The noble eightfold path is the middle way in Buddhism. This is the           

middle way between two extremes. The one extreme is the life of pleasure                     
while the other extreme is the life of mortification.

A.    The Concepts of Karma, Samsara and Nirvana

     Karma

            We have misconceived the word “karma” as we associate it with fate or             

predestination. Predestination speaks only of the future. The concept of karma               
combines kamma (action-cause) with vipaka (reaction-effect). According to                   
Buddhist tradition, karma is the law of moral causation (moral cause and effect). It         
speaks of both past and present actions. When someone commits a crime, he               
suffers the consequences. That is karma. When someone does good, he enjoys           
the consequences. That is karma. Good or bad karma results from our actions.

    Samsara

           Samsara (from Sanskrit samsarah, course of life, samsara: sam, together +         

sarati, it flows) is the Buddhist doctrine of transmigration which states that one             
undergoes a cycle of birth, death and rebirth. Death, in the Christian perspective, is     
the separation of the body and soul while in Buddhism it is the condition of suffering     
considering that there is “no soul or no self” in Buddhism.

   Nirvana

             Nirvana (from Sanskrit, “extinction) is the ultimate goals of the spiritual practice 

in Buddhism. It is the summum bonum (highest good) of Buddhism. It is the total,           
absolute and permanent cessation of suffering. The person who attains this state is       
called “arhat

             Some normally equate “Nirvana” with the Western concept of “Heaven.” That is 
misconception. Nirvana is not a place but is more of a state of mind. Therefore, it is       
possible to achieve “Nirvana” even if we are still alive.

Anchored on the Buddhist basic teachings, human existence can be viewed in three
different characteristics which include as follows:

1.      Momentary Existence (Parikalpita- svabhava)

2.      Relative Existence (Paratantra-svabhava)

3.      Absolute Existence (Parinispanna- svabhava)

1.      Momentary Existence
              The basic characteristic of impermanence (Anicca) of all things clearly             
explains  the momentary existence of the human person. This doctrine sounds               
much like that of the Greek philosopher Heraclitus. Hindu doctrine states that man         
has a self or a soul (atman). A reform movement of Hinduism , Buddhism states             
that man has no self or soul. If soul is a permanent essence or substance of human       
existence, then it should not be properly identified in man since he is by nature               
changing.

              What is man then in Buddhism? Man is an aggregate of five elements           

(skandhas) namely:

        
             1.      Corporeality (rupa). This is the physical basis of existence.

             2.      Feelings (vedana). Feelings are a by-product of the contact between the 

organs of the physical body and the external world.

             3.      Perception (sanna). This is how the mind processes the feelings that its 
sense organs transmit. No two individuals have the same perception of                           
the same feelings they may experience.

             4.      Formations (sankhara). The formations are the deliverative acts of the   

individuals. It is often referred to as karmic formations.

             5.       Consciousness (vinnana). This is the condition of being aware of the     

environment in which the individual exists.

      There are considerations in understanding these five aggregates:

        1.      The first components of these five aggregates refers to rupa( physical) while 
the four refer to nama (mental).

        2.      The coming together of these five parts at birth forms a human person.       

These whole five parts is the foundation of personhood. The dead man                         
cannot be a person because he possesses only the body which is just one                   
of the components of the whole five parts.

       3.       None of each aggregate should be identified with the union. In other words,   
a body itself cannot be a man; a feeling cannot be a man, etc. This was                         
illustrated in a Buddhism metaphor. “A chariot is made up of axle, wheels,                     
frame, yoke, reins,goad-stick, and flagstaff.

               None of these parts of itself is the chariot. And when these parts are               
dismantled and separated one from the other, there is no chariot at all.
              The concept of person in Buddhism is not more understood as a                       
transcendental self or an enduring self or unchanging soul but it is more                       
understood as related to the concept of morality. Transcendental self is                         
something  beyond our observation but psychological facts (behavior) are totally           
observable.
2.      Relative Existence
               Since there is a momentary existence of all things (no self), then we cannot     
think of things in isolation. To think of itself is an empty thing. Existence therefore, is     
completely relative or dependent; it is a nature of things to exist in relation to                 
everything that exists. And the human person is not an exemption to this. He is also     
a myriad of interconnecting conditions. He should live in harmony with nature.

              Human existence is caused by another(cause-effect). The genesis of human   

suffering lies in man’s ignorance concerning the true nature of the self. Man is             
born  in the state of ignorance. As ignorant, man does not know how to conduct his       
life. He suffers because he continually strives after things that do not give lasting           
happiness. He desperately tries to hold on to things that do not last---and this                 
causes him sorrow.

3.      Absolute Existence
             The absolute existence in Buddhism is Nirvana. As an absolute existence,         
Nirvana cannot be conditioned or caused by another. It is the ultimate liberation of       
man from all forms of suffering.

             We have to reiterate that Nirvana exists right in the physical and psychological 
world. Hence, man has to recognize the impermanence of all the physical things           
and to free himself from the attachment to these things and eventually end the             
cycle of birth.

Lesson 3: The Human Person:

Existentialist and Religious Views
The Christian Themes of the Human Person
1.      Man is a psychophysical person.
      The human person in Christianity is a constitution of body, soul and spirit ( 1
Thessalonians 5:23). The body is the abode of the sense and the natural passions, the
soul is the abode of the mind, will and emotions, and the spirit is the abode of
conscience, intuition and communion with God. Nowadays, some theologians would
prefer to call these three not as divisions of man but as functions of man. Man’s created
reality depends upon being held and empowered by the spirit of God.

2.      Man is an image of God

      The human person in Christianity is created in the image and likeness of God; he can
possibly be raised into the dignity of the divine . “The glory of God is man fully alive; moreover
man’s life is the vision of God (St. Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses, 4, 20, 7). This image concept
has the following implications:

        a.  There is no hierarchy between man and woman. As an image of God, man       

and woman should be co-equal in dignity.

        b.  There is a hierarchy between human beings and other creatures. God created   
us in His image making us far more than ourselves. “ Being in the image of                   
God, the human individual possesses the dignity of a person, who is not just                 
something but someone (CCC,357).”

       c.   As higher that other creatures, he is designated to be a responsible steward   

over creation.

1.      Man has free will to choose good over evil.

         Man is created by God perfectly good. Since God is an absolute good, He cannot
be the origin of something evil. Aquinas claims that “evil is a deprivation of the good.” It
can only be attributed to man himself.

        There are three kinds of evil that can be distinguished as: metaphysical, physical, and
moral.
        1.    Metaphysical evil is the lack of perfection not due to a given nature and hence is not
actually evil. Under this aspect, all creatures are evil because they fall short of full perfection,
which is God alone.
        2.    Physical evil consists in the privation of perfection due to nature; e.g. blindness is the
privation of sight in a being which ought to have sight according to the exigencies of his nature.
        3.    Moral evil is the only true evil. It is a sin. The cause of moral evil is not God but man’s
faculty of free will, by which man is able to deviate from the right order, to oppose himself to the
will of God.
     
Although man’s nature is deemed as corrupt by inheritance (original sin),It is very much
capable of overcoming the inherent nature of evil because of his gift of free will, which is the
ability to choose between good and evil. As originally corrupt, humans in most cases are
inclined to love lower goods (i.e. bodily goods,wealth,power,reputation) instead of orienting the
will into the choice of the higher goods (i.e. virtue, and above all, God)

4.      Man is a relational being and is capable to love.

              Man is a person distinct and unique from others but yet inextricably bound up   
with others. We become more fully human in our relationship with others. “The               
human person is the beginning, subject and goal of all social institutions…which           
must work unceasingly to make available to every person everything necessary to         
live a truly human life (Gaudium et Spes, 25,26).”

               Each person is unique and a special sign of God’s love. God gives each         
person the capacity to love and be loved. “ Love is the fundamental and innate               
vocation of every human being (Familiaris Consortio,11).” It is for this reason that           
Christianity is known to be a “religion of love”.

5.      Man’s purpose of life is eternal happiness.

               Christians are divided as to the teaching of salvation and eternal happiness.   
Some would say that salvation is only for the individual person while others would         
say that it is universal; that everybody would be saved. Some would say that                 
salvation can only be earned by God’s grace, others would say that it can be                 
earned  both by God’s grace and man’s work.

              Saint Augustine’s doctrine of predestination is a teaching that only a handful   

of souls (salvation of some) had the gift of faith and the promise of heaven and           
salvation. He did not believe that Christ, by His death, had opened the door to               
heaven for every soul. Most of humanity remains condemned to eternal                         
punishment. People could not overcome their sins--- moral and spiritual                         
regeneration came only from God’s grace, and it was God who determined who             
would be saved, and who would be damned. Although Augustine’s influence was           
impressive, the church rejected his idea of predestination, that only a small number       
of people would find salvation. Instead, the Church emphasized that Christ had             
made possible the salvation of all.

                For Aquinas, the ultimate end of human life is otherworldly. Nothing can be     
the final end for human beings except that perfect state of happiness found in the         
beatific vision of God, Which can take place only on the afterlife.