CHAPTER 1: JEAN PAUL SARTRE

Life and Works

Sartre’s Early Life

Sartre is a philosopher who has been so proud of himself. He rejected all the other ideas

for he believes that his own intellect is greater than the any other thinker. Jean-Paul Sartre has

been known as a famous philosopher of Existentialism because of his man-centeredness view.

He acknowledges his own value and his superiority over the others. That is why he loves

presenting his works and writings in order to showcase that he is a great man. However, he

indeed became influential to some philosophers during and after his time and to the people

nowadays.1.

Jean-Paul Sartre Charles Aymard Sartre was born in Paris on June 21 in the year of 1905

and died on 1980. Jean-Paul Sartre was the only son of Jean-Baptiste and Anne-Marie

Schweitzer Sartre. His mother came from a prominent, liberal Alsatian family. Jean-Paul Sartre

lost his father, at the age of 32, after a year he was born and was not anymore able to see him.

Sartre’s father was a French Navy who experienced a contracted fever while he was on the sea

which became the reason of his death 2. Sartre grew up with his grandparents after her mother

brought him up to them after his father died 3. He was raised by his mother in his grandparents’

home in their Paris apartment near the Luxembourg Gardens. In his biographical essay, “The

Words (Les mots),” he tells the story about himself being kept at home because of the possessive

1
Wilfrid Desan, "Jean-Paul Sartre," Encyclopedia Britannica, June 17, 2023.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jean-Paul-Sartre.
2
Thomas R. Flynn, Sartre: A Philosophical Biography (United Kingdom, University Printing House: Cambridge
University Press, 2014) p. 1-2
3
Ibid.

1
and selfish attitude of his maternal grandfather, Charles Schweitzer 4. He also shared that his

childhood life was lonely and unhappy being isolated from the other children outside their home.

In the year 1915, his mother was remarried to her second husband, Joseph Mancy 5. The

young Jean-Paul had found it a betrayal, that is why he grew up unusually close to his mother.

However, his stepfather tried so hard to be a good father to Jean-Paul. Later on, Joseph Mancy

decided to bring Anne-Marie and her son to La Rochelle. In there, Sartre started his formal

school in which he did not get well with his fellow students. He admitted that in order to buy

their friendship, he gave them the treats from the money he had stolen from his mother.

While still a child, Sartre was so engaged with books. He could not do what other

children could do. Due to this, he had lost the use of his one eye as he grew older. As a result, he

grew up with an unpleasant appearance 6. Moreover, in spite of all these, his condition did not

hinder him to be excellent in the class. Sartre went to the École Normale Supérieure, where he

learned a lot about the history of philosophy. At that time, there were two big ideas—neo-

Kantianism and vitalism—that were really important. He didn't do so great at first but did better

the next time around and ended up being the top student. He taught philosophy at different

schools, especially at Le Havre from 1931 to 1936, while he was working on his early

philosophy and writing his book called "Nausea." But he didn't become a professor at a regular

university7.

Despite the circumstances Sartre had faced, he was still able to experience having a

romantic relationship with a woman. In 1929, Jean-Paul met Simone de Beauvoir at École
4
Jean-Paul Sartre, The Words, tr. Bernard Frechtman (215 Park Avenue South, New York: George Braziller, Inc.,
1963)
5
Philip Thody and Howard Read, Introducing Sartre: A graphic guide (UK: Clays LTD, Elcograf S.p.A., 2013)
6
Jack Reynolds and Pierre-Jean Renaudie, “Jean-Paul Sartre”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer
2022 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2022/entries/sartre/>.
7
Ibid.

2
Normale Supérieure in Paris and had built a deep connection which lasted their entire lives.

Simone was a feminist thinker and writer who had influenced other thinkers through her great

works. Hence, her intelligence had supported Sartre’s career and endeavors. Their relationship

had been an intellectual collaboration and they shared commitment to existential philosophy 8.

In addition, the events during the time of Sartre have become the major influence in his

life, especially the World Wars, which affected a lot in his young period 9. This remarkable

period has contributed to his framework. It means, it shapes his existential thinking and the way

he looks at reality and human life. Also, these influences have put him drive to write his major

wrings – his contribution to the philosophical world.

Sartre’s Writings

Throughout the journey of Jean-Paul Sartre in his life, he has contributed a lot in

philosophy. He has expressed these in his various works and writings. His philosophy has been a

major influence in the 20th century especially to the people’s way of thinking, in which it also has

contributed to the politics. His philosophical frameworks can be found in his writings especially

the “Being and Nothingness,” in which it becomes the foundation of his philosophy. This work

of him was published in the year 1943. The book lies on the exploration of the existentialist

thought and phenomenology, which aims to discover human existence and consciousness. In

addition, Sartre proposes in the book that man’s consciousness would always be conscious of

something and this is what defines man’s existence 10. Also, which is the highlight of his thought,

8
Sarah Bakewell, At the Existentialist Café: Freedom, Being, and Apricot Cocktails with Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone
de Beauvoir, Albert Camus, Martin Heidegger, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, and Others (New York: Other Press,
2016).
9
Ibid.
10
Thomas R. Flynn, Sartre: A Philosophical Biography (University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United
Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 2014) p. 162-195

3
is his “existential freedom.” He added that man is condemned to be free – that he is to create

essence and values in this meaningless world11.

In the year 1945, Sartre also happened to publish another book, “Existentialism is a

Humanism.” Jean-Paul Sartre tries to explain existentialism in a more expound way. He also

defends various criticisms he got from his idea. In existentialism, he explains that man is the

center of all things and his existence12. He also asserts that existence precedes essence. It means,

man creates his own values and essence through his freedom and choices. Moreover, he admits

that man has no predetermined nature and essence. Hence, he is responsible to establish himself

and to create his own essence. So this work of Sartre is also the foundation of his existentialist

thought.

One of his major contributions in the philosophical realm is his work, “Critique of

Dialectical Reason.” He published it with two volumes in 1960 and 1985. In this book, he tries to

reconcile his idea, which is the existentialism, with Marxism in order to create a social theory.

Sartre tries to explore different themes in this work such as, sociology, politics, anthropology,

history, and other philosophical foundations in order to understand social structures and

relationships between humans. In reconciling both ideas, he tries to understand the nature of the

society and how does freedom has interplayed with the social structures13.

Another one is his “Search for Method.” In this book, Sartre gives a critique towards

Marxist determinism. He argues that there must be a human-centric view in order to understand

historical materialism – that, human agency and the choice of an individual would also matter in

11
Ibid.
12
Robert C. Solomon, Jean-Paul Sartre (London: Routledge, 2009).
13
Jürgen Habermas, "Sartre's 'Critique of Dialectical Reason' and the Problem of Alienation." In The Philosophical
Forum, vol. 2, no. 3, 1971, pp. 368-392.

4
the society14. So here, Sartre offers a method in which one is able to understand and explore

human freedom and social structures. One may also understand that individuals also shape and

are shaped by history, society, and politics.

Since Jean-Paul Sartre has given much important to the “self,” he succeeded in writing a

philosophical essay regarding with its exposition. In 1936, Sartre published his essay entitled

“The Transcendence of the Ego,” in which he explicitly explained the concept of the self. He

asserts that one is not aware of one’s ego 15. It means that it is not immediately known by one. At

the time Sartre was writing this, he was trying to explore Husserl’s phenomenology. So in this

work of Sartre, he tries to discover the very nature of the self and consciousness. He also tries to

argue with the Cartesian point of view about the notion of the enduring self16.

Sartre’s Life during and after World War II

During the World War II, Sartre was drafted into the French army in the year 1939 17.

Since he was found out who had a background in philosophy and mathematics, he was assigned

to the meteorological serve. In the next year, Sartre was captured by the German forces during

the battle in France. Sartre had reached almost a year in the prison. He was in various camps too.

Because of the difficulties he had experienced in the prison, these left him a great impact.

Despite his hardships he was still able to write his major writing, “Being and Nothingness,” in

which became the central theme of his philosophy. This also gives an influence to the

circumstances during the wartime18.

14
William McBride, 07 Feb 2020, Search for a method from: The Sartrean Mind, Routledge, Accessed on: 09 Jan
2024, https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315100500-25
15
Steven Smith, "Sartre's 'The Transcendence of the Ego': A Critical Analysis." Journal of Existential Philosophy,
vol. 5, no. 2, 2010, pp. 45-62.
16
Patrick Gardiner, Jean-Paul Sartre: The Philosopher as a Literary Critic (Sussex University Press, 1982).
17
Annie Cohen-Solal, Jean-Paul Sartre: A Life (New York: Penguin Books, 1987), 125.
18
Ibid.

5
 After the World War, Sartre pursued his philosophy. He continued to develop his

existentialist philosophy through his further writings. He had written numbers of works which

were much influential during his time especially on his discussion about freedom and human

existence. He also engaged with political and sociological discussions and in fact created his own

philosophy about these. His philosophy in these fields are influenced by the Hegelian-Marxism

thinking19. In spite of subscribing the idea of the Marxist theory, he is a great critique of Marxism

telling everyone in his writings that Marxism must be accompanied by Existentialism.

Sartre’s Socialism (Social Theory) and his Political Engagement

Even though Sartre has been a major thinker of existentialism, he is still able to create a

social theory in which helps to shape a society. However, this theory is still rooted in the

existentialist thinking, which the individual has a freedom and responsibility towards oneself 20.

Accordinly, people in the society must be able to exercise their freedom since everyone has it. It

is not only a right to exercise freedom but, in nature man is endowed with freedom 21. That is

why, even if he is a committed leftist who has a relationship with the socialists and communists

he still has a critique on their framework, especially on the Marxist thinking.

Sartre argues that the Marxist system eradicates the freedom of an individual 22. Hence,

this system does not anymore respect personal choices and this leads to the suppression of

individuality. Precisely, Sartre’s critique on the system of Marx has been concern of each

people’s freedom. This system does not acknowledge the uniqueness of each person and the

complexity of human existence. Therefore, for Sartre, this system is ready to sacrifice individual
19
Internet encyclopedia of philosophy, Sartre’s Political Philosophy, Accessed January 16, 2024,
https://iep.utm.edu/sartre-p/#H2
20
Helen Reid Thomas, Sartre and Marxism (London: Pluto Press, 1985), 72-85.
21
Ibid.
22
Jean-Paul Sartre, Critique of Dialectical Reason, Volume 1: Theory of Practical Ensembles, trans. Alan Sheridan-
Smith (London: Verso, 1976), 112-130.

6
freedom for the progress and growth of socioeconomic condition. In addition, the Marxist system

has given everyone’s freedom a little room for its value. The value of man is determined by his

status in the society. Sartre, as an existentialist, does not agree much in this system. Regardless

of one’s status, man must be seen equally according to their freedom that is endowed to each

one. Every man must not be determined by their status, but rather their actions, choices, and

freedom.

Existentialism

Existentialism is a philosophical movement which was founded by Jean-Paul Sartre in the

19th and 20th centuries. This movement was established during Second World War, the Nazi

death camps, and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 23. The circumstances during

these years are called to be the “existentialist moments 24.” The world war had caused people too

much anxiety and trauma, to the extent that they were asking about individual’s freedom and the

meaning of life.

This movement centers man in the universe. One of its key tenets is the emphasis on

individual existence, freedom, and personal responsibility. Furthermore, existentialism has

already been thought of by some philosophers before Sartre, such as Friedrich Nietzsche and

Søren Kierkegaard, however it was brought back by Sartre during the world war, emphasizing

the freedom of each individual25. In the words of Sartre;

23
Kevin Aho, "Existentialism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
& Uri Nodelman (eds.), URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2023/entries/existentialism/>.
24
Ibid.
25
Thomas Flynn, Existentialism: A Very Short Introduction (Great Clarendon Street, Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2006) 120.

7
 “Existentialism’s first move is to make man ever

aware of what he is and to make the full

responsibility of his existence rest on him26.”

In the existentialist framework, man is aware and looks himself in the holistic point of

view. This self-awareness includes the reality of his existence, his choices, values, and the

meaning he creates in his life 27. Hence, there is a sense of responsibility to the part of the

individual because he is the one who develops himself. In fact, existentialist thinkers reject the

idea of pre-determined destinies or external factors shaping one’s life due to the fact that an

individual creates his own essence.

In addition, existentialism is deeply rooted and guided by the nihilist philosophy, which

was established by Friedrich Nietzsche and emerged in the late 19 th century28. According to Aho,

“this historical transition resulted in the loss of a transcendent moral framework and contributed

to the rise of modernity’s signature experiences: anxiety, alienation, boredom, and

meaninglessness29.” Somehow this resulted to Sartre believing that there is no transcendent being

which governs the world, and so individual would face meaninglessness in life.

Jean-Paul Sartre’s Being and Nothingness

This is where the central theme of Sartre’s philosophy focuses. It was written during his

period in the imprisonment in which brought something to the society during the war. This book

was published in the year 1943 which became a foundational text to existential philosophy.

26
Jean-Paul Sartre, Existentialism is a Humanism (Paris: Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin, 1946), 15.
27
Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology (New York: Washington
Square Press, 1992).
28
Kevin Aho, "Existentialism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
& Uri Nodelman (eds.), URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2023/entries/existentialism/>.
29
Ibid.

8
Absolute Freedom and Responsibility

In creating man’s essence he must have the freedom to do such because “man is

condemned to be free30.” Nevertheless, being condemned to be free entails responsibility––the

responsibility of making choices and defining his own existence. Because of this, man is sent

into the world with the absolute freedom. He has to confront this reality – being absolutely free.

It means, he is able to do whatever he wants without the external guidance in order to establish

himself31. Thus, in doing this, man’s choices would profoundly matter in this manner. This also

means that man’s choices are deeply rooted in his responsibility to make himself.

By the fact that man can choose anything, it proves that he has freedom. For the

existentialists, choices are tools for the progress of oneself. This refer to the decisions they make

in their lives. The decisions do not merely mean about selecting something in the options given,

but rather entail the choices for making meaning in one’s life. These choices are what push them

to make their own meaning in their lives and to shape their own identity32.

When dealing about freedom, Sartre conceives it as something radical (absolute) and

unconditional to human beings33. It means that every man is entirely free to make decisions

through the choices he makes without the constraint of anyone or anything which would dictate

his action. This freedom would let him define the meaning of his existence independently which

also shapes his true identity. Since existentialism focuses on man himself, it is only concern

about the reality found on the self, in which enable us not to avoid discussing freedom and things

which can make one’s life better.

30
Jean-Paul Sartre, Existentialism is a Humanism (Paris: Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin, 1946).
31
Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology (New York: Washington
Square Press, 1992).
32
Ibid.
33
Ibid.

9
Existence precedes Essence

To better understand existentialism more, this part is worth dwelling since it also

becomes the fundamental idea within the existential thought. Jean-Paul Sartre believed that man

has no predetermined essence and nature 34. As a result, Sartre comes to believe that the essence

of a man does not come first, but existence––that means, man is being thrown into the world

without any essence and it is up to him how would he establish himself and how could he define

his own essence through their choices and actions35. Hence, one’s essence is only defined when

one has the will to choose to define himself.

This is why Sartre claimed that man is always condemned to be free. That is the very

nature of man––to be free. So, man takes responsibility of himself of how he could establish

himself in such a way he wants himself to be developed. Sartre also asserts that in order to

achieve this, man has to be radically or absolutely free to make choices, even if it could one’s

freedom36. But in order to attain an absolute freedom, Sartre has to deny the existence of God

which makes man to be no inherent nature when he was born. In his words;

"Existentialism is nothing else but an attempt to draw the full conclusions

from a consistently atheistic position. Its intention is not in the least that

of plunging men into despair. And if by despair one means as the

Christians do – any attitude of unbelief, the despair of the existentialists

is something different. Existentialism is not atheist in the sense that it

would exhaust itself in demonstrations of the non-existence of God. It

declares, rather, that even if God existed that would make no difference
34
Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology (New York: Washington
Square Press, 1992).
35
Ibid.
36
Ibid.

10
 from its point of view. Not that we believe God does exist, but we think

that the real problem is not that of His existence; what man needs is to

find himself again and to understand that nothing can save him from

himself, not even a valid proof of the existence of God37."

In other words, Sartre does not necessitate the existence of God in order to determine the

nature of man. Unlike in the Christian context, since every man and woman is created according

to God’s image and likeness, this is how Christians determine their value and dignity. However,

for Sartre man is not determined by any other except himself. Thus, God is simply nothing and

disregarded in the development of man.

Bad Faith

Bad faith is also one of the fundamental concepts of Sartre’s philosophy because this

talks highly of the authenticity of man. This refers to man’s self-deception in which he lives by

adopting norms in the society, false beliefs, roles, and attitudes 38. For Sartre, this is a form of

inauthenticity since authenticity is “based on freedom and responsibility and that one can live in

good faith39.” Therefore, man is expected to use his freedom for his responsibility to determine

himself rather than aligning his choices to the societal expectations because this would mean a

submission of himself to the choices of others.

Sartre does not deny the capacity and the society’s power to influence people. In fact, he

acknowledges the possibility of the individuals to succumb themselves to the pressures that are

predetermined by the society such as adopting its culture and beliefs. However, these pressures

37
Jean-Paul Sartre, Existentialism is a Humanism (Paris: Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin, 1946)
38
Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology (New York: Washington
Square Press, 1992) p. 79.
39
Paria Tirsahar, “Bad Faith an Exploration of the Work of Sartre,” Psychology and Behavioral Science:
International Journal Volume 5 Issue 3 (2017) p. 1.

11
do not only lead the individual to submit himself and his choices, but this is also a submission of

one’s freedom. This submission to the cultural norms and external influences may lead one to

question an individual in his true values.

Furthermore, these challenges that Sartre is referring to are the existential difficulties an

individual may face in recognizing and embracing his absolute freedom. However, Sartre

suggests that in order to get rid of this situation one must remember that he is thrown into the

world and condemned to be free. Because of this, he has given the responsibility for himself and

for everything he does in order to give meaning in life. Thus, this offers an engagement in

authentic projects aligning in the individual’s virtue. By this, it contributes to his self-definition.

Atheistic Sartre

12
 REFERENCES

1. Bakewell, Sarah. At the Existentialist Café: Freedom, Being, and Apricot Cocktails with
Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, Albert Camus, Martin Heidegger, Maurice Merleau-
Ponty, and Others. New York: Other Press, 2016.
2. Cohen-Solal, Annie. Jean-Paul Sartre: A Life. New York: Penguin Books, 1987, 125.
3. Desan, Wilfrid. "Jean-Paul Sartre," Encyclopedia Britannica. June 17, 2023.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jean-Paul-Sartre.
4. Flynn, Thomas. Existentialism: A Very Short Introduction. Great Clarendon Street, Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2006. 120.
5. Flynn, Thomas. Sartre: A Philosophical Biography. United Kingdom, University Printing
House: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
6. Gardiner, Patrick. Jean-Paul Sartre: The Philosopher as a Literary Critic. Sussex University
Press, 1982.
7. Habermas, Jürgen. "Sartre's 'Critique of Dialectical Reason' and the Problem of Alienation."
In The Philosophical Forum, vol. 2, no. 3, 1971, pp. 368-392.
8. Internet encyclopedia of philosophy. Sartre’s Political Philosophy. Accessed January 16,
2024. https://iep.utm.edu/sartre-p/#H2
9. McBride, William. 07 Feb 2020. Search for a method from: The Sartrean Mind. Routledge.
Accessed on: 09 Jan 2024.
https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315100500-25
10. Reid Thomas, Helen. Sartre and Marxism. London: Pluto Press, 1985. 72-85.
11. Reynolds, Jack and Renaudie, Pierre-Jean. “Jean-Paul Sartre”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy. Summer 2022 Edition. Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
<https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2022/entries/sartre/>.
12. Sartre, Jean-Paul. Being and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology. New
York: Washington Square Press, 1992.

13
13. Sartre, Jean-Paul. Critique of Dialectical Reason, Volume 1: Theory of Practical Ensembles.
trans. Alan Sheridan-Smith. London: Verso, 1976. 112-130.
14. Sartre, Jean-Paul. Existentialism is a Humanism. Paris: Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin, 1946.
15.
15. Sartre, Jean-Paul. The Words, tr. Bernard Frechtman. 215 Park Avenue South, New York:
George Braziller, Inc., 1963.
16. Smith, Steven. "Sartre's 'The Transcendence of the Ego': A Critical Analysis." Journal of
Existential Philosophy. vol. 5, no. 2, 2010.
17. Solomon, Robert. Jean-Paul Sartre. London: Routledge, 2009.
18. Thody, Philip and Read, Howard. Introducing Sartre: A graphic guide. UK: Clays LTD,
Elcograf S.p.A., 2013.
19. Tirsahar, Paria. “Bad Faith an Exploration of the Work of Sartre.” Psychology and
Behavioral Science: International Journal Volume 5 Issue 3. 2017. p. 1.

14