ETHICS

Lesson 1 Ethics-Philosophy

What is Ethics?
● A branch of Philosophy and a social science and academic discipline that aids in understanding
and adapting situations that affect lives.
● It is an inquiry into some standard to guide one’s action, or as a tool to understand a given
condition.
● Ancient Greek word ēthikós ( θικόςἠ), "relating to one's character", which itself comes from the
root word êthos ( θοςἦ) meaning "character, moral nature”
● Latin as ethica
● French as éthique, from which it was transferred into English.

Ethics seeks to resolve questions of human morality by defining concepts such as:
● good and evil, right and wrong
● virtue and vice, justice and crime

as a field of intellectual inquiry: Moral philosophy also is related to the fields of:
• Moral psychology
• Descriptive ethics
• Value theory

Rushworth Kidder states that "standard definitions of ethics have typically included such phrases as 'the
science of the ideal human character' or 'the science of moral duty”
Richard William Paul and Linda Elder define ethics as “a set of concepts and principles that guide us
in determining what behavior helps or harms sentient creatures”
Paul and Elder state that most people confuse ethics with behaving in accordance with social
conventions, religious beliefs and the law and don't treat ethics as a stand-alone concept.

Ethics: "theory" of right action and the greater good — "systematic study" of the underlying principles of
morality
Morality: "practice", rightness or wrongness of human action — "prescriptive" (tells us what we ought to
do) & (exhorts us to follw the right way)

Philosophy
Philia: love (strong desire for a particular object)
Sophia: wisdom (correct application of knowledge)
“Love of wisdom”

A science that studies beings in their ultimate causes, reasons and principles through the aid of human
reason alone. All things that exist: material or immaterial (GOD, SOUL, SPIRIT)
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Ethics or Moral Philosophy is a branch of Philosophy that "involves

• Systematizing
• Defending
• Recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior.

Ethics and philosophy

● Greece is traditionally considered the birthplace of philosophy
● Early Greek thinkers realized they needed more than what poets and storytellers could tell about
the world around them
● These Greek wise men were also recognized as “first natural scientists” because of their efforts to
understand the inner workings of nature through theoretical experiments.

Socrates
Appeared in 15th century B.C.
Though not the first one, yet still recognized for being the first to redirect the focus of philosophy from
natural world to the human person.
Roam the street of Athens to teach the importance of critical inquiry beginning from his assumptions
about human beings.

Plato
He took place after his teacher Socrates was executed.
Enhanced the ethical orientation of philosophy, that is, to live according to a certain idea or form of what
life ought to be.

Aristotle
The student of Plato, who carried on what Socrates and Plato started as evidenced in the famous
Aristotelian work “Nicomachean Ethics” – that happiness is the end of human endeavour.
For him, a happy life is not just merely an art of doing particular tasks but also knowing what are these
for.

noted Greek Philosophers

1. Thales of Miletus – postulated this primal matter to be water.
2. Anaximander – a student of Thales, said this substance was unidentifiable and called it “apeiron”
(infinite)
3. Anaximenes – a student of Anaximander said it was air.
4. Anaxagoras – another Greek Philosopher, traced all natural movements to the ordering power of a
cosmic mind or “nous”
5. Pythagoras – described their pursuit as “ philo sophia”
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Philosophy
1. rational critical thinking of more or less systematic kind about the conduct of life, the general
nature of the world, and the justification of belief. (Encyclopedia Americana, 2003)
2. the love or pursuit of wisdom, the search for basic principles (The new Webster’s Dictionary of
the English Language, 1995)
3. the sum of all man’s beliefs and views about the world which guide his actions. (Ariola,1989)
4. the science of the things by their ultimate principles and causes, as known by natural reason
alone. (Pinon, 1995)
5. a human search for meaning, an intellectual quest that goes beyond the boundaries of concrete
knowledge, towards the realm of the abstract where the inquisitive mind finds some satisfaction
and wonder. (Gualdo, 2000)
6. the never-ending search for the total human meaning of our experiences. It is a discipline that
attempts to look for answers to man’s inquisitive mind that begins in wonder and ends in awe.
(Buazon 2002)
7. an attempt to see the wonders at our existence and at our place in the scheme of things. (Melchert,
1999)
8. a systematic, reflective, critical, primarily reason-bound inquiring into the basic assumptions and
guiding beliefs that people use to make sense of any dimension of their lives. (Christensen, 1999)
9. a process by which men ponder, discuss or argue over the use, application limits or meaning of
important ideas. (Bresman and Martin, 1990)
10. the art of questioning everything, the goal of philosophy is wisdom and wisdom requires
questioning what is questionable. (Kolak and Martin, 1990)
11. focuses on conceptual clarity and understanding from ignorance to knowledge. (Earle, 1992)
12. asking the right question that initiates philosophical thinking and direction. (Barry, 1983)

Philosophy is concerned with basically four (4) areas:

Epistemology: The branch of philosophy that studies the nature and scope of knowledge
Metaphysics: The branch of philosophy that studies the nature of reality
Logic: ???
“Value Theory”
Ethics: The branch of philosophy that studies & evaluates human conduct
Aesthetics: The branch of philosophy that studies the nature of beauty

Epistemology (the study of knowledge) deals with the following questions:

1. What is knowledge?
2. What are the truth and falsity, and to what do they apply?
3. What is required for someone to actually know something?
4. What is the nature of perception, and how reliable is it?
5. What are logic and logical reasoning, and how reliable is it?
6. What’s the difference between knowledge and belief?
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Epistemology is concerned with knowledge and problems of knowing. It is the branch of philosophy
concerned with knowledge. Epistemologists study the nature of knowledge, epistemic justification, the
rationality of belief, and various related issues.

A theory knowledge
Objectivist Epistemology
● Believe in Theory Neutral Observational Language
● Objectively Accessing the External World
Subjectivist Epistemology
● Rejects Theory Neutral Observational Language
● Knowledge is Socially and Historically Constructed
● Subjectively Accessing the External World

Nature of Existence Knowledge of Reality

Objectivist Ontology: Social and Natural Reality Exist Independently
Subjectivist Ontology: Reality derived Human Cognitive Process

Metaphysics “ontology” (the study of nature of reality) deals with the following questions:
1. Is there really cause and effect in reality, and if so, how does it work?
2. What is the nature of the physical world, and is there anything other than the physical, such as the
mental or spiritual?
3. What is the nature of human beings?
4. Is there freedom in reality or is everything predetermined?

Metaphysics is concerned with the nature of being itself its origin and essence. It is the branch of
philosophy that examines the fundamental nature of reality, including the relationship between mind and
matter, between substance and attribute, and between potentiality and actuality.

Logic (the science of correct thinking) asks the following questions:

1. What is correct reasoning?
2. What distinguishes a good argument from a bad one?
3. How can we detect a fallacy in argument?
4. What are the criteria in determining the validity of an argument?
5. What are the types of logic?

Ethics (the study of morality) deals with what is right or wrong in human behavior and conduct. It asks
such questions as:
1. What constitutes a person or action being good, bad, right, or wrong, and how do we know
(epistemology)?
2. What part does self-interest or the interest of others play in making moral decisions and judgements?
3. What theories of conduct are valid or invalid and why?
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4. Should we use principles or rules or laws, or should we let each situation decide our morality?
5. Are killing, lying, cheating, stealing, and sexual acts right or wrong, and why or why not?

Axiology (teleology) is concerned with the problem of purpose and value. It is divided into two:
a. ethics (deals with the problem of good and evil, right and wrong and their bearings on morality)
b. aesthetics (deals with the problem of beauty and value as applied to arts)

PHILOSOPHIC WONDER
ARISTOTLE WRITES
For men were first led to study philosophy. as indeed they are today, by wonder. Now, he who is
perplexed and wonders believes himself to be ignorant, they took to philosophy to escape ignorance.

The reason for this choice is that the nature of man is composed of six aspects:
1. Physical
2. Mental
3. Moral
4. Spiritual
5. Social
6. Emotional

Physical – concerned of metaphysics

Mental – concerned of epistemology
Moral – concerned of aesthetics
Spiritual – concerned of epistemology
Social – concerned of aesthetics
Emotional - aesthetics

Key Terms
1. Ethical – comes from the Greek word “ethos”, meaning character. Ethics, then seems to pertain to the
individual character of a person or persons
2. Moral – comes from the Latin word “moralis”, meaning customs or manners morality seems to point to
the relationships between human beings
3. Unethical – means wrong
4. Immoral – means bad
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Lesson 2 Ethics-Morality
Ethics and Morality
Ethics refers to standards of conduct, standards that indicate how one should behave based on moral
duties and virtues, which themselves are derived from principles of right and wrong.

Moral Relativism
Values are determined by the society we grow up in, and there are NO universal values. Moral values are
simply customs or conventions that VARY from culture to culture.

Which of the following is a special case that justifies breaking a generally accepted rule?
1a. You should respect the highway code, but it is ok to drive through a red light if you are late
for work.
1b. You should respect the highway code, but it is ok to drive through a red light if you are taking
a critically ill person to the hospital.
2a. You should keep your word, but it is ok to break a social engagement if something more
interesting comes up.
2b. You should keep your word, but it is ok to break a social engagement if you have just
contracted an infectious disease.
3a. You should pay your taxes, but it is ok not to pay them if you are short of money that year.
3b. You should pay your taxes, but it is ok not to pay them if they are being spent on a nuclear
arms program.

Ethical Dilemmas
An elderly woman living alone in poor circumstances with few friends or relatives is dying, and you, her
friend, are at her bedside. She draws your attention to a small case under her bed, which contains some
mementos along with the money she has managed to save over the years, despite her apparent poverty.
She asks you to take the case and to promise to deliver its contents, after she dies, to her nephew living in
another state. Moved by her plight and by your affection for her, you promise to do as she requests. After
a tearful goodbye, you take the case and leave. A few weeks later the old woman dies, and when you
open the case, you discover that it contains $500,000 dollars. No one else knows about the money, or the
promise you made. You learn that the nephew is a compulsive gambler and has a drug addiction.

What would Kant say you should do?

What would John Stuart Mill say you should do?
What would you do? Why?

Suppose you are a famous anthropologist. One day you find a remote tribe in the middle of the Amazon
rain forest. The tribe is really surprised by your visit. After all, you are the first stranger they have ever
seen. The tribe is just in the middle of a religious ritual. They are preparing to execute 20 prisoners from
a neighboring tribe as a gift to the sun god. However, since they also want to honor you, they offer you
the honor of strangling one of the prisoners with your own hands. If you do that they will let the others go
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back to their own tribe. If you refuse to accept this honor, they will sacrifice all 20 people. You try to tell
them that your god does not allow you to strangle people, but the tribe leader is unwilling to make any
deals. He is very clear, either you strangle one of the prisoners or else all 20 will be killed.

Kant’s Approach To Ethics

Can your actions be consistently generalized? Ask yourself “What if everyone did that?” According to
Kant, if something is wrong, it is always wrong!
• Kant was a moral absolutist.
• Categorical imperatives - (noun / cat-e-gor-i-cal im-per-a-tives) COMMANDS YOU MUST FOLLOW,
REGARDLESS OF YOUR DESIRES. MORAL OBLIGATIONS ARE DERIVED FROM PURE
REASON.

FORMULATION 1: THE UNIVERSALIZABILITY PRINCIPLE

"Act only according to that maxim (a rule or principle of action) which you can at the same time will that
it should become a universal law (something that must always be done in similar situations) without
contradiction."

FORMULATION 2: THE FORMULA OF HUMANITY

"Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of another, always as an end, and
never as a mere means (to use it only for your own benefit, with no thought to the interests or benefit of
the thing you're using)."

Utilitarianism
(noun /u-til-i-tar-i-an-ism) MORAL THEORY THAT FOCUSES ON THE RESULTS, OR
CONSEQUENCES, OF OUR ACTIONS, AND TREATS INTENTIONS AS IRRELEVANT. We care
about morality because we care about human happiness. There is one and only one supreme moral
principle – that we should seek the greatest happiness of the greatest number. Maximize happiness.
Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill (1800).

What do you think is the relationship between pleasure and happiness? Is happiness just the sum of
pleasures, or can you have many pleasures and still be unhappy?
Are the richest nations of the world home to the happiest people in the world?

According to Bertrand Russell (1872- 1970), “To be without some of the things you want is an
indispensable part of happiness.” What did he mean? Do you agree?

Kant’s Approach to Ethics

In Kant’s view, happiness does not equal morality. Only a goodwill has ultimate moral value. Moral rules
should be universal.
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● Special pleading – rationalizing to ourselves

● The golden rule - treat others the way you wish to be treated
● Veil of ignorance - imagine the situation from both points of view

Self Interest Theory

Human beings are always and everywhere selfish. Even if there are objective moral values, we are
incapable of living up to them.

1. Definitional argument – we are selfish when we do what we want to do, and we always do what we
want to do.
2. Evolutionary argument – humans are naturally selfish - programmed (biologically) to survive.
3. Hidden benefits argument – selfish benefits to helping others.
4. Fear of punishment argument – what if I get caught?

Theories of Ethics
While it may be that some values are relative and that people are often selfish, we do not have to conclude
that all values are relative or that people are always selfish. An ethical theory attempts to provide a set of
fundamental moral principles in harmony with our moral intuitions.

Religious Ethics – an authoritative rule book to tell us what rules to follow.

Duty Ethics - Fulfill your obligations. Duties and rights are two sides of the same coin.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory:
● Based on Piaget’s cognitive stages
● Proposed 3 levels and 6 universal stages of moral development
● Developed stages based on interviews using moral dilemmas

Ana and Elsa were best friends. One day they went shopping together. Elsa tried on a sweater and then, to
Ana’s surprise, walked out of the store wearing the sweater under her coat. A moment later, the store’s
security stopped Ana and demanded that she tell him the name of the girl who walked out. He told the
storeowner he’d seen the two girls together and was sure the one who left had been shoplifting. The
storeowner said that Ana that will get into serious trouble if she doesn’t give her friend’s name.

SELF-FOCUSED LEVEL 1
Preconventional Level
No Internalization
Stage 1 Heteronomous Morality
Children obey because adults tell them to obey. People base their moral decisions on fear of punishment.
Stage 2 Individualism, Purpose, and Exchange
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Individuals pursue their own interests but let others do the same. What is right involves equal exchange.

OTHER-FOCUSED LEVEL 2
Conventional Level
Intermediate Internalization
Stage 3 Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, Relationships, and Interpersonal Conformity
Individuals value trust, caring, and loyalty to others as a basis for moral judgments.
Stage 4 Social System Morality
Moral judgments are based on understanding of the social order, law, justice, and duty.

HIGHER FOCUSED LEVEL 3

Postconventional Level
Full Internalization
Stage 5 Social Contract or Utility and Individual Rights
Individuals reason that values, rights, and principles undergird or transcend the law.
Stage 6 Universal Ethical Principles
The person has developed moral judgments that are based on universal human rights. When faced with a
dilemma between law and conscience, a personal, individualized conscience is followed.

1. Punishment
2. Equal exchange; if Elsa is good to you, you’ll be good too
3. You want to be seen as loyal person
4. Based on laws; doesn’t matter what’s the reason; stealing is against the law and you shouldn’t do it
5. Reason behind, examining the law; emphasize basic rights and the democratic processes that give
everyone a say;
6. Your own idea of what is wrong or right and you’re following that; at stage 6 they define the principles
by which agreement will be most just

Although it has been questioned as to whether it applied equally to different genders and different
cultures, Kohlberg’s (1973) stages of moral development is the most widely cited. It breaks our
development of morality into three levels, each of which is divided further into two stages:

Pre-conventional Level (up to age nine): ~ Self-Focused Morality ~

1. Morality is defined as obeying rules and avoiding negative consequences. Children in this stage see
rules set, typically by parents, as defining moral law.
2. That which satisfies the child’s needs is seen as good and moral.

Conventional Level (age nine to adolescence): ~ Other Focused Morality ~

3. Children begin to understand what is expected of them by their parents, teacher, etc. Morality is seen as
achieving these expectations.
4. Fulfilling obligations as well as following expectations are seen as moral law for children in this stage
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Postconventional Level (adulthood): ~ Higher Focused Morality ~

5. As adults, we begin to understand that people have different opinions about morality and that rules and
laws vary from group to group and culture to culture. Morality is seen as upholding the values of your
group or culture.
6. Understanding your own personal beliefs allow adults to judge themselves and others based upon
higher levels of morality. In this stage what is right and wrong is based upon the circumstances
surrounding an action. Basics of morality are the foundation with independent thought playing an
important role.

Integrity
What does integrity mean to you? Do you aspire to be a virtuous person?
Has someone of high moral principles been an inspiration to you?

Reflection - Integrity
1. Have you had ethical dilemmas in your own life? How did you reason your way through them? What
ethics theory best matches your approach?
2. What does integrity mean to you? Do you aspire to be a virtuous person? Has someone of high moral
principles been an inspiration to you?

Assignment 2
How do I know what to do?
Can you choose three values that are universal for all humans?
Why do you think so?

We have clearly made scientific progress over the last three hundred years. Does it also make sense that
we have made moral progress?
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PRELIM QUIZ 1

Moral Philosophy is the branch of philosophy that contemplates what is right and wrong. It explores the
nature of morality and examines how people should live their lives in relation to others.
Utilitarianism deals with the philosophy that an action is right if it provides happiness of individual and
everyone affected; it is wrong if it promotes dissatisfaction and unhappiness.
Rules are instructions that tell you what you are allowed to do and what you are not allowed to do.

Utilitarianism generates universal moral rules (FALSE)

The most important function of ethical theories is to help us solve moral problems to live together
successfully (TRUE)
All moral theories are consequentialist theories (FALSE)
An agent's motives matter for the utilitarian (TRUE)

The definition of absolute is:

Question options:
Perfect in quality, complete, not limited by restrictions or exceptions
Values vary from place to place
It asserts something about reality

Which statement best describes Kantian's categorical imperatives?

Question options:
Humanity does not involve massive calculations about how other people will react to your actions
Humanity demands you treat other people with respect and not as a means to your ends
You can only really know your own desires and how to best meet your needs

The definition of cultural relativism is:

Question options:
There are no moral absolutes, morality is up to a specific culture to decide
There are anthropological facts about cultures
Culture is perfect in quality, complete, not limited by restrictions or exceptions

The following example is what kind of ethical reasoning? I should not lie to my friend about her looking
bad in her new outfit because it is always wrong to lie.
Question options:
Utilitarianism
Absolutism
Relativism
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Lesson 3 Ethics, Metaethics, and Normative Ethics

The Three Main Branches of the Philosophical Study of Ethics

Types of Ethics
1. Meta-ethics: (DESCRIPTIVE) aims to understand the nature and dynamics of ethical principles,
and the way we learn and acquire moral beliefs (Sumner, 1967); rigid, strict; is a branch of
analytic philosophy that explores the status, foundations, and scope of moral values, properties,
and words. 'Meta’ from Greek meaning 'above' or 'after'; (abortion is wrong / honesty is a virtue /
slavery is evil) “WHAT IS GOOD?” Metaethics dig into the morality of ethical claims. (It is
wrong to kill.)
2. Normative Ethics: (PRESCRIPTIVE) seeks to set norms or standards that regulate right and
wrong or good and bad conduct. It is the study of what makes actions right or wrong, what makes
situations or events good or bad and what makes people virtuous or vicious. “Norm” is a useful
word in my course. mas marami bang makikinabang? Mas katanggap-tanggap at that moment.
“DO GOOD AT ALL TIMES” Normative ethics question the good or bad of an action. (Is it
wrong to kill one person to save many lives?)
3. Applied Ethics: actual application of ethical or moral theories for the purpose of deciding which
ethical or moral actions are appropriate in a given situation. Casuists: adherents of applied ethics.

A police officer shoots a terrorist who is about to blow up a crowded shopping mall.
METAETHICS: The act of the police officer is morally wrong.
NORMATIVE ETHICS: It is the right thing to do in this particular situation.
CASUISTS: The police officer is just doing his best to fulfill his duty.

The Goal of Axiology

From Greek axios, "worthy"; logos, "science"
1. Axiology studies what makes things good (or have value) or bad (or have disvalue) (VALUE
THEORY)
2. A distinction is made between:
Intrinsic good: good in and of itself (inherently good)
Extrinsic good: good because it can be used to obtain other things that are good (instrumentally
good)
a) E.g., having money is extrinsically good
b) If money could not be used to obtain other things, money would have no value
3. Much of axiology investigates what things are intrinsically good
a) Many believe that pleasure has intrinsic value
b) It is good whether or not it leads to anything else
c) Does anything else have intrinsic value? knowledge? friendship? love?
d) Some things might be both intrinsically and extrinsically good
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4. A distinction can also be made between things that are intrinsically bad or extrinsically bad
a) Pain is intrinsically bad
b) Drug use is probably only extrinsically bad; if it didn’t have bad consequences it
wouldn’t be bad
5. Some things can be both intrinsically good but extrinsically bad (e.g., the pleasure taken in
unprotected sex)
6. Other things can be both intrinsically bad but extrinsically good. (e.g., pain from exercise)

The Goal of the Normative Ethics of Behavior

1. Primary question: What makes actions right or wrong?
2. An important distinction:
•an act type is a category of actions
•an act token is a specific action performed by a specific person on a specific occasion
a) Jaywalking is an act type (category)
b) My act of jaywalking across North Pleasant Street on my way to campus this morning at
10:37 am is an act token (specific)
c) Two different people can each perform actions of the same type (I can jaywalk at the
same time that you jaywalk)

Ethics and Critical thinking

•Critical – in relation to the thinking process
•Critical thinking is used in this context to refer to the challenge of making individuals critics of their own
thoughts.
•A critical thinker is someone who has acquired the disposition and the skills to be his or her own critic.
•Critical thinking is not confined to the ability to analyze a given issue. It can be used as a tool that can
provide better understanding of the close connection between acting and thinking.

Richard Paul and Lina Elder (2014): They defined critical thinking as a mode of thinking, about any
subject, content or problem – in which the thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking skills by
skillfully taking charge of the structures inherent in thinking and imposing intellectual standards upon
them.

Thinking in ordinary mode such as when one thinks of what to eat or what to include in a schedule for the
next morning is described as first-order thinking. It is the kind of thinking that makes people aware of a
particular object of thought.

The moment a person turns his or her attention to how he or she is thinking instead of simply what he or
she is thinking, then he or she is ready to engage in the second-order thinking.
Examples:
“Drug addiction is wrong”
“Murder is against the law”
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To think about the how and not just what is to engage in reflection, assessment and interpretation.
Therefore, it is not enough to simply state that, “Drug addiction is wrong”, or “ Murder is illegal’’. One
must be able to understand as well as the thought processes that lead to this conclusion.

“Unless one commits himself or herself to the practice of constantly improving the way he or she thinks,
one cannot yet consider himself or herself a critical thinker” Try to have a reflection with this…
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MIDTERM
Lesson 4 ETHICS EGOCENTRISM AND SOCIOCENTRISM
Egocentrism is the tendency to think about the world entirely from their own personal perspective.
MOTIVES OF EGOCENTRIC THINKING
Strives to gain its selfish interests
Strives to validate its current way of thinking

UNSUCCESSFUL EGOCENTRIC THINKING

Defensiveness, Irritability, Arrogance, Anger, Depression, Resentment, Indiffirence, Alienation, Apathy
Concepts Egocentrism
1. Narrow concepts: a lack of differentiation between some aspect of self and other; the tendency to see
reality as centered on oneself.
2. Broad concepts: The inability to differentiate subjective and objective perspectives; It encompasses
realism animism artificialism

Egocentrism and Development

Four stages of Cognitive Development
1. The sensory motor period
2. Preoperational thought
3. Concrete operation
4. Formal operation

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor (0-2 years old) Coordination of senses with motor responses, sensory curiosity about the
world. Language used for demands and cataloguing. Object permanence is developed.
Preoperational (2-7 years old) Symbolic thinking, use of proper syntax and grammar to express concepts.
Imagination and intuition are strong, but complex abstract thoughts are still difficult. Conservation is
developed.
Concrete Operational (7-11 years old) Concepts attached to concrete situations. Time, space, and quantity
are understood and can be applied, but not as independent concepts.
Formal Operational (11 years old and older / 12 and up) Theoretical, hypothetical, and counterfactual
thinking. Abstract logic and reasoning. Strategy and planning become possible. Concepts learned in one
context can be applied to another.
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THREE MOUNTAIN TEST

Little Timmy sees the bigmountain and Davie the Doll "sees" the smaller mountain
Piaget's "3 mountains" egocentrism test:
"Draw how the mountains would look from the doll's point of view."
Timmy's egocentrism prevents him from seeing Davie's perspective... Timmy would draw the big
mountain

Egocentric behaviors are less prominent in adulthood, the existence of some forms of egocentrism in
adulthood indicates that overcoming egocentrism may be a lifelong development that never achieves
completion. Adults appear to be less egocentric than children because they are faster to correct from an
initially egocentric perspective than children, not because they are less likely to initially adopt an
egocentric perspective.

Adolescent Egocentrism
The characteristic of adolescent thinking that leads young people (teenagers) to focus on themselves to the
exclusion of others. A young person might believe that his or her thoughts, feelings and experiences are
unique, more wonderful or awful than anyone else. A personal fable is an adolescent's belief that he is
special, and hence invulnerable.

Imaginary Audience
An individual believes that people around him are enthusiastically watching him.

Adolescence
Adolescent egocentrism
1. Imaginary audience - Adolescents' belief that others are as interested in them as they themselves
are, as well as attention-getting behavior motivated by the desire to be noticed, visible, and "on
stage"
2. Personal fable – belief that s/he is unique everyone is watching
3. Hypocrisy – okay for one to do it but not another
4. Pseudostupidity use of oversimplified logic
Social development: Time of drifting or breaking away from family -

Characteristics of an egocentric person

1. Selfish
2. Self assertive
3. Self interested thinking
4. Superior
5. Self serving bias
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Signs of self-absorbed people:

1. They are always defensive. They do not see the world from another person’s eyes. They would rather
see it from theirs and protect their flaws and image with everything they’ve got.
2. They don’t see the big picture. A self-absorbed person thinks the world is just about them. Thus, the
world, from their point of view, is a place comprising them and perhaps a few persons around them who
they can control. How the world affects other people really doesn’t concern them.
3. They are imposing. They frequently use words like “should” or “must.” They want to dominate in any
relationship because they see relationships as a tool for getting what they want and making themselves the
center of attention.
4. They feel insecure sometimes. They are not complete. They always have a missing gap in their world.
And you may be the person they try to use to fill those gaps.
5. They always think they are superior to others. They are so consumed by their own world and self
image that it is near impossible for other people to measure up to their standards. They maintain a
superiority complex that most commonly leads to them devaluing others.
6. They consider friendships a tool for getting what they want. Don’t assume that they are overly
concerned with the friendship that they have with you. This is why they have so many friends and are not
overly concerned with the number of friends they have: they view friends as tools for getting what they
want.
7. They are extremely opinionated. It is always about their opinions. They do not want to consider the
opinions of others; due to their self-absorption they are consumed by their own point of view, self-image,
desires and preferences.
8. They do not have long lasting relationships. Since their relationships are built around the idea of
quantity and using people as tools to get what they want, they do not have long lasting relationships or
quality ones.
9. They do not have a real sense of empathy. Since their display of sympathy or compassion is usually
conditional, it is difficult for them to understand the depth of true empathy or what this concept really
means.
10. They hide their insecurities behind a cloak of success. The truth is that no matter what sort of
success they have, they will always feel inadequate internally. While they may appear successful or
confident based on appearances and external achievements, internally, they have fears relating to
self-esteem.
11. They devalue others. Constructive criticism is okay, but self- absorbed people always take criticism
too far and use it as a weapon to allow them to devalue others.
13. They hide who they are. They will present the best and most captivating part of their personality to
you. As they are so self-absorbed, they do not want you to see the hidden elements that make them feel
secretly insecure. This can lead to them coming across as pretentious and them failing to be vulnerable in
relationships.
14. They are extremely selfish. Every human is selfish. But there are certain occasions when you have to
make exceptions and take actions without expecting anything in return. This is not so for the
self-absorbed person.
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15. They think they are great and the world out there is wrong. They do not self-heal. If they have
been hurt, they would rather rebuke the world for this rather than self-heal.

For the self-absorbed person, the problem is either “you” or the “other”- never “me”. Most of the time, it
will seem like no form of self-healing or therapy would suit them as they are focused on all the wrongs
the world has done to them, never accepting any responsibility.

Kinds of Egocentric Person

Scrappy Doo
This little dog has an ego bigger than his uncle as he believes he can solve any crime and fight any
monster single handedly. You will rarely find a cartoon character so vehemently described as Scrappy
Doo, but hate him if you must, this pup did keep the much beloved Scooby Doo on the air. Perhaps he got
his ego from knowing that Shaggy and Scooby Doo's jobs depended on him being the puppy that
everyone loved to hate.

Duffy Duck
Duffy Duck is perhaps the original egomaniac of cartoons. He always places himself first and would sell
out his best friend if meant getting rich or saving his own skin. His arrogance and greed often get him into
trouble, which in the end make him worse off than whoever he betrayed and yet this stubborn duck
continues to believe that he is better than everyone else. It is no wonder then that nearly every episode
found some way of punishing Daffy and he still never got the hint.

Johnny Bravo
This twenty something mash up of James Dean and Elvis Presley has an ego that often gets him into large
amounts of trouble. Despite the fact that he has never had a successful relationship, lives with his mother
and spends most of his time being outsmarted by a little girl, he still manages to think highly of himself.
This can actually be considered quite the accomplishment, especially his die hard belief that every woman
that beats him up "wants him."

Cobra Commander
The supreme leader of the terrorist organization Cobra. Like most evil villains he has an ego, but his ego
trumps most others that you will find. He would often lead assaults himself, and then be the first to retreat
if things ever went badly. He would also work his troops almost to the point of mutiny and most of his
plans failed because of his own arrogance. His life revolved around a desire for power and he would allow
nothing but himself to get in the way of his ambition.

Lex Luthor
This power hungry businessman loves himself almost as much as the rest of the world seems to. Lex
managed to go to prison and become a supervillain while still having the support and love of the public.
It's hard not to be an egomaniac when you can do everything wrong and people still cannot help but love
you.
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Stewie
Stewie has become one of the most infamous cartoon characters on television. He is a genius infant who
constantly builds devices bent on world domination, or to kill Lois. He also runs a number of get rich
quick schemes that always seem to work out and he refuses to help anyone but himself, not even Brian
who is the closest thing he has to a friend. He has a habit of berating everyone around him in a superior
tone and honestly believes that he was born in a family of no talent imbeciles.

Duckman
This guy never knew when to quit, unless of course there was something better to do. This lowly widower
private eye made a very poor living and does little to support his children or do anything meaningful with
his life. His end goal is to simply make enough money to ensure that they don't turn off his beloved cable.
His assistant Comfed, does most of the work and allows Duckman to be a selfish, lazy oaf while still
having money to at least attempt to care for his children.

Brainy Smurf
Brainy Smurf was the most stubborn, arrogant and egotistical of all the smurfs. He was always lording his
intelligence over the other smurfs, even though when push came to shove the other smurfs had more
common sense than Brainy could ever dream of. The only person that could even begin to convince
Brainy that he was wrong about something was Papa Smurf. Brainy never learned though, and many
episodes focused on trying to get Brainy out of trouble after he had tried to prove that he truly was better
than all of the other smurfs.

Brain
This common lab mouse believes that he has the ability to take over the world. He puts all of his faith in
his supposed intelligence, though he will either overestimate the abilities of his mindless assistant Pinky
or the success of the plan itself. Brain truly believes that he is the only creature with the mental capacity
necessary to rule the world. Though in some episodes he does express his wish to make the world a better
place through his power, his ego and unemotional nature makes that goal seem unlikely.

PROBLEMS FACED BY EGOCENTRIC PERSONS

1. Barrier to friendship and intimate relationship
2. Constraint on skill performances that are crucial for academic achievement
3. Lack of social knowledge or social skills
4. Emotional problems

EGOCENTRIC THINKING
1. Humans do not naturally consider therights and needs of others
2. Humans become explicitly aware ofegocentric thinking only if they train to do so
3. Humans do not naturally recognize their self- serving perspectives
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EGOCENTRICITY
A tendency to view everything in relationship to oneself
One's desires, values, and beliefs seemed to be self-evidently correct

How to Overcome The Egocentrism

SELF AWARENESS
to reflect on our reasoning and behavior;
to make our beliefs explicit, critique them, and, when they are false, stop making them; to apply the same
concepts in the same ways to ourselves and others;
to consider every relevant fact, and to make our conclusions consistent with the evidence; and
to listen carefully and open mindedly to others.

IF YOU ARE EGOCENTRIC, WHAT CAN YOU DO?

1. You must recognize that this is the way you think.
2. You must realize that it is fixable! It isn't really hard to fix, but it will take time.
3. You need to change your thinking styles.
4. You need to have a willingness (and make the effort) to remember occasions when you were
wrong in the past
5. Install a Self-Motor in your mind.
6. Ask people you trust to also monitor you.
7. Don't make a halfhearted effort, and don't give up

Egocentric & Sociocentric

It is true because I believe it.
It is true because I want to believe it
It is true because it is in my vested interest to believe it.
It is true because I have always believed it.

It is true because we believe it.

It is true because we want to believe it
It is true because it is in our vested interest to believe it.
It is true because we have always believed it.
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What is egocentrism?
Seeing things only from a person's own point of view

Cognitions during preoperational stage of development are dominated by:

Egocentrism and magical beliefs

What philosophical study of ethics would argue this: "If we agree that morality is whatever
produces the best consequences, but disagree about whether the death penalty produces the
best consequences".
Applied ethics

What does the theory of value study?

The ethical study of beauty.
The moral study of well being.
The philosophical study of life.

Metaethics studies the foundations of what?

Deontology
Morality
Theology

It studies what makes things good or bad:

Aesthetics
Axiology
Teleology

Abortion?
Normative ethics
Applied ethics
Meta-physics

Branch of Philosophy that emphasizes nature of values:

Axiology

Father of western philosophy

Socrates

Greek word of "study"

Logos
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"You desire to achieve high grades, then you ought to study", Immanuel Kant called this as,
Categorical imperatives

Lesson 5 Self and Philosophical Ethics

Jean Piaget - As a psychologist, he focused on the human subject's cognitive development or the
development of his or her ability to know. Piaget theorized that the human ability to know evolves in
stages and has distinct peculiarities appropriate for each particular stage.

"The self is fundamentally social and cognitive. It should be distinguished from the individual who also
has a non-cognitive attribute."

His theory states that the human ability to know emerges in stages and has distinct peculiarities.

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor 0-2 years old, Coordination of senses with motor responses, sensory curiosity about the
world. Language used for demands and cataloguing. Object permanence is developed.
Preoperational (2-7 years old) Symbolic thinking, use of proper syntax and grammar to express concepts.
Imagination and intuition are strong, but complex abstract thoughts are still difficult. Conservation is
developed.
concrete operational (7-11 years old), Concepts attached to concrete situations. Time, space, and quantity
are understood and can be applied, but not as independent concepts.
formal operational (11 years and older) Theoretical, hypothetical, and counterfactual thinking. Abstract
logic and reasoning. Strategy and planning become possible. Concepts learned in one context can be
applied to another.

This is different from the notion of pre- modern thinkers who presumed that the human ability to know is
good to go right from the start. Pre-modern thinkers took for granted that the human person, along with
his or her abilities, is subject to a developmental process. This development is always from simple to
complex, from the very few to multiple. Piaget’s theory, while centered on knowing, has important
implications for understanding the self. It suggests that self-knowledge happens as a process and is
integral to the history of a person. There is no maturity; neither does it happen overnight: it is a
process that unfolds though time. The mature person is the individual who can bear with himself or
herself as he or she undergoes the whole experience.

Lawrence Kohlberg - His theory is directly and closely related to ethics. Proposed 3 levels and 6 universal
stages of moral development

LEVEL 1
Preconventional Level
No Internalization
Stage 1 Heteronomous Morality
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Children obey because adults tell them to obey. People base their moral decisions on fear of punishment.
Stage 2 Individualism, Purpose, and Exchange
Individuals pursue their own interests but let others do the same. What is right involves equal exchange.
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LEVEL 2
Conventional Level
Intermediate Internalization
Stage 3 Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, Relationships, and Interpersonal Conformity
Individuals value trust, caring, and loyalty to others as a basis for moral judgments.
Stage 4 Social System Morality
Moral judgments are based on understanding of the social order, law, justice, and duty.

LEVEL 3
Postconventional Level
Full Internalization
Stage 5 Social Contract or Utility and Individual Rights
Individuals reason that values, rights, and principles undergird or transcend the law.
Stage 6 Universal Ethical Principles
The person has developed moral judgments that are based on universal human rights. When faced with a
dilemma between law and conscience, a personal, individualized conscience is followed.

1. Punishment
2. Equal exchange // If Elsa is good to you, you’ll be good too
3. You want to be seen as loyal person
4. Based on laws; doesn’t matter what’s the reason // stealing is against the law and you shouldn’t do it
5. Reason behind, examining the law // emphasize basic rights and the democratic processes that give
everyone a say;
6. Your own idea of what is wrong or right and you’re following that // at stage 6 they define the
principles by which agreement will be most just

While Piaget highlighted a person’s cognitive development, Kohlberg concentrated on a person’s

moral development. Like Piaget, he believed that a person proceeds to moral maturity in gradual
stages. In other words, one does not become a moral person at once. The moral quality of a person
depends on the quality of his or her moral reasoning which itself undergoes transformation.
Therefore, one is not expected to resolve a particular dilemma if it involves a level of complexity that
is not appropriate for his or her moral stage. The point in which one struggles to fit in a larger community.
The main issue for a person introduced to a new environment is accord and conformity. A person in
Victoria’s situation, for instance, is tasked to decide the limit and extent of what one can retain
and what one is willing to compromise.
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George Herbert Mead

Social psychology is especially interested in the effect which the social group has in the determination of
the experience and conduct of the individual member. (George H. Mead)

George Mead was born February 1863 in Massachusetts, USA. He graduated and taught grade school at
the Oberlin College. In 1887, he enrolled at Harvard University where his main interests were philosophy
and psychology. During the span of his career, he wrote and published many articles and book reviews but
did not publish any book. It was his students who put together his numerous writings and edited them for
publication. Mead died of heart failure in 1931. Mead analyzed through behavior and interacting of an
individual’s self with reality. Mead rejects the view that psychology deals with consciousness in the sense
of something existing prior to and bringing about behavior. But he is just as much opposed to
Behaviorism which deals exclusively with bodily processes. Psychology for Mead studies inner
experience or activity which arises within a social process. The paradigm is language, which consists both
of meaning or intelligence and intercommunicative (social behavior). For Mead, the mind is well
characterized by the process of meaning, knowing, significance, and reflection. At the center of his
theorizing is the concept of the self. He described the self as a 'dimension of personality that is made-up
of the individual's self- awareness and self-image' (Macionis, 2012).

Social Behaviorism – used by Mead to describe the power of the environment in shaping human behavior
Self – a dimension of personality that is made-up of the individual’s self-awareness and self image
• cannot be separated from the society
• development is dependent on social interaction and social experience

1. Preparatory Stage - children imitate people around them. Symbols: gestures, objects and words that
form basis of human communication. Mead believed that a self did not exist at birth. Instead, the self
develops over time. Its development is dependent on social interaction and social experience. It was
observed that children imitate the behaviors of those around them. As these children grow, they become
familiar with the symbols (verbal and non-verbal) that people use in their interactions. The symbols are
the bases of communication. At the first stage, (Schaefer, 2012) knowing and understanding the symbols
are important for this will constitute their way of communicating with others throughout their lives.

2. Play Stage - children begun to role play and pretend to be other people. Role taking: assuming
perspective of another and responding in that imagined viewpoint. At this stage, skills at knowing and
understanding the symbols of communication is important for this constitutes the basis for socialization.
Through communication, social relationships are formed. Now children begin to role play and pretend to
be other people. Role-taking in the play stage according to Mead is the process of mentally assuming the
perspective of another person to see how this person might behave or respond in a given situation
(Schaefer, 2012). The play stage is significant in the development of the self. It is at this stage where the
child widens his perspective and realizes that he is not alone and that there are others around him whose
presence he has to consider.
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3. Game Stage – about 8 or 9; child begins to consider several tasks and relationships simultaneously;
does more than just role-taking; Generalized others. In one instance/situation, the child begins to consider
several tasks and various types of relationships simultaneously. Through the learning that were gained in
stage two, the child now begins to see not only his own perspective but at the same time the perspective of
others around him. In this final stage of self-development, the child now has the ability to respond not just
to one but several members of his social environment.

Generalized Other – attitudes, viewpoints and expectations of society as a whole that a child takes into
account.
• Recognition of the child that there are other people and roles in the world
• The child starts to understand that the universe doesn’t revolve around them and that they are part of the
bigger picture

Stages of Self-formation
Stage Existence of Self Characteristics

Preparatory Stage None Imitates Another

Play Stage Developing Role-taking

Game Stage Present Generalized Other

Mead’s Theory of the Self

• Self is NOT present at birth but begins as a central character in a child’s world
• Children see themselves as the center of the universe
• As the person matures, the self changes and begins to reflect greater concerns about reactions of others.

Significant others – individuals most important in the development of the Self; family

The formation of the self is NOT the end of the process of socialization.
• Socialization continues for as long as the person is alive.
• The self may change based on life circumstances that have strong impact on it.

One of the influences of Kohlberg’s theory of development.

Mead studied psychology and sociology, and traces of these disciplines are notable in his work. Social
experience is central to Mead’s concept of the development of the self. It requires an environment where
interactions with other selves are possible, particularly, interactions that allow shared meanings.
Immersion in such a world enables the self to create itself and, in doing so, motivates an individual to
shape his or her world for the better.
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Rationalization is a defense mechanism (ego defense) in which apparent logical reasons are given to
justify behavior that is motivated by unconscious instinctual impulses.
Rationalization is an attempt to find reasons for behaviors, especially one’s own.
Rationalizations are used to defend against feelings of guilt, maintain self-respect, and protect oneself
from criticism.

Self-concept can be developed through the stories we hear.

Self-concept develops, in part, through interaction with others.

The Three Components of “Self-Concept"

Embodies the answer to the question "Who am I?"

Self-image is the mental picture, generally of a kind that is quite resistant to change, that depicts not only
details that are potentially available to objective investigation by others (height, weight, hair color, etc.),
but also items that have been learned by persons about themselves, either from personal experiences by
internalizing the judgments of others. It’s not what you say out of your mouth that determines your life, it’s
what you whisper to yourself that has the most power! – Robert Kiyosaki. Whenever you ask: How do I
look? How am I doing? How important am I? These assets and liabilities often are evident through the
labels you give yourself that describe your qualities and characteristics. For instance, you might say:
I am intelligent... therefore I can...
I am loser... therefore I believe I can’t...
I am outgoing... therefore I am able to...
I am shy... therefore I am unable to...

Your self-image is not something that is based on reality; in fact, far from it. In actuality, your self-image
is built upon your perception of reality and that is influenced by how you believe you’re being viewed by
society and other people.

Real-self
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● Actualizing tendency
● Positive regard
● Self-regard
Ideal-self
● Striving
● Ambitious
● Self-worth

Then consider all the ways that you are already being, or making steps toward being, your ideal self. Keep
in mind that even small actions count. For instance, if you’d like to be a world traveler, it’s significant if
you have given thought to the parts of the globe you’d like to visit.
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Self-esteem isn't how other people see you. It's how you see yourself. Self-esteem is the judgment of
opinion we hold about ourselves. It’s the extent to which we perceive ourselves to be worthwhile and
capable human beings. “Self-esteem is the picture we have of ourselves.”

Factors influencing Self Esteem

● Feedback friends and others
● Family Environment
● Achievement
● Physical Appearance
● Self belief
● Task proficiency

Your Personal Identity “Who Are You?”

Roles. Where have you taken on responsibilities in your life?
Family History. Where have you come from
Learning. What have you learned and what are you hoping to learn
Values. What is really important to you?
Strengths. What skills and talents do you have?

Basic Psychological Needs

Belonging. A sense that someone truly cares about you. That you are in a mutual and loving relationship
with another person.
Recognition. A sense that you are acknowledged for what you accomplish and who you are. To feel
significant, that you make an impact.
Freedom. The need to have choice in your life, to have a sense of control over the decisions that direct
your behavior. To be free from a sense of external control.
Self-Esteem. The need to feel competent & confident. The sense that you can achieve results, make good
decisions, and you will stand by your principles.
Fun. The need to have joy and laughter in your life. The sense that we can experience elation and light
heartedness.
Safety. The need to feel physically and psychologically safe. Free from emotional and physical threats or
harm.

Ideal self

Self-concept is what we know and believe about ourselves. It is the sum total of a person's beliefs about
his or her own attributes. It is made up of self-schema
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ETHICS AND POLITICS

Why do we need Ethics in Politics?

THE IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS
Ethics embodies honesty, accountability, integrity, empathy and just knowing the difference between what
is right and what is wrong. This includes operating strictly as a policy-driven individual.

Ethics should be an integral part of politics.

Citizens began to demand ethical behavior their business and political leaders.
Ethics is important, from a moral viewpoint.

Ethics is a requirement for human life. It is our means of deciding a course of action. Without it, our
actions would be random and aimless. There would be no way to work towards a goal because there
would be no way to pick between a limitless number of goals. Even with an ethical standard, we may be
unable to pursue our goals with the possibility of success. To the degree which a rational ethical standard
is taken, we are able to correctly organize our goals and actions to accomplish our most important values.
Any flaw in our ethics will reduce our ability to be successful in our endeavors.

Politics- as a term is generally applied to art of science of running governmental or state affairs, including
behavior within civil governments. It consists of “social relations involving authority or power and to the
methods and tactics used to formulate and apply policy.

POLITICAL ETHICS
Political ethics are a set of codes.
Political ethics balance the needs of situations with ethical questions.
Politics can involve a wide variety of ethical issues.
Politicians struggle with ethical dilemmas every day.

A CODE OF ETHICS FOR POLITICIANS

1. Tell the truth
2. Takes responsibility
3. Rise above the fray
4. Listen
5. Criticize the argument, not the person; Ad hominem
6. Don’t make promises you can’t keep
7. Spend fairly
8. Remember what it’s all about
9. Take a break
10. Lose well
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Managing Ethics in Public Service

1. Clear ethical standards
2. Reflected in legal framework
3. Ethical guidance
4. Information
5. Reinforce ethical conduct
6. Transparent decision-making
7. Public and private sector interaction
8. Promote ethical conduct
9. Dealing with misconduct

Three Ethical Theories

Utilitarian
Greatest good for all
Each person's worth or happiness is equal
Morality = aggregate happiness
Questions re:
Individual rights
One measure of "good"

Kant
Rights/duties of persons
Treat all persons as ends, not means
Morality can be vs. happiness
Questions re:
Categorical Imp
Self-possession vs. duties to self, others
He reasoned that if there is no God then there are objective moral requirements that are not possibly met
that the moral good of virtue and the natural good of happiness embrace and become perfect in a “highest
good.”

Aristotle
Purpose of life, action
Objective concept of self-actualization. Self-actualization is achieved when you're able to reach your full
potential.
Morality = virtue = fulfill rational nature
Questions re:
Equality vs. merit
Objective concept of fulfillment?

Is Ethics Relevant in Politics?

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A few examples may illustrate why ethics in politics matters.

• Citizen rights.
• Information,
• freedom and respect
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Morals, generally describe one’s personal beliefs and values as to what is right and wrong, whereas ethics
refers to a wide range of moral principles solely based on a gray area of questionable activity.

WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ETHICAL AND UNETHICAL

An ethical issue is one that is done with the intention of being either moral or immoral. Morals and ethics
are two sides of the same coin.

Ethical and Unethical Politics

Ethical Politics
• Behavior that benefits both the individual and the organization
• Creates a win-win situation
Meeting the goal of human relations
Stakeholders approach to ethics
• When dealing withpeople outside the firm

Unethical Politics
• Behavior that benefits the individual and hurts the organization
• Creates a win-lose situation
• Includes management behavior that helps the organization, but hurts the individual

In Politics, Aristotle declared that "man is by nature a political animal" - He meant that it is only within a
political community that human beings can live the good life. From this viewpoint, then, politics is an
ethical activity concerned with creating a just society. Ethics and Politics complete one another

Ethics and Politics in Aristotle's Philosophy

• Ethics and politics complete one another.
• Politics -- TohitIkov – the study (or more correctly, the science) of human affairs happinness, the
question of good life, laws, customs, and institutions of a community (polis). - concerns human -
..the city-state (polis) is a natural growth, and that man is by nature a political animal..." (Politics, 1253a)

Aristotelian Ethics and Politics

● Virtue/excellence is basic concept of goodness
● Best life for individual and state is virtuous citizenship
● Key concept is not equality but merit or purpose
● Just society = institutions → right purposes, e.g.
Military > security, order
Family → raising children
Education → ethics and
knowledge
Politics → common good
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Liberal challenge:
Modern society is morally plural: different concepts of "the good life," virtue e.g. Catholic housewife in
Philly vs. gay hairdresser in Frisco
Aristotelian ideas may violate liberty, fairness, e.g.
Liberty:
- surrogate mother case
- military service = duty?
Fairness: disability cases
- cheerleader, Casey Martin

Aristotle on Ethics and Politics

To profit from ethical inquiry we must resolve the debate over what is best for human beings. Ethics is not
a theoretical discipline it is a practical discipline. We seek knowledge in ethics not because we want to
know the nature of what is best for human beings, but because we want to flourish. We seek an answer to
the question: What is good? In asking this question we do not wish to know which particular things are
good, such as friendship or pleasure. Rather, we seek to know what the highest good is. The highest good
has three characteristics: it is desirable for itself, it is desirable for the sake of some other good, and all
other goods are desirable for its sake.

Man is by nature a political animal. (Aristotle)

By this, he meant that people were naturally destined to live in groups, which required some sort of ruler
or government. According to Aristotle, only by living in a community "to secure the good life" could
human beings achieve such virtues as courage, honesty, and justice. In his time, this human community
was a city-state like Athens.

Politics, the doctrine of the state

• People can only live in a society in terms of the political system, because "man is by nature a political
creature."
• To properly arrange the social life people need politics
• The essence of politics is revealed through its purpose is to give the citizens of high moral qualities, to
make their people to act justly
• The state - a product of natural development, but at the same time the highest form of communication
• Man by nature is the political creature and the state finish the process of the political nature of man
• The best form of the state, according to Aristotle, is a polity - a set of mikld to moderate oligarchy and
democracy. the state of "middle class"

Politics is about ethics and morality, openly or not openly. - Aleksandar Hemon
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What is ethics of power and politics?

ETHICS OF POWER AND POLITICS CAN BE PRACTICED WHEN AN INDIVIDUAL BEHAVE
ETHICALLY BY SATISFYING THE FOLLOWING CRITERIA:
UTILITARIANISM: An individual's action must bring maximum good to тахітит реоple.
RIGHTS: An individual's action must respect the rights of other parties.
JUSTICE: An individual's action must conforms to standards of equity and justice.

The worst mistake which was ever made in this world was the separation of political science from ethics.
(Leo Tolstoy)

Is it less dishonest to do what is wrong because it is not expressly prohibited by written law? Let us hope
our moral principles are not yet in that stage of degeneracy. Thomas Jefferson

When a man assumes a public trust he should consider himself a public property. Thomas Jefferson

St. Thomas Aquinas, a medieval Roman Catholic scholar, reconciled the political philosophy of Aristotle
with Christian faith. In doing so, he contended that a just ruler or government must work for the "common
good" of all.
the human person must strive to live a life of virtues so that he or she can grow steadily in increasing
stages of perfection until one attains ultimate happiness through and with God.
He is a religious thinker who proposed an ethical theory that emphasizes the unity of human existence.

Aquinas described four kinds of law:

1. Eternal law was God’s perfect plan, not fully knowable to humans. It determined the way things
such as animals and planets behaved and how people should behave.
2. Divine law, primarily from the Bible, guided individuals beyond the world to "eternal happiness"
in what St. Augustine had called the "City of God."
3. Natural law, reason is placed by God, hence human beings, use reason to lead their lives. The
master principle of natural law, wrote Aquinas, was that "good is to be done and pursued and evil
avoided. Aquinas stated, "the light of reason is placed by nature [and thus by God] in every man
to guide him in his acts." Aquinas stated that reason reveals particular natural laws that are good
for humans such as self-preservation, marriage and family, and the desire to know God. Reason,
he taught, also enables humans to understand things that are evil such as adultery, suicide, and
lying.
4. Human law "an ordinance of reason for the common good" made and enforced by a ruler or
government. Human law could vary with time, place, and circumstance

Aquinas further observed that people tend to look only after their own self-interest. "Therefore, in every
multitude there must be some governing power" to direct people toward the "common good.“ The
common good included such things as protecting life, preserving the state, and promoting the peace.
Aristotle would have called this "the good life."
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St. Thomas has considered exceptions:

theologian (religious scholar)
Thomas Aquinas Combined Reason and Faith
1. Under certain conditions custom can abolish written law
2. Under certain conditions one may disobey so-called unjust laws and may even be obligated to
disobey them.
3. When cases arise which the written law was not intended to cover , those who have the authority
to make the law may also suspend.
4. In emergencies, when such cases arise but there is no time to consult authority, the citizens
themselves may set aside the words of the law to follow intentions instead.

Power and Organization

• Energy
• Influence
• Achievement
• Relationships

Why politics is not a dirty word in organization?

Politics is the power to influence others towards getting the work done. According to marry parker Follet:
"Management is the art of getting work done through others” Same role is played by the politics in the
organization. A positive politics is very much essential for the healthy growth of the organization. A
positive politics managers to lead their subordinates in their work towards achievement of overall goals of
the organization rather than gaining self-interest. A positive politics helps to gain the achievements and
enables the progress of the organization by co-ordinating efforts of different departments towards
achievement of organizational goals, A positive politics helps in maintain ing good personnel
relationships.

Citizen Participation in Strengthening and Transforming Political Parties in the Philippines

EXAMPLES OF LAWS/ACTS WHICH ARE LEGAL BUT IMMORAL

ACT/LAW LEGAL IMMORAL

CIVIL WEDDING Recognized by the State, Not recognized by the

Family Code of the Catholic Church as
Philippines, solemnized sacramental wedding, not
by a judge blessed by God as
solemnized by a priest or
deacon.

MARTIAL LAW (PD Recognized by the state Generally considered

1081) during Marcos era immoral due to human
right abuses as a
consequence of the law

NOT PROVIDING ALMS Quezon City government The Bible teaches charity
TO BEGGARS IN passed the anti- especially the poor who
QUEZON CITY mendicancy law that really in need.
prohibits alms-giving
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ETHICS AND POLITICS

Why ethics matter?
= Interest to morally act and judge has no institutional embodiment.
= Moral reasoning is always problematic and provokes participation
= Ethics intrudes in all types of human communication.

STAGES IN THE STUDY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

1. Religious Stage - the government, its leaders, and laws were considered as divine or divinely inspired.
2. Metaphysical Stage - the state was considered as a human institution and it is therefore absolute (cannot
be changed)
3. Modern Stage - the state was deemed capable of being improved by rulers and subjects according to
certain principles and laws.

THE VIRTUE OF JUSTICE, ESPECIALLY IN RELATION TO LAW

Whether mercy is a Virtue?
The classical tradition has considered mercy a virtue. In the first place, pity, lie, anger, can impede
deliberation. Virtue - behavior showing high moral standards.

In the second place, the virtue of justice involves punishment, but mercy involves remission of
punishment. Besides, even if the acts of mercy are meritorious, it might be argued that they are merely
effects of another virtue. St. Thomas shows that the virtue of mercy is as genuine as the virtue of justice.
Whether justice is fittingly defined as being the perpetual and constant will to render to each one his right.
According to a long tradition, justice is a constant and perpetual will to give to each person his right. In
our day the expression “right” is most often used to signify a liberty to do something. In the classical
definition of justice, however, the term is used in as much broader sense: A person’s “right” is whatever is
his, whatever he deserves, whatever is his properly due to him.

Whether judgment is an act of justice.

Before you can render someone, what is due to him, you have to know what is due to him. So the act of
giving him his right seems to presuppose a prior act of judging what is right is.

Whether it is lawful to judge?

Human law appoints certain persons judges, but is it really right for any mere human to stand in
judgment? The objectors think that the answer should be “NO” in their view, human judgment is
condemned both by natural and divine law.

Whether we should always judge according to the written law?

The act of judgment is the means by which justice is actualized, and justice is in turn connected with all
the rest of the virtues.

DIFFERENT KINDS OF JUSTICE

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1. Distributive justice - refers to the extent to which society’s institutions ensure that benefits and burdens
are distributed among society’s members in ways that are fair and just. When the institutions of a society
distribute benefits in unjust ways, there is a strong presumption that those institutions should be changed.
Equality of distribution of benefits and burdens
2. Retributive or corrective justice- refers to the extent to which punishments are fair and just. In general,
punishments are held to be just to the extent that they take into account relevant criteria such as the
seriousness of the crime and the intent of the criminal, and discount irrelevant criteria such as race.
3. Compensatory justice - refers to the extent to which people are fairly compensated for their injuries by
those who have injured them, just compensation is proportional to the loss inflicted on a person.

Justice, then, is a central part of ethics and should be given due consideration in our moral lives

In evaluating any moral decision, we must ask whether our actions treat all persons equally. If not, we
must determine whether the difference in treatment is justified: are the criteria we are using relevant to the
situation at hand? Justice is not the only principle to consider in making ethical decisions. Sometimes
principles of justice may need to be overridden in favor of other kinds of moral claims such as rights or
society’s welfare.

WHY DO POLITICIANS HAVE SUCH A BAD REPUTATION?

Sometimes it seems there is a difference between public service and politics.
Politicians have a bad reputation is the election process itself.
Popularity.

The power of the office has corrupted them in some way. Many politicians do have enough integrity to
resist corruption, but unfortunately, some are not as strong. If one politician is capable of dirty tricks or
dereliction of duty, then they may all be equally capable of some wrongdoing.
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One of the 20th century's most influential researchers who proposed the cognitive theory of development:
Jean Piaget

The process of mentally assuming the perspective of another person according to Mead:
Role taking

The basis of children's behavior during the first stage of Mead's Development of the Self:
Imitation

An approach to describe the power of the environment in shaping the human behavior:
Social Behaviorism

The bases of communication during Mead's preparatory stage constitute:

Verbal and non-verbal symbols

The model version a person has about him/herself and is borne out of demands and standards of society.
This answers the question who do I want to be:
ideal self

It is the cognitive representation of self-knowledge which includes the sum total of all beliefs that people
have about themselves:
self-concept

It is the overall evaluation that a person has of himself which involves a Positive and negative or high and
low dimension:
self-esteem

The person will experience dissatisfaction and may see himself as failure or a loser if there is _______
between the real self and the ideal self:
Incongruence

Any specific attribute about the self is called:

Self-Schema

According to him, the self cannot be separated from the society.

George mead

In which of Mead's stages of the self do children merely imitate the people around them?
preparatory stage
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It is the exercise of power, the science of government, the making of collective decisions, and the
allocations of scarce resources:
politics

when a man assumes a public trust

jefferson

Which statement below explains the Preparatory Stage in Mead's Stages of the Self?
Children imitate the people around them, especially family members with whom they continually interact.

One of the hallmarks of Mead's Stages of Self-formation is the ability of the child to recognize other
people in the environment.
generalized other

Which is NOT right about Aristotle?

His work became was incorporated into Christian theology. In Politics, he portrayed the city-state as the
basis for virtue and well-being. He was a Greek philosopher.
None of the options mentioned is incorrect

Utilitarian is for greatest good for all while Aristotelian is for purpose of life, action

aristotle is considered to be the originator of the view that politics is associated with public affairs?

All are code of Ethics of politicians EXCEPT for one:

Criticize the person, not the argument

Politics consists of social relations and the methods used to formulate and apply policy:

It is the sum total of a person's beliefs about his or her own attributes and is considered as the cognitive
component of the self:
self-concept

Masculine or feminine, introverted or extroverted are examples of:

Self-schema

The art of science of running governmental or state affairs, including behavior within civil governments:
Politics

WORLD RELIGIONS
Major Religions
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Buddhism
Christianity
Hinduism
Indigenous
Islam
Judaism
Sikhism
Uninhabited

Influence of World Religions

Five World Religions
Five world religions have had a profound impact on culture and civilization.
What are some characteristics of the five major world religions?

What is religion?
According to your book: Religion is an organized system of beliefs and practices, often centered on one
of more gods.
One or more gods?
o Monotheism:
- Mono = one
- Theism = God or Deity
o Polytheism:
- Poly = Many
- Theism = God or Deity

Religions and belief systems are important parts of cultures around the world. A religion is a set of beliefs
and practices that is often focused on one or more deities, or gods. Major world religions include
Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism, Judaism, and Sikhism.
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Buddhism is one of the world's largest religions and originated 2,500 years ago in India. Buddhists
believe that the human life is one of suffering, and that meditation, spiritual and physical labor, and good
behavior are the ways to achieve enlightenment, or nirvana.

Religions Generally are a set of beliefs concerning the cause, nature, and meaning of the universe and
often include the belief in a supernatural being (God)
Belief Systems - Generally are a set of mutually supportive beliefs, which are often religious,
philosophical, or ideological and can be a combination of these three

JERUSALEM, a city of significance for Jews, Christians and Muslims

Buddhists 5.84%
Hindus 13.26%
Muslims 21.01%
other religions 12.48%
Non-religious 14.09%
Christians 33.32%
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religion founder Key word Meaning of keyword Name & view of god Country of origin

hinduism A fusion of local beliefs created by dharma "Fulfillment" so personal fulfillment Brahma: creator india
an overlord to calm tribal tensions. Polytheism: all gods part of a
Universal mind (Worship any God)

buddhism Buddha: Born as a sheltered Prince dukkah "Suffering" that is created by Polytheistic: sees gods as a race of india
shocked by suffering "desire" / Move from suffering beings subject to suffering as well.
He went on a journey: teaching is to happiness Not required to worship them.
result

judaism Abraham: Father torah "The Law" so... Being a law abiding Monotheism: "Y'weh" creator israel
Moses: received the Torah citizen (worship only)

christianity Jesus: son of god agape "Love" so love God & Love one Monotheistic Trinity: 3part God israel
Paul: wrote most of the NT (a Jewish another (Charitable Love) Father / Son / Holy Spirit (Creator)
lawyer defense for Jesus)

islam Angel Gabriel dictated the Koran to jihad The Holy Struggle' so.. Struggling Monotheism "Allah" (Creator) Saudi arabia
Muhammad with self & others.
MONOTHEISM
The belief in single God. The belief in only one divine being who deserves recognition, reverence and
allegiance. The belief that there is only one God, as found in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Began in
Palestine with the Jews. Abraham is the founder of: Judaism and Islam

JUDAISM
● Begun by Abraham about 2000 BCE
● Common Beliefs:
● God created the universe
● God continues to govern the universe
● The Ten Commandments were given to Moses by God on Mt. Sinai and must be followed
● Monotheism
● Ten Commandments of moral and religious conduct
● Torah: Written records and beliefs of the Jews
● Founder: Abraham
● Followers are called Jews
● Believe that God made a covenant with Abraham and his people (Israelites)
● Adherents are worldwide, but most are in Israel
● Holy book is the Torah (= the first five books of the Old Testament of Christian Bible)
● Worship in a Synagogue

CHRISTIANITY
● Monotheism
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● Jesus as Son of God

● Life after death
● New Testament: Life and teachings of Jesus
● Establishment of Christian doctrines by early church councils
● Worship in a church
● Holy Book: Bible

Basic Beliefs of Christianity

1. There is only 1 God
2. God is all-knowing
3. Jesus is the son of God
4. There is final judgment
5. The Bible contains the teachings/stories of God

Basic Christian Beliefs

If a person accepts Christ, he will enter heaven upon death, an eternal reward of life everlasting in eternal
bliss. If a person either rejects the offer or never hears of it, then he goes to Hell to burn forever. If a
person goes to Hell, he will never be recovered. The wages of sin is death: that is, eternal separation from
God in a place called Hell.

Christianity: Principal Beliefs

● Divinity & humanity of Jesus Christ
● Death & resurrection of Jesus Christ
● The Nature of God
● The Nature of the Trinity

ISLAM
● Monotheism
● Muslim name for their God is Allah
● Muhammad, the prophet
● Holy Book: Qur’an (Koran)
● Mecca and Medina
● Started his religion in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. This is the holiest city in Islam.
● Muslims worship in a mosque
● Muslims must follow the Five Pillars of Islam:
Stating the Faith
Prayer 5 times/day facing Mecca
Charity to poor
Pilgrimage (Hajj)
Fast during Ramadan
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5 PILLARS OF ISLAM
Mandatory practices in the religion of Islam.
SHAHADAH - Testify that none has the right to be worshipped but Allah & Muhammad is His
Messenger. Bearing witness that there is no God but Allah and Muhammad is His prophet
SALAH - Offering Salah (prayer) fives times a day.
ZAKAT - Paying the Zakat (giving alms or charity).
HAJJ - Going to pilgrimage to the House of Allah at Makkah / making pilgrimage to Mecca
FASTING - Fasting in the month of the Ramadan.

BUDDHISM
● Founder: Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha)
● Four Noble Truths
● Eightfold Path to Enlightenment
● Spread of Buddhism from India to China and other parts of Asia, resulting from Asoka’s
missionaries and their writings
● Basic Tenets of Buddhism:
The world is full of suffering
Meditation is our only escape
Nirvana is the ultimate goal
Follow the Eightfold Path

Eightfold Path
● Right Understanding
● Right Thought
● Right Speech
● Right Action
● Right Livelihood
● Right Effort
● Right Mindfulness
● Right Concentration

POLYTHEISM
● Polytheism is the worship of more than one god.
● May accept gods from other religions
● Choose your favorite god!
● Hinduism
From India around 1700 BCE
No single founder
3rd largest religion
Holy Book: Rig Veda
Brahman is the source of all divinity (holiness)
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Believe in reincarnation (soul is reborn many times based on Karma).

HINDUISM
● Many forms of one god
● Reincarnation: Rebirth based upon karma
● Karma: Knowledge that all thoughts and actions result in future consequences
● Characteristics
Reincarnation
Dharma (duties)
Karma (actions)
Vishnu, Shiva,
Brahma
● Location: India (SouthAsia)
● Туре: Polytheistic
● Вook: Bhagavad-Gita
● Impact
CASTE SYSTEM!
Born into caste
Determines all aspects of life
No social mobility
● Partition of India → religious tension between Hindus and Muslims

Hinduism embraces many religious ideas. For this reason, it’s sometimes referred to as a “way of life” or
a “family of religions,” as opposed to a single, organized religion. Most forms of Hinduism are
henotheistic, which means they worship a single deity, known as “Brahman,” but still recognize other
gods and goddesses. Followers believe there are multiple paths to reaching their god. Hindus believe in
the doctrines of samsara (the continuous cycle of life, death, and reincarnation) and karma (the universal
law of cause and effect). One of the key thoughts of Hinduism is “atman,” or the belief in soul. This
philosophy holds that living creatures have a soul, and they’re all part of the supreme soul. The goal is to
achieve “moksha,” or salvation, which ends the cycle of rebirths to become part of the absolute soul.

One fundamental principle of the religion is the idea that people’s actions and thoughts directly determine
their current life and future lives. Hindus strive to achieve dharma, which is a code of living that
emphasizes good conduct and morality. Hindus revere all living creatures and consider the cow a sacred
animal. Revere - feel deep respect or admiration for (something).

Food is an important part of life for Hindus. Most don’t eat beef or pork, and many are vegetarians.
Hinduism is closely related to other Indian religions, including Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism.

Hinduism Holy Books

The Vedas are made up of:
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● The Rig Veda

● The Samaveda
● Yajurveda
● Atharvaveda

The primary sacred texts, known as the Vedas, were composed around 1500 B.C. This collection of verses
and hymns was written in Sanskrit and contains revelations received by ancient saints and sages.

Hindu Gods
VISHNU, SHIVA, BRAHMA

Geographic Distribution of World’s Major Religions

● Judaism: Concentrated in Israel and North America
● Christianity: Concentrated in Europe and North and South America
● Islam: Concentrated in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia
● Hinduism: Concentrated in India
● Buddhism: Concentrated in East and Southeast Asia

Contemporary Political issues…ethic/religious conflicts

Developed and developing nations face many challenges. These include migrations, ethnic and religious
conflicts…
What are some challenges faced by the contemporary world?

Ethnic and Religious Conflicts

● Middle East – Muslim infighting (Sunni vs. Shi’a), Muslims (Arabs) vs. Jews (Israel), Strict vs.
moderate, Muslims vs. Christians (United States)
● Northern Ireland – Protestants vs. Catholics
● Balkans – Serbs, Bosnians, and Croats fight one another for land (their own nation) 1990s

Conflicts along Religious Borders

● Religious beliefs and histories can bitterly divide people who speak the same language, have the
same ethnic background, and make their living in similar ways.
● Religious conflicts usually involve more than differences in spiritual practices and beliefs.
● Divisions are not strictly between major religions but also within major religions.
● Some countries lie entirely within the area where a major religion is practiced and some straddle
interfaith boundaries
● Intrafaith boundaries also exist in major religions.
● These boundaries can be very peaceful, or can cause extremely violent political conflict.
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EXTREMISM and GLOBAL CONCERN

Any ideology considered to be far outside the mainstream attitudes of a society:
Extremism

All are push factors initiating terrorism EXCEPT for one:

A sense of belonging to a cause

All are characteristics of people who turn into an extremist EXCEPT for one:
They increase the hatred between people

All are all are pull factors in initiating terrorism EXCEPT for one:
inequality and discrimination

All are impacts of religious extremism EXCEPT for one:

A more idealized historic figures or stories

EXTREMIST PROBLEMS
Definition of extremism
Ideology of an individual or groups
Far outside of the mainstream attitudes of society
Violate common moral standards, activities, beliefs

What is Religious Extremism? Any ideology considered to be far outside the mainstream attitudes of a
society or to violate common moral standards.
Activities of a character far removed from the ordinary.
Religious extremism can be between different religions like:
● Islam, Christian and Judaism or
● In the religion itself

Characteristics of People Who Turn into Extremists

o They have a sense of righteousness.
o They do confirmation bias.
o They idealize historic figures or stories.
o They have many psychological

Impacts of Religious Extremism

Dispersion and the increase of hatred between people.
Create a chaotic situation between the different religions and inside the same religion.
People will deviate from the interest in studying and learning to the interest in attacking other people.
Destroys the image of the whole religion.
The waste of resources and income ???
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Examples of Religious Extremism

Attack on the Palestinian by Israelis
11/9 attacks
Wars in Iraq, Afghanistan, Palestine and Syria
Attack on the Muslims in Burma.
Examples from our life!

Solutions for Religious Extremism

Have a peaceful coexistence with the different religions
Awareness campaigns which reminds us that all humans are equal
Encouragement towards learning and researching

Conclusion
EXTREMISM: Literally, "the quality or state of being extreme" or "the advocacy of extreme measures or
views"
The term is primarily used in a political or religious sense, to refer to an ideology that is considered to be
far outside the mainstream attitudes of society. It can also be used in an economic context.

The term "violent extremism" refers to the beliefs and actions of people who support or use
ideologically-motivated violence to further radical ideological, religious, or political aims.
Violent extremist views can manifest in connection with a range of issues, including politics, religion and
gender relations.
Radicalization is the process by which a person comes to adopt increasingly extreme political, social, or
religious ideals....

Terrorism in History-Ancient World

1. Zealots: Historically, Jewish Zealots could be the counted as the first organized terrorists whose
acts of violence against the Romans resulted in their banishment from Israel 2000 years ago.
2. Assassins: Followers of Hasan bin Sabah(1 0th century) can also be described as terrorists for the
violence perpetrated by them on the order of their spiritual leader.
3. Thugs: Members of secret Indian cult, both Muslims and Hindus, worshiped Mother Kali,goddess
of destruction, operated as gangs of highway robbers, tricking and later strangling their victims
with handkerchief or noose. They would then rob and bury their victims.

Terrorism in History-Modern World

1. Jacobins: Radical revolutionaries who coined term "terrorism" during French Revolution, killed
more than 35,000 people to terrify French people into submission to their ideas
2. Anarchists: Pioneers of modern terrorism at global level, started in 1880s in Russia, later spread
to Europe/North America. Using extremes acts of violence as their main strategy to achieve their
objectives, assassinated several world leaders/bombed buildings
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3. Nationalist/anti-colonial Terrorism: Terror groups that operated in Asia, Africa, and elsewhere
during last phase of colonialism and continued up to 1980sa. Also the Zionist underground
terrorist organization Irgun used these very tactics, including the notorious act of bombing of the
King David Hotel on Monday July 22, 1946
4. 1970s/80s Terrorists: Irish Republican Army, ETA in Spain and PLO/Black September in the
Middle East to press for the acceptance of their respective political demands. Tamil Tiger in Sri
Lanka popularized suicide bombing and women suicide bombers, successfully copied by the
Jihadist terror organizations in the Middle East and Europe
5. Leftist Romantics: Those who took part in 1968 street demonstrations in Paris, London and other
European capitals became disillusioned taking armed struggle as a strategy to begin a communist
revolution by force. Inspired by the success of Chinese and Vietnamese guerrillas, they espoused
pseudo-Marxist ideologies and wreaked havoc with the help of modern technology.
6. Italy's Red Brigades hijacked Italian prime minister's plane and executed him. Germany's
Baader-Meinhof group carried out acts of violence in association with the Palestine Liberation
Organization.
7. Pre-9/11 Terrorists: Trained by CIA during Soviet Afghan War of 1980s, these radicalized
Muslims took arms against oppressive, un-Islamic governments of Middle East and their sponsors
for implementing true Īslam.
8. One şuch resistance group was Al-Qaida led by Osama Bin Laden started a global Jihad against
the West after the deployment of American/NATO forces in the Middle East during the First1990
Gulf War.
9. Post 9/11 Terrorists: Terrorist activities carried out after the actions taken by the USA after it
launched War on Terrorism.
10. One such group is IS asserting that only way to progress for Muslims is to follow the original
religious principles of Islam practiced during golden period of Islamic Caliphate, a 7th century
empire led by Islam's founding generations.

Causes of Violence and Terrorism

● Terrorism is a complex phenomenon, a specific kind of political violence committed by people
who do not have legitimate army at their disposal.
● Rather than seeking the causes of terrorism itself, a better approach is to determine the conditions
that make terror possible or likely.
● Barring few Lone Wolf cases, most of these conditions have to do with the circumstances such as
political, social repression, or economic strife.
● There are two sets of conditions which make violence against civilians seem like a reasonable and
even necessary option;
Conditions facilitating Start of Terrorism-Pull Factors vs Push Factors
Conditions facilitating Survival of Terrorism-4 Ss Model

Pull Factors Initiating Terrorism

● Pull factor- something appealing in the ideology, person or the organization
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● Maybe Intellectual underpinnings of organization/idea, promises of salvation in hereafter, sheer

charismatic personality of person behind ideology/ organisation.
● Personal que st, a sense of belonging to a cause, ideology or social network, friendship and kin
ship ties/compulsions could also motivate a person to resort to join an extremist outfit.
● Sheer excitement of enjoying power and control, adventure and the possibility of heroism/
personal redemption are also strong pull factors for attracting the rich.
● For poor persons, it may be the financial benefits of joining such organizations.
● Lastly, members of mafia join such organizations for protection from the state agencies.

Push Factors Initiating Terrorism

● Push factors-reasons which force a person to become extremist or join a terrorist organization and
start an armed struggle against those whom he thinks responsible for his grievances.
● Five main reasons for a group of people to resort to acts of violence and ultimately terrorism are;
1. Marginalization - Socioeconomic deprivation and political marginalisation of significant
minority in a country for any reason, actual or perceived, create feelings of hatred against
the institutions of the state. Repression and injustice provide justification for terrorists to
mobilise people for protest, converts these groups in violent outfits and even militant if
their grievances are not redressed. To get support of silent majority of their group, they
resort to their emotional manipulation by using cards of race, religion, caste, colour etc.
These feelings of economic injustice and socio-political marginalization are then used by
the vested interests, local or foreign, state or non- state, for furtherance of their foreign
policy or domestic agenda.
2. Identity Politics - Popularised by Francis Fukuyama, identity crises relate to cultural
marginalisation, which produces alienation and a lack of belonging to either home or the
parents' society. According to him, the second generation of Muslim migrants to Europe
are facing this identity crises as they are not owned by the people of their respective host
countries while their links to the parent's country are not so strong. Consequently, this
sociocultural isolation reinforces their religious solidarity with Muslims around the
world; any issue of the greater Muslim Úmmah is internalised by these isolated youths
prompting them to turn extremist.
3. Foreign Occupation/Interventions (Foreign Policy Options) - Foreign occupation or the
foreign policy decisions of powerful countries against the weaker countries arouse the
feelings of injustice and nationalism which is then exploited by others. Domestic
grievances are framed around victimhood against Western foreign policy and military
intervention. The central core of this narrative is that the 'West is at war with Islam',
which creates a narrative of 'them and us'. Conflicts are filtered through this core
narrative: Bosnia; Chechnya; Iraq; Syria; Somalia and Palestine, etc. These conflicts and
events can become a focal point for mobilisation. The ban on the Muslim veil; the
cartoon crises and other contentious issues are all evidence that the West is at war with
Muslim communities. There is a keen sense of alienation and injustice which is
reinforced by Islamophobia, xenophobia and discrimination.
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4. Betrayal Syndrome - Every global and regional power creates/supports militant groups in
their areas of respective interests for the furtherance of their foreign policy agenda. Once
used, these militants are abandoned by their erstwhile sponsors; they in turn become their
nemeses-a "disposal problem". 'After every covert war there is an unintended disposal
problem. We steered and encouraged these people. Then we dropped them. Now we've
got a disposal problem. When you motivate people to fight for a cause - jihad the problem
is, how do you shut them off?' - Jack Blum
5. Lack of Political Empowerment - Majority of the terrorists are now coming out of the
Middle East where dictatorial regimes are the norm rather than exception. Whatever the
cause, the lack of democracy has left the Middle East vulnerable to radical recruitment.
Globalization with increasing integration of economics, communications, and cultures
across national boundaries is affecting, directly as well as indirectly, the governance
structures, processes and the cultural fabric in every country. It is stoking the aspirations
of middle classes for better quality of life with greater say in the socio-political decision
making. However, political establis hment in most of ME countries, historically governed
by authoritarian elites, are not providing them adequate channels of
expression/empowerment. Consequently, these countries are increasingly wit nessing the
outbursts of popular resentment against the status quo which is then exploited by the
regional and global hegemons as well as the non-state violent actors.

It is considered the world's largest religion in the world today with respect to its members:
christianity

Theory of Self-interest - Psychological egoism suggests that all behaviors are motivated by every action
or behavior or decision of every person.

Reflected Appraisal - is a formative part of self

Egoism
The theory that an action is right, if it has the best consequences for the person doing it.
individual self-interest is the actual motive of all conscious action.
Individual self-interest is the valid end of all actions

egocentrism in adolescence - The tendency to center thoughts on themselves, and what others think of
them.

Innate egocentrism – assume that what I believe is true even though I have never questioned the basis of
my belief.

Piaget’s theory of childhood development

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Culture - Shapes and guard people’s perception of reality, determine what to eat, music they listen. It
shapes our understanding of good and evil, love and hate, health and sickness, life and death.

Ethnocentrism - Mean that you use your own culture as the center and evaluated other culture base on it.

Cross - a holy symbol of Christianity

Extrajudicial Killings - is an example of Anti-religious

In shaking of hands, the right hand should always be used - they impose Islamic customs on all
individuals in their territories in most Arab countries

Henotheistic – Hinduism Beliefs, which means they worship a single deity, known as “Brahman,” but still
recognize other gods and goddesses.

Yahweh - The Hebrew name for their only God used in the Bible.

Prophet - (Messenger) Final authoritative revealer of God’s will