Climate change

Junior Farmer Field and Life School - Facilitator’s guide

Supported by
Module: Climate change
Junior Farmer Field and Life School – Facilitator’s guide

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Rome, 2014
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Cover photo: © FAO/Ami Vitale

© FAO 2014

Climate change iii

Table of Contents
Acknowledgements iv
Introduction for the facilitators 1
Aim of this JFFLS Module 1
Exercise 1 - Short story of a farmer 4
Facilitators’ notes 1 5
Facilitators’ notes 2 5
Facilitators’ notes 3 6
Facilitators’ notes 4 8
Facilitators’ notes 5 8
Exercise 2 - The timeline 10
Facilitators’ notes 1 11
Facilitators’ notes 2 11
Exercise 3 - Seasonal hazard and crop calendar 12
Facilitators’ notes 1 13
Facilitators’ notes 2 13
Exercise 4: Small group discussion on actions to prevent and reduce the impact
of climate change on agriculture 14
Facilitators’ notes 1 15
References 17
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Acknowledgements
Under the supervision of Dr. Reuben Sessa, Climate, Energy and Tenure Division (NRC), this module
was drafted by Tamara van‘t Wout, Climate, Energy and Tenure Division (NRC) in collaboration with
Francesca Dalla Valle, Social Protection Division (ESP), Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations.

Comments and suggestions for improvements to the draft version were received from the Junior
Farmer Field and Life School (JFFLS) training of trainers held in Malawi (October 2012) and Tanzania
(October 2013). We would like to thank all who were involved in the field testing of the module, in
particular Jaap van de Pol and Norah Mwamadi and the FAO Representations of both countries.

The support received from Isabel Sloman and Enrique Nieto in developing this publication is
particularly appreciated.

Fabrizio Puzzilli provided the layout for the Facilitator’s Guide on Climate change in collaboration
with Ilaria Perlini, Emily Donegan provided the illustrations.
Module: Climate change
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Climate change 1

Introduction for the facilitators

Scientific evidence shows that our planet is getting warmer. As a result of the increase in the
Earth’s average temperature, glaciers are melting, sea levels are rising, weather patterns are changing
and extreme weather events, such as droughts, floods and storms are increasing. Global warming is
occurring due to the significant increase in emissions of greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, nitrous
oxide and methane) into the atmosphere, which trap heat that would otherwise escape from the Earth.

In the coming years, food production needs to increase by 60 percent in order to be able to feed the
growing world population, while at the same time coping with changing weather conditions. Climate
change may affect the agricultural sector in different ways depending on the geographical location,
such as increasing or reducing crop yields, increasing or reducing availability of water resources and
increasing the spread of pests and diseases.

Many people, in particular those who are dependent on agriculture for their incomes and
livelihoods, will be heavily affected. Raising awareness about these climatic changes and increasing
and exchanging knowledge on methods and practices, in particular climate-smart agricultural
practices, such as mulching, intercropping and integrated farming systems, that may help to increase
yields, reduce production losses, remove and/or reduce greenhouse gas emissions and contribute to
building sustainable and resilient livelihoods is therefore very important.

Aim of this JFFLS Module

The aim of this module is to provide Junior Farmer Field and Life Schools (JFFLS) facilitators
with information to enable them to discuss the topic of climate change, in particular its impact on
agriculture and actions that farmers can undertake to reduce their vulnerability to climate change.

Through a series of exercises, story-telling and discussions, climate change issues in relation
to agriculture are highlighted. The module also helps the participants of the JFFLS to learn about
agriculture’s role in climate change, the impacts of climate change on agriculture, and ways to reduce
these impacts by applying relevant actions, methods and practices such as climate smart agriculture
practices.

The exercises can be undertaken at different points in the JFFLS cycle and/or this module can be
used as a stand-alone topic.
Exercises
4 |

TT exercise 1
Short story of a farmer
Objective:
To start a discussion on climate change among the JFFLS participants. The story provides an
illustration of people’s observations regarding climatic changes.

Time:
45 minutes

Materials:
None

Steps:
1. Tell the JFFLS participants that you are going to read a short story. Ask them to listen
carefully to the following story:

Emile Jean is 54 years old and lives in a small village in the south of Madagascar. Emile is a
farmer and cattle breeder, just like his father and his grandfather. He owns a few cattle, but
mainly plants maize and vegetables. Half of what he produces is sold, while the other half is
grown to feed his family. Emile and his wife have eleven kids - six boys and five girls.

During the past years there have been noticeable changes in the rainfall patterns. Five years
ago, the annual rainfall fluctuated between 800 to 900 mm, while nowadays it rarely reaches
500 mm. Storms have become less frequent but more intense. The temperature has also been
increasing every year. And there is a longer dry period (seven to eight months) and a shorter
rainy season (two months), which make it harder for farmers to plant crops all year round.

Emile says: ‘When my father was young, they had a ‘bad year’ every seven years, but now it’s
every two years’. A bad year is a year when the dry season is longer than normal. It did not
regularly happen 20 or 30 years ago, but now bad years are becoming more frequent and the
former bad years are now becoming the normal years (Oxfam International, 2010).

This story can be adapted to suit the local conditions and the following steps can be used to
guide the discussion:

2. Discuss with the participants whether they have observed similar climatic changes in their
country in the past years (see facilitators’ notes 1).

3. Ask the participants whether they know the difference between ‘climate’ and ‘weather’ (see
facilitators’ notes 2) or whether they have heard about ‘greenhouse gases’, the ‘greenhouse
effect’ or ‘global warming’ (see facilitators’ notes 3).

4. Ask the participants how these climatic changes are affecting agricultural activities related to
crop production, livestock, forestry and fisheries (see facilitators’ notes 4 and 5).

5. Summarize the main points discussed by the participants.


Climate change 5

55 facilitators’ notes 1
For generations, farmers and their communities have changed and adapted their practices on the
basis of changes in temperature, rainfall and dealing with extreme weather events like drought, floods
and storms. This is not something new. However, it is foreseen that in the future these extreme events
will be more intense and will happen more frequently. For example, in Malawi it is said that ‘bad years’
(a year when the dry season is longer than normal), which in the past only happened every 5 years,
are now believed to be more frequent. Dry spells and strong winds are destroying crops, and people,
in particular the poor and marginalized, will be heavily affected by the effects of climate change. They
will have to deal with the unpredictable weather, which will impact their food security and livelihoods
as they are often heavily dependent on agriculture.

Science vs. religion

In some countries, in Ethiopia for example, people believe that changes in the climate happen
because of God and that He determines when (or if) it rains. In exchange for God’s protection during
difficult times they sacrifice a zebu and promise to protect nature and the forest. However, nowadays
there is less and less rainfall and the village elders look for signs of rain and make many sacrifices in
order to keep God happy, although the rain is not coming.

In the past, farmers were able to use their traditional or indigenous knowledge that has been
carried over from one generation to the next. However, with climate change becoming more apparent,
farmers are less able to rely on their knowledge and practices to adapt to climatic changes. For
example, in the past the rainy season ‘normally’ started in June, whereas this year it may start in
August and next year it may start in May. Communities with rain gauges and knowledge of how to
read and interpret them are able to collect rainfall data and have more accurate data to make more
accurate predictions regarding future rainfall patterns. This can help them, especially if they have
access to up-to-date seasonal weather forests (three monthly, monthly and 10 days) so that they can
decide what, when and which crop to plant and are therefore better able to better adapt to climate
change.

55 facilitators’ notes 2
Difference between weather and climate

The difference between ‘weather’ and ‘climate’ can be distinguished as a measure of time:

●● Weather refers to what we experience over a period of hours or days in terms of temperature,
precipitation, wind and so on.
●● Climate focuses on the average conditions of the atmosphere over relatively long periods of
time. It also indicates climate variability, for example the seasonal minimum and maximum
temperatures and the frequency of extreme events, such as hurricanes, cyclones. Therefore,
climate is the average weather for a particular region over a particular period of time. It is
usually calculated for periods of at least 30 years, for example Indonesia’s rainfall data for
the period of 1981-2010.
6 |

55 facilitators’ notes 3
Greenhouse effect and global warming

The Earth’s climate has changed over time. Since its formation about 4.5 billion years ago, there
have been both warmer and colder periods, for example, during the glacial periods (Ice Ages) most of
the planet was covered in ice. According to data from the last 650 000 years, temperatures and carbon
dioxide levels in the atmosphere have fluctuated.

Carbon dioxide is a ‘greenhouse gas’, which exists naturally in the atmosphere. Greenhouses
gases, like carbon dioxide (CO2), trap heat in the atmosphere so that the Earth is warm enough for
humans, animals and plants to live. This process is called the ‘greenhouse effect’ and works as
follows:

The sun provides energy, which

the Earth receives in the form of
sunlight. Some of this energy is
absorbed by the Earth’s surface and
causes it to warm up, whilst some of
it is reflected back into space as
infrared radiation, which helps the
Earth to cool down. However,
greenhouse gases form a layer that
prevent part of this radiation from
being released back into space and
instead the heat is trapped in the
atmosphere and warms the Earth’s
surface as a result.

The greenhouse effect can be Source: Sarah Bisbing, 2012 http://earlycareerecologists.files.

depicted as the warming of a glass wordpress.com/2012/11/greenhouse_effect2.jpg (Adapted)
greenhouse via the Sun’s energy,
where some of the energy in the form
of heat is trapped due to the glass
walls, which represent greenhouse
gases like carbon dioxide.

Carbon dioxide levels have varied

at different times in the Earth’s
history. However, scientists believe
that the average temperature of
the Earth has been increasing,
especially since the late 19th century.
This is called ‘global warming’.

For over 100 years now, humans

have significantly added greenhouse
gases to the atmosphere by burning
large amounts of fossil fuels, such
as coal, oil and natural gas to power
factories, vehicles and their homes. Source: Sarah Bisbing, 2012 http://earlycareerecologists.files.
Burning fossil fuels releases carbon wordpress.com/2012/11/greenhouse_effect1.jpg (Adapted)
dioxide into the atmosphere. The

Climate change 7

upper graph below shows that since 1900, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has
significantly increased to nearly 400 parts per million, compared to the historical range of between 200
and 300 parts per million. As a result of increased carbon dioxide, heat is trapped in the atmosphere
and the Earth’s surface warms up. This is further adding to the ‘greenhouse effect’.

RECENT CHANGES
Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere Temperature
400 2.5
CARBON DIOXIDE CONCENTRATION

350

TEMPERATURE CHANGE (ºF)

2

}
300
(parts per million)

250 Historical range

1.5
200
150 1

100
0.5
50
0 0
1900 1925 1950 1975 2000 1900 1925 1950 1975 2000
YEAR YEAR

Source: EPA’s Climate Change Indicators, 2010 and Petit et al., 2001

Besides carbon dioxide, other greenhouse gases are also released into the atmosphere, such as
methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). Current agricultural practices both directly and indirectly
release these greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. For example, methane is released from cows,
humans, rice farms and waste water; whereas nitrous oxide is part of fertilizers and pesticides used
for crop cultivation. Deforestation, which can occur to make way for agriculture, is also one of the
contributors to global warming as it reduces the number of trees that would normally absorb CO2
from the air, thus reducing the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere. As well as being one of the
major sectors that contributes to global warming and the changing of the climate, agriculture is also
strongly affected by it.
8 |

55 facilitators’ notes 4
Effects of climate change

The figure below shows the many interactions and feedbacks between the different effects of
climate change, such as the changing conditions for plants and animals, the increase in evaporation1,
warmer oceans and the melting of snow and ice.

Source: EPA, 2006

55 facilitators’ notes 5
Impacts of climate change on agriculture

There are still many uncertainties with regards to climate change. However, small changes in the
Earth’s average temperature can result in large shifts in climate and weather. Therefore, agriculture,
as a sector that is highly climate sensitive, is extremely vulnerable. For many people in developing
countries, agriculture is critical for their food and livelihood security.

Although the impact of climate change on agriculture will differ among continents, regions and
between and within countries, some examples of expected impacts of climate change on crop
production, livestock, forestry and fisheries are outlined in the following paragraphs.

Impact of climate change on crop production:

●● Increases in temperature can make some crops grow faster as warmer temperatures
increase growth. However, for other crops, faster growth reduces the amount of time that
seeds grow and mature, which can reduce yields;
●● Increase in weeds, pests and fungi, which thrive under warming temperatures;
●● Increase in extreme weather events, such as floods and drought can affect crops and reduce
yields;
●● Higher CO2 levels may increase yields of some crops, although if these crops do not have
adequate levels of water and nutrients, yields may be reduced.

Impact of climate change on livestock:

1 Evaporation is the change of water from liquid to gas.

Climate change 9

●● Higher temperatures and heat waves can cause distress to animals, which can increase
their vulnerability to diseases, reduce their fertility and milk production;
●● Climate change may increase the spread of livestock diseases and parasites;
●● Higher CO2 levels may increase the yield of some grass species on which livestock feed,
although according to research the quality of some of the forage may decrease;
●● Water scarcity and drought may reduce the availability of drinking water and forage for
livestock, thereby affecting livestock production (FAO, 2009; IFAD, 2009).

Impact of climate change on forestry:

●● Climate change can affect the growth and productivity of forests. If trees have enough water
and nutrients, higher CO2 levels may help trees to be more productive. Higher temperatures
may increase the length of the growing season, but may shift certain tree species to different
geographical locations;
●● The expected increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as,
drought, wild fires, flooding, hurricanes and wind storms can cause damage to forests,
which can reduce forest productivity. Drought can make trees more vulnerable to insect
outbreaks and wild fires of which the latter can also contribute to climate change, because
CO2 is quickly released into the atmosphere;
●● Insect outbreaks may increase because higher temperatures may enable some insect
species to develop faster. These outbreaks can weaken and kill trees, which results in CO2
that was stored in these trees being released into the atmosphere, further contributing to
global warming.

Impact of climate change on fisheries and aquaculture:

●● Rising sea levels, due to melting glaciers, ice sheets and as a result of thermal expansion2,
will affect fishing communities, in particular those that are living in low-lying countries,
deltas and coastal areas. These areas will become more susceptible to, among others,
flooding;
●● Climate change may change marine and freshwater species as some species can only live
in a certain water temperature range and as water temperature increases some may not be
able to survive;
●● Some fish diseases may become more prevalent in warmer water;
●● Temperature increase may increase the salinity (saltiness) of ocean water and inland water
supplies;
●● Changes in temperature and seasons may impact the timing of reproduction and migration;
●● Extreme weather events, such as hurricanes, changes in monsoonal rainfall patterns,
droughts, or flooding are currently affecting fisheries, aquaculture3 production and
infrastructure, and the human lives and livelihoods that depend on them. Extreme drought,
as a consequence of climate change, is impacting inland water fish stocks and habitats in
particular.

2
The expansion of ocean water as it warms up.
3
Aquaculture refers to the cultivation of various fish species in fish farms or ponds.
10 |

TT exercise 2
The timeline
Objective:
This exercise helps the JFFLS participants to get an insight into past disasters and changes that
have taken place in natural resources (e.g. deforestation) as well as human measures taken to reduce
their vulnerability to these disasters and future human, livestock, economic and social losses.

Time:
45 minutes

Preparation:
●● Invite an elder community member to act as a resource person to help participants remember
which disasters have happened in the few past years, when they have happened, and what
kind of measures farmers and the community members undertook to reduce the impact of
the disaster;
●● Draw a line on a flip chart and place it in a way so that all participants can see this line (see
facilitators’ notes 1).

Materials:
●● Flip charts
●● Pens

Steps:
1. Show the participants the line that you have drawn on the flip chart and ask them whether
they know what a time line is and what and how data can be recorded and shown on this
line (see facilitators’ notes 1).

2. Ask a volunteer to come up and help record the data on the time line.

3. Ask the participants if they can remember which disasters have taken place that affected
their crops, livestock, forestry or fisheries. Also ask them whether they remember in which
year these events happened. Ask them what actions their parents and/or other community
members took after the disaster had happened (see facilitators’ notes 2).

4. Introduce the resource person and explain that the participants can ask him/her additional
questions about past events that he/she remembers to help fill in the time line.

5. Once the events and the actions remembered by the participants and the resource person
have been recorded on the time line, analyze the timeline with the participants by asking
questions, such as: i) were similar actions undertaken for the same disaster or did the actions
change over time; ii) can we still apply these actions and will they be effective or should we
undertake other actions and if so which ones?

Climate change 11

55 facilitators’ notes 1
What is a time line?

A time line is a very simple tool that visually shows the history of disasters and significant events
related to changes in natural resources that have happened in a community. This exercise helps
participants observe changes related to their surroundings and describe what has changed, how it
has changed and the time period over which it changed and the different actions or coping measures
the community has undertaken (Abarquez and Mushed, 2007).

DROUGHT DROUGHT

‘49 ’50 ‘51 ’52 ‘53 ’54 ‘55 ’80 ‘81 ’82 ‘83 ’84 ‘85 ’86 ‘87 ’88 ‘89 ’90 ‘91
construction started

construction completed

dam filled & stocked

school vegetable garden started

fishing started

Taruku Takunda Garden Coop formed

siltation noticed - dam almost dry

irrigation pipe installed

Mukamuri Graden Coop formed

silt-traps built (FFW)

irrigation pipe broken

Source: FAO, 1996 Muzondo Garden Coop formed

55 facilitators’ notes 2
Definition of ‘disaster’

A disaster is any event or situation that results in losses and damage to people, their property and
their environment, that they and their community are not able to recover from by using their own
resources (UNISDR, 2009).

Examples of disasters that can result in large losses and damage to food and agriculture include
floods, hurricanes, tsunamis, earthquakes, landslides, drought, wild fires, and transboundary animal
and plant pests and diseases.
12 |

TT exercise 3
Seasonal hazard and crop calendar
Objective:
This exercise helps the JFFLS participants to think about which natural hazards occur during the
year and when they occur, as well as if and when they affect specific cultivation activities of certain
crops. This exercise can be done in combination with the cropping calendar exercise.

Time:
45 minutes

Materials:
●● Flip charts
●● Coloured pens
●● The flip charts of the cropping calendars made by the participants during the cropping
calendar exercise

Preparation:
Draw a hazard calendar on a flip chart. This will serve as an example of how to draw a hazard
calendar, as shown below:
Type of
Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
hazards

Steps:
1. Inform the participants that this activity will use the cropping calendar that was done previously.

2. Ask the participants to divide into small groups (preferably the same groups in which they
made the cropping calendars). Give them back their cropping calendars.

3. Ask each group to copy the hazard calendar onto a flip chart, which was prepared in advance.

4. Ask the participants which natural hazards affect the area (see facilitators’ notes 1).

5. Tell the groups to write the different types of hazards in the first column on the left: one
hazard per row.

6. Ask the groups to answer this question: during which months do the hazards occur?
Encourage the participants to discuss among themselves.

7. Once they have agreed, they can tick the columns associated with the months where the
hazard usually takes place, as shown in the following example:

Type of
Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
hazards

Floods x x
Pests x
Drought x x
Fires x

Climate change 13

8. Ask the groups to compare the hazard calendar with the cropping calendar and answer the
following questions:

●● Do hazards occur during cropping periods?

●● Do hazards coincide with peak working seasons?
●● Do hazards threaten peak production periods or the harvest?

Encourage the participants to discuss among themselves.

9. Ask each group to select a person to present their results to the whole group. The selected
person presents the hazard and cropping calendars and what the group has discussed when
trying to answer the questions asked by the facilitator during the previous step.

10. Allow time for questions. You can ask additional questions, such as: which crops are the
most threatened by which hazards?

55 facilitators’ notes 1
Definition of a ‘hazard’

A hazard is a dangerous event, situation or condition that may lead to losses and damage to
people, their property and their environment (UNISDR, 2009).

A hazard may not necessarily develop into a disaster if people and their community have sufficient
resources to recover from the losses and damage caused by the hazard. Examples of hazards that
may cause significant losses and damage to food and agriculture include floods, hurricanes, tsunamis,
earthquakes, landslides, drought, wild fires, and transboundary animal and plant pests and diseases.

55 facilitators’ notes 2
What is a seasonal hazard and cropping calendar?

●● Hazard calendars indicate seasons during which hazards usually occur;

●● Cropping calendars indicate the growing and harvesting seasons of typical crops for a
particular area.

When combining both calendars it visually shows which hazards occur, during which months
of the year and whether these hazards have an impact on specific cultivation activities of certain
crops. An example of a seasonal hazard and cropping calendar in Juye, Shandong province, China is
illustrated below.

Cropping calendar Juye, Shandong, P.R. China

Key Crops Jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug sep oct nov dec
Cotton
Wheat
Corn
Soybean
Rice
14 |

Seasonal calendar of natural hazards Juye, Shandong, P.R. China

hazards
Jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug sep oct nov dec
risks
Flood
Drought
Hot wind
Hailstorm
Strong wind

Source: FAO, 2008

This example of a seasonal hazard and cropping calendar shows that during the cultivation of
cotton, corn, soybean and rice, the plants and crops are exposed to flooding, hail storms and strong
winds as hazard risks. The hazards might especially affect the harvest of the corn and soybean crops.
With this information, farmers can make informed decisions and identify actions or measures to
reduce the impact of this hazard on their farming activities.

TT exercise 4
Small group discussion on actions to prevent and
reduce the impact of climate change on agriculture
Objective:
To discuss different options, methods and practices that farmers can apply in order to reduce the
impacts of climate change on agriculture.

Time:
45 minutes

Materials:
●● Flip charts
●● Coloured pens

Steps:
1. Divide the participants into small groups of five to six people and provide each group with a
flip chart.

2. Ask each group to draw a table with two columns, as shown below:
Hazard Actions to prevent and reduce losses and damage caused by a hazard
e.g.
Drought
Floods

Storms

3. Ask the participants to discuss in their small groups what actions, methods or practices can
be implemented to reduce the losses and damage done by the different hazards that were
identified in the seasonal hazard and cropping calendar exercise.

Questions that can be asked to the participants to help them with this exercise:

●● When there is water scarcity during the dry season, what do or can farmers do to prevent

Climate change 15

and reduce the impact of drought? Are there specific measures or actions that farmers do
during the wet season?
●● When there are heavy storms, how do farmers protect their crops or livestock?
●● How do farmers plan the cultivation of crops when they know that floods, storms or droughts
will occur during planting or harvesting?
●● Do farmers use different crop varieties that reduce losses and damage due to floods or
drought?
●● What do farmers do to prevent and reduce losses and damage due to pests and insects?

4. Ask each group to present their findings and discuss the final outcomes of the different
groups.

5. The facilitator provides comments and adds suggestions to the findings that the participants
mentioned (see facilitators’ notes 1).

55 facilitators’ notes 1
Practices to prevent and reduce the impact of climate
change on agriculture

●● Flexible planning
Agriculture is heavily dependent on the weather and climate. Even though there is still a
considerable amount of uncertainty about the exact implications of climate change on this
sector and on natural ecosystems, the ability of farmers to adapt will be very important so
that they can better respond to future changes in climate. Crop cultivation should be flexibly
planned, so as to accommodate these climatic changes.

●● Early or late planting and or harvesting

Farmers could adapt to climate variability by using early or late planting and or harvesting,
depending on the seasonal conditions and climatic changes.

●● Select crop varieties that are more drought or flood-resistant

Depending on the specific context and location, crop varieties that are more drought or
flood-resistant could be used by farmers.

●● Integration of trees, agricultural crops and/or livestock

Combining trees with crops and livestock has various benefits, among others, trees enhance
soil fertility and this increases agricultural productivity by reducing the need to use fertilizers.
Multi-purpose trees can be used that help to provide food in the form of fruit, nuts or leaves,
or to provide firewood. Alley cropping can also be practiced, which involves growing a long-
term tree crop along with agricultural crops. Tree species like walnut, oak, ash and pecan
are among the species used in alley cropping systems. Trees also act as natural buffers that
protect crops from strong winds, floods, storms or pests and store carbon dioxide. Certain
forage species can serve as feed for the animals and their manure can be used as fertilizer
to improve soil health. This practice can contribute to increases in productivity, resilience
and reductions in CO2 emissions.

●● Diversification of crops and livestock

Cultivating different types of crops instead of mono-cropping or rearing fish and animals, such as
pigs and chickens, helps to: diversify farmers’ products; reduce the risk of total production losses;
and contribute to their food security and livelihoods by possibly generating additional income.
16 |

●● Reduce loss of water through irrigation, mulching, and minimum tillage to reduce
wilting of seedlings
In case of drought or severe dry spells, water loss can be reduced through irrigation measures,
as well as through the use of mulching and minimum tillage, in order to reduce the chance
of the seedlings wilting. Improved water harvesting and retention practices, such as pools,
dams, pits, retaining ridges and water-use efficiency mechanisms like irrigation systems, are
fundamental for increasing production and addressing irregular rainfall patterns. Irrigation
is currently practiced on 20 percent of the agricultural land in developing countries, but it is
estimated that it can generate 130 percent more yields than rain-fed systems (FAO, 2010).
Mulching involves adding an additional layer of material over the soil, such as leaves, grass
clippings, peat moss, wood chips, bark chips, straw, hay or plastic sheeting to cover the
soil, which helps to keep the soil moist and fertile, protects it from the sun, rain and wind
and reduces weed growth. It also conserves and enhances biodiversity as well as reducing
greenhouse gas emissions because the extra plant coverage over the soil helps to absorb
CO2 and means that less nitrogen fertilizer is needed.
Minimum tillage focuses on reducing tillage so that there is minimal disturbance of the soil,
which helps to reduce soil erosion and keeps the soil fertile by retaining nutrients.

●● Targeted fertilization and applying fertilizer in smaller quantities and more frequently
Targeted fertilization helps to ensure balanced fertilization, which focuses on finding a
balance between the nutrients externally added to the soil and those nutrients that are
already available in the soil. Moreover, adding fertilizer in a targeted way instead of using
the broadcast method will also help to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of the
applied fertilizer. If there is a high variability in rainfall during the cultivation period, applying
fertilizer in smaller quantities and more frequently during the cultivation period will help to
reduce the washing away of fertilizer as a result of heavy rainfall.

●● Reduce vulnerability to flooding through e.g. growing crops on raised beds, using
drainage systems, building embankments, floating vegetable bed cultivation
In areas where short periods of intense rain occur followed by short periods of hardly any
rain, a practice that can be used is to grow crops on raised beds. This practice helps to
reduce water logging and flooding; it uses water more efficiently so as to reduce the risk of
crop failure. If longer periods of rainfall occur, adequate drainage systems, such as trenches,
can be used. By using the slope of the land or gravity, these trenches help to remove excess
water away from crops and livestock. Embankments can also be built to protect rice farms
from floods.
In fields that are flooded for certain periods of time, vegetables can be grown on floating
beds. Floating gardens4 are established by growing crops such as water hyacinth and/or
use paddy straw and other material like coconut straw, bamboo and rope, which will help to
make a platform or raft on which vegetables are grown.

Some of these practices, such as mulching, intercropping using multi-purpose trees and integrated
farming management are climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices5, which aim to increase yields
and income, contribute to making agriculture more resilient to climate change and reduce or remove
where possible greenhouse gas emissions. CSA also includes practices, such as improved weather
forecasting, use of drought-resistant and flood-tolerant crops and risk insurance.

4
For more information about how to establish a floating garden, refer to the following link: http://www.fao.org/
climatechange/17849-0e277b46b31f98942e6bc81bb22319243.pdf.
5
See for more information http://www.fao.org/climatechange/climatesmart/en/, http://www.climatesmartagriculture.org/en/

Climate change 17

References
●● Abarquez, I. & Mushed, Z. ADPC. 2007. Community-based disaster risk
management. Field practitioner’s handbook. Available at: http://www.adpc.net/pdr-sea/
publications/12handbk.pdf
●● EPA. 2006. Climate concepts. Available at: http://epa.gov/climatechange/kids/basics/
concepts.html
●● EPA. 2010. Climate change indicators in the United States. EPA 430–R–10–007. Available
at: http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/science/indicators/”www.epa.gov/climatechange/
science/indicators/
●● FAO. 2008. Disaster risk management systems analysis. A guide book. Available at: ftp://
ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/011/i0304e/i0304e.pdf
●● FAO. 2009. Review of evidence on Dryland Pastoral Systems and Climate Change:
Implications and Opportunities for Mitigation and Adaptation. Rome, Italy.
●● FAO. 2010. Climate-Smart Agriculture. Policies, Practices and Financing for Food Security,
Adaptation and Mitigation. Available at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1881e/i1881e00.pdf
●● IFAD. 2009. Livestock and climate change, Thematic Paper.
Available at: http://www.ifad.org/lrkm/events/cops/papers/climate.pdf
●● Oxfam International. 2010. The rain doesn’t come on time anymore. Poverty, vulnerability,
and climate variability in Ethiopia. Available at: http://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.
org/files/rain-poverty-vulnerability-climate-ethiopia-2010-04-22.pdf
●● Petit, J.R., et al. 2001. Vostok ice core data for 420,000 years. IGBP PAGES/World
Data Center for Paleoclimatology Data Contribution Series #2001–076. NOAA/NGDC
Paleoclimatology Program, Boulder, CO. Available at: http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/
icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_isotope.html
●● UNISDR. 2009. 2009 UNISDR Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction.
Available at: http://www.unisdr.org/files/7817_UNISDRTerminologyEnglish.pdf
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